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Abstract— Although the scale-invariant feature transform GaoFen (GF) series. The significant increase of HR imagery
(SIFT) algorithm has been successfully applied to both optical has led to a large number of applications in diverse areas, such
image registration and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image as disaster reduction, water conservancy, and ocean observa-
registration, SIFT-like algorithms have failed to register high-
resolution (HR) optical and SAR images due to large geometric tion. Images obtained by active SAR sensors provide the capa-
differences and intensity differences. In this paper, to perform bility to view through clouds and to perform analysis in all-day
optical-to-SAR (OS) image registration, we proposed an advanced and all-weather conditions [1]. Images taken by passive optical
SIFT-like algorithm (OS-SIFT) that consists of three main mod- sensors, however, in comparison with SAR images, have
ules: keypoint detection in two Harris scale spaces, orientation very different characteristics. Consequently, it is important but
assignment and descriptor extraction, and keypoint matching.
Considering the inherent properties of SAR images and optical difficult to jointly exploit both optical and SAR images.
images, the multiscale ratio of exponentially weighted averages As the fundamental task of these image applications, image
and multiscale Sobel operators are used to calculate consistent registration is the process of aligning two or more images
gradients for the SAR images and optical images on the basis of of the same scene captured at different times from different
which, as a result, two Harris scale spaces can be constructed. viewpoints or by different sensors [2]. Numerous studies have
Keypoints are detected by finding the local maxima in the scale
space followed by a localization refinement method based on been devoted to the registration of remote sensing images,
the spatial relationship of the keypoints. Moreover, gradient and these studies can be roughly divided into two categories:
location orientation histogram-like descriptors are extracted feature-based algorithms and area-based algorithms. Feature-
using multiple image patches to increase the distinctiveness. based techniques depend on detecting and matching distinc-
The experimental results on simulated images and several HR tive features from the images, whereas area-based techniques
satellite images show that the proposed OS-SIFT algorithm
gives a robust registration result for optical-to-SAR images implement geometric transformation estimation by optimizing
and outperforms other state-of-the-art algorithms in terms of a similarity measure between the two images [3].
registration accuracy. Area-based techniques first define a template in the sensed
Index Terms— High resolution (HR), image registration, multi- image and then search for the optimal correspondence in
sensor, optical, scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT), synthetic the reference image using different kinds of similarity mea-
aperture radar (SAR). sures, including mutual information [4], the normalized
cross-correlation coefficient [5], and cross-cumulative residual
entropy [6]. Area-based methods have been widely used in the
I. I NTRODUCTION
registration of multimodal remote sensing images with inten-
XIANG et al.: OS-SIFT: ROBUST SIFT-LIKE ALGORITHM FOR HR OPTICAL-TO-SAR IMAGE REGISTRATION 3
operator is applied to both optical and SAR images, the sig- where M and N denote the size of the processing window,
nificant intensity differences may result in different gradient which relates to the scale parameter αi ; (x, y) stands for
orientations and gradient magnitudes. Therefore, the keypoint the location of the central point; and I represents the pixel
detector cannot extract repeatable features, as shown in Fig. 1. intensity. Fig. 2(a) and (b) shows the corresponding horizontal
Moreover, the feature descriptors are not robust to these and vertical windows, and the vertical and parallel ISEF filters
differences, because the dominant orientation of each keypoint are presented in Fig. 2(c) and (d). Then, the horizontal and
is used in the process of descriptor extraction to ensure vertical gradients can be computed by the horizontal and
rotation invariance [16]. In the feature matching stage, both vertical ROWEA operators, which are given as follows:
a small number of repeatable keypoints and dissimilar feature
descriptors may lead to misregistrations. To obtain consistent G h,αi = log(Rh,αi ) G v,αi = log(Rv,αi ). (3)
gradient magnitudes and orientations for optical and SAR The gradient magnitude and orientation are derived as follows:
images, we introduce a new method to calculate multiscale
gradients without building Gaussian image pyramids. G m,αi = (G h,αi )2 + (G v,αi )2
Considering the coherent imaging mechanism, SAR images
G v,αi
are always corrupted with multiplicative speckle noise. The G o,αi = arctan . (4)
classical gradient operator using difference is strongly affected G h,αi
by random high-frequency components caused by speckles, In the ROEWA operator, αi , which relates to the scale
especially in homogenous areas of high reflectivity. A few false parameter, controls the size of the processing window. Con-
keypoints may be detected in these areas after thresholding. sequently, the multiscale ROWEA can be obtained by set-
The gradient by ratio (GR) used in the SAR-SIFT algo- ting several values for αi . Assuming that we have a list
rithm [9] is specifically dedicated to SAR images. Benefiting of {α1 , . . . , αn } with the relationship between two consecu-
from the constant false alarm rate property of the ROEWA tive scale values αi+1 /αi = k, multiscale gradient magni-
detector, gradients derived by the GR method are robust to tudes and orientations are derived. Here, k is constant for
speckle noise. The ROEWA operator is an advanced ratio- i ∈ {1, . . . , n − 1}.
based detector obtained by computing the ratio of exponential For the optical images, we introduce the multiscale Sobel
weighted local means [27]. This operator can be regarded as operators to calculate gradients. The traditional Sobel oper-
a 2-D separable filter composed of two orthogonal 1-D filters: ator is one of the best edge detection operators. Generally,
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XIANG et al.: OS-SIFT: ROBUST SIFT-LIKE ALGORITHM FOR HR OPTICAL-TO-SAR IMAGE REGISTRATION 5
1) Keypoint Detection: In the conventional SIFT algorithm, gradient computation. The multiscale Harris function [30] can
a Gaussian image pyramid is first constructed by convolving be derived by replacing the first derivative with the multiscale
the image with Gaussian filters at different scales, and then, gradient computations
a series of difference of Gaussian (DoG) images, as an approx-
√ (G h,αi )2 (G h,αi ) · (G v,αi )
imation of LoG, is obtained by subtracting adjacent Gaussian M S (αi ) = G 2αi ∗
(G v,αi ) · (G h,αi ) (G v,αi )2
images. Keypoints are extracted by finding local maxima in
R S (αi ) = det(M S (αi )) − d · tr(M S (αi ))2 (10)
the DoG scale space in three dimensions (x, y, α), followed
by a process of subpixel localization and unstable keypoint (Fh,β j )2 (Fh,β j ) · (Fv,β j )
M O (β j ) = G √2β j ∗
elimination by a criterion based on the Hessian matrix [13]. (Fv,β j ) · (Fh,β j ) (Fv,β j )2
However, the LoG approach cannot detect reliable keypoints
R O (β j ) = det(M O (β j )) − d · tr(M O (β j ))2 (11)
in SAR images. This approach based on the second derivatives
is strongly corrupted by multiplicative speckle noise [9]. where G h,αi and G v,αi are the horizontal and vertical gradients
Compared with keypoints detected by the DoG method, at scale αi for SAR images, Fh,β j and Fv,β j are the horizontal
we find that corner points are more stable and repeatable and vertical gradients at scale β j for optical images, d is
in both optical and SAR images. Consequently, we focus an arbitrary parameter, G stands for a Gaussian kernel, ∗ is
on the corner point detection in the proposed OS-SIFT the convolution operator, det denotes the value of the matrix
algorithm. Instead of constructing the DoG scale space, determinant, and tr signifies the matrix trace. Consequently,
we build two Harris scale space based on the aforementioned the SAR-Harris scale space R S and optical Harris scale space
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i=1
2 ⎞
N
N
approach in Fig. 6(c) and (d). In this experiment, eight scales
⎝N xi 2 − xi ⎠
are used for multiscale Harris method. We can see from the
results that the SAR-Harris and optical-Harris methods both i=1 i=1
N
successfully find 32 keypoints located at the four corners of the
N
rectangle and that there are no false detections. For the LoG b= yi − a xi N. (15)
approach, a few false detections appear in homogeneous areas i=1 i=1
with high reflectivity in the simulated SAR image, which is in 3) Finally, the estimation error defined as er = ax + b − y
accordance with the previous analysis. There also exist false is calculated for each keypoint. If the error is larger than
alarms in the boundary of rectangle in the simulated optical a given threshold, this keypoint location is refined using
images. the line model.
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XIANG et al.: OS-SIFT: ROBUST SIFT-LIKE ALGORITHM FOR HR OPTICAL-TO-SAR IMAGE REGISTRATION 7
Earth images are set as the sensed images and are shown
in Figs. 11(b), 12(b), and 13(b). The first image pair describes
an airport in Tucson, AZ, USA. It can be observed that there
exist a slight rotation difference and a translation difference.
The second image pair describes an industrial area in Tucson,
AZ, USA. It is obvious that there exist a scale difference and
a slight rotation difference. The third image pair displays an
urban area with roads and low buildings in Tucson, AZ, USA.
The fourth image set is a pair of GF images describing the
Forbidden City of Beijing, China. The GF-2 satellite is an
optical satellite with the highest resolution available in China
and was launched in August 2014, and the GF-3 satellite is
a multipolarized C-band SAR satellite that was launched in
August 2016. These satellites are part of the GF series, which
serves as the China HR Earth Observation System [37]. The
sampling resolutions of the two images are 2 and 1.6 m/pixel.
We set the GF-3 image as the reference image, which is shown
in Fig. 14(a), and the GF-2 image as the sensed image, which
is shown in Fig. 14(b). The scale difference between them
Fig. 9. Simulated images. (a) HR optical image. (b) Simulated optical image. is 1.25 times, and we can observe that there exist a rotation
(c) Simulated SAR image. difference (about 30°) and a translation difference.
TABLE I B. Experiments on Keypoint Detection
I MAGE PAIRS AND T HEIR C HARACTERISTICS
In this section, the keypoint repeatability rate is used to
evaluate the proposed method. Given a pair of registered
images, two keypoints are considered as two repeatable points
only if their coordinates satisfy
pi (x, y) − q j (x, y)2 < dr (16)
where pi is the i th keypoint in the reference image, q j is
the j th keypoint in the sensed image, and dr is the distance
threshold. The repeatability rate is then defined as
γr = Ncor /Ntotal (17)
on the performance. These thresholds are empirically set to where Ncor is the number of repeatable keypoints and Ntotal
0.4 and 0.6 for the simulated SAR and optical images and is the number of total keypoints.
to 1 and 5 for satellite SAR and optical images. For different In the detection experiments, two simulated images are used
data sets, the thresholds need to be fine-tuned to obtain a and are shown in Fig. 9. For the simulated SAR image, mul-
reasonable number of keypoints. tiplicative noise with different numbers of looks is simulated,
For the descriptor extraction and keypoint matching, ranging from one-look to nine-look imagery. Correspondingly,
the gradient orientations are quantized into eight bins, and additive Gaussian noise with different variances is also sim-
three GLOH-like circular neighborhoods with a size of ulated. The distance threshold dr is set to 2. The proposed
{8α, 12α, 16α} are aggregated to construct descriptor. The method (multi-Harris with refinement) is compared with the
ratio threshold used in the NNDR method is set to 0.9. multi-Harris detection method and the LoG approach. Curves
In the keypoint detection experiment, an HR optical image is based on the percentage of repeatability rate γr against the
utilized to generate two simulated images by adding speckle noise level are drawn in Fig. 10. It can be observed that the
noise and Gaussian noise. Fig. 9 illustrates the HR image, proposed detection method gives the best performance, and it
the simulated SAR image (three-look), and the simulated is robust to noise. Even when the noise is very strong, such
optical image. In order to assess the robustness of the detection as the case with the largest noise level (corresponding to the
method to noise, simulated images with different noise levels one-look imagery for multiplicative noise and the maximum
are also tested. variance for additive noise), it also reaches a repeatability rate
In the registration performance experiments, four pairs of of 50%. For the smallest noise level, the differences between
real-world images are used, and details of the test images the two simulated images caused by noise are small, and
are listed in Table I. The first, second, and third image hence, the three methods show similar performances.
pairs all consist of a TerraSAR image and a Google Earth
image. The sampling resolution of these images is 1 m/pixel. C. Experiments on Matching Performance
The TerraSAR images are set as the reference images and In this section, the matching performance of the proposed
are shown in Figs. 11(a), 12(a), and 13(a), and the Google algorithm is presented. For each image pair, the reference and
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XIANG et al.: OS-SIFT: ROBUST SIFT-LIKE ALGORITHM FOR HR OPTICAL-TO-SAR IMAGE REGISTRATION 9
Fig. 10. Percentage of repeatability rate versus different noise levels, where
the small noise level refers to high number of looks in synthetic SAR images
and small variance in synthetic optical images.
Fig. 12. Registration result of the second image pair. (a) Reference
image. (b) Sensed image. (c) Corresponding keypoints. (d) Fusion result.
(e) and (f) Enlarged subimages.
be computed as
1
Ncorr
i i i i
ξrmse = H x , y − x , y (18)
1 1 2 2 2
Ncorr
i=1
Fig. 13. Registration result of the third image pair. (a) Reference image.
where H represents the ground truth transformation model (b) Sensed image. (c) Corresponding keypoints. (d) Fusion result.
(e)–(g) Enlarged subimages.
between the reference image and the sensed image, 2
is the Euclidean distance, and (x 1i , y1i ) and (x 2i , y2i ) are the
coordinates of the i th corresponding pair. The model H has image pair. The CMR is defined as
been estimated between all three image pairs by manually
selecting 20 pairs of corresponding control points for each γcorr = Ncorr /Norig (19)
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XIANG et al.: OS-SIFT: ROBUST SIFT-LIKE ALGORITHM FOR HR OPTICAL-TO-SAR IMAGE REGISTRATION 11
TABLE II
C OMPARISON OF RMSE, CMR, AND RUNNING T IME FOR T EST I MAGES
image fusion method. The authors designed different fusion spaces are constructed for two images. Repeatable keypoints
rules for homogenous regions and heterogenous regions to are detected by finding the local maxima in two Harris
improve fusion quality. Han and Byun [40] removed densely scale spaces, followed by a proposed localization refinement
extracted keypoints in urban regions to improve registration method. Orientation restriction and multiple image patches
reliability between very HR optical and SAR images. How- are utilized to construct the GLOH-like descriptors. Finally,
ever, numerous keypoints can be detected in urban regions corresponding keypoints are selected by the NNDR method
owing to their rich structural properties, and abondoning these and the FSC algorithm. The experimental results on simulated
keypoints may result in a lack of enough correspondences. images and several HR satellite images have demonstrated
Consequently, registration in urban areas between SAR and that the proposed OS-SIFT gives a good performance in
optical images is still a problem to be solved for feature-based keypoint detection and image registration. Compared with two
techniques. For our proposed OS-SIFT, we will further inves- state-of-the-art optical-to-SAR image registration algorithms,
tigate an invariant feature description for building structures the registration accuracy of the OS-SIFT approach is higher
in urban areas, which represents one of our future works. while requiring a comparable running time.
The running time of four image pairs using three compara- However, there still exist some limitations for the proposed
tive algorithms is also presented in Table II. The computational algorithm that need to be improved in our future work.
complexity of the SIFT-like algorithms highly depends on the First, the registration precision can be further increased by
size of descriptor and the number of keypoints. Since the combining the proposed OS-SIFT algorithm with an area-
SIFT-M and OS-SIFT both use multiple support regions to based method like mutual information, resulting in a two-
construct the descriptor, the size of their descriptors is larger stage registration scheme. Second, we discovered that the
than that in the PSO-SIFT. For the number of keypoints, registration performance of HR optical-to-SAR images in
we have fine-tuned the detection thresholds to ensure that urban areas is worse than that in suburban and rural areas.
the three algorithms all extract similar numbers of keypoints. Buildings areas in HR SAR images are strongly affected by
Consequently, the shortest running time is given by PSO-SIFT, geometrical distortions due to the side-looking mechanism.
followed by the proposed OS-SIFT. Moreover, the computa- Nevertheless, there exist numerous keypoints in building areas
tional cost becomes very large for registering large remote owing to the abundant structural information. We will focus
sensing images, such as the third image pair shown in Fig. 13. on finding an intermediate feature description or exploring
All the experiments are conducted in the MATLAB software, invariant features for building areas in future works.
and the computational efficiency can be further improved by
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information engineering from the Beijing University
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mation processing from the University of Chinese
multimodal remote sensing images based on structural similarity,” IEEE
Academy of Sciences, Beijing, in 2015.
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with the Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy
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