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    223 views8 pages

    Aquinas On Kingship

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    Dâñiel Jåñg
    Kingship

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    ON KINGSHIP or THE GOVERNANCE OF RULERS (DE REGIMINE PRINCIPUM, 1265-1267)+ Chapter 1 Men in Society Must Be under Ruler ‘We must first explain what is meant by the term, king. When a thing is directed towards an end, and itis possible to go one way or another, someone must indicate the best way to proceed toward the end. For ‘example, a ship that moves in diffrent directions withthe shifting winds would never reach its destination if it were not guided into port by the skil of ts helmsman, Man too has an end towards which all the actions ‘of his life ate directed, since all intelligent beings act for an end. Yet the diversity of men’s pursuits and activities means that men proceed to their intended objectives indifferent ways. Therefore man needs someone to direct him towards his end, Now every man is naturally endowed with, the light of reason to direct his actions towards his end. If men were intended to live alone as do many animals, there would be no need for anyone to direct him towards his end, since every man would be his town king under God, the highest king, and the light of reason given to him from on high would enable him to act on his own, But man is by nature a political and social animal. ' Even more than other animals he lives in groups (multitudine). Tis is demonstrated by the requirements of his nature. Nature has given other animals food, furry covering, teth, and homs and claws—or at least speed of fightas means to defend themselves. Man however, is given none of these by nature. Instead he has been given the use of his reason to secure all these things by the work of his hands. But a man cannot secure all these by himself for a rman cannot adequately provide for his life by himself. Therefore itis natural for man to live in association with his fellows. In addition, nature has instilled in other animals the ability to per- ceive what is useful or harmful to them. For example, a sheep knows by nature that the wolf sits enemy. Some animals even have the natural ability to know the medicinal herbs and other things necessary to their ‘existence. Man, on the other hand, has a natural knowledge of what is recesary to his life only in a general way, using his reason to move from general principles to the knowledge of particular things that are neces- 1m 1265 Asin wed ie eon 1 A Pi 2 an i "pica Leste ing ype et un” imam pli. Agis, loin Wie [Sw 6p tee ft ngs doth lama Mois maton reco al Inu er cape by Ply cf Lis tat Coc apt te in ol tee oct ede ins te the cpm mate, al nla oe ‘Sl here wen by Ae meat (Oy Kine Is sary for human life. And itis not posible for one man to ative atthe knowledge ofall these things through the use of his reason. Thus it is necessary for him to live in society so that one person ean help anther and different men can employ their reason indifferent ways, one in ‘medicine, and other in this ofthat endeavor, This is most clearly dem- ‘onstrated by the fact that man uses word to communicate his thoug fally to others. Its te that other animals expres thei felings in a general way. Dogs express their anger by barking and other animals express their feelings in other ways. But man is more able to communicate with other than other gregarious animals ch a cranes, ants, or bees. [King] Solomon refers to this when he say “It is better fr two to live together than alone, for they have the advantage of mutual company."™ ‘Therefore if ti natural for man to live in asocation with othess, there must be some way for them to be governed, For if many men were to live together and each to provide what is convenient for himself, the group (multitude) would break up unless one of them had the respon sibility for the good ofthe group, just asthe body of « man or an animal would disintegrate without a single controlling force in the body that aimed atthe common good of ll the members. As Solomon sys, “Wheve there is no ruler, the people wll be dispersed." Tiss reasonable since the private good and the common good are not the same. Private con- cems divide the community, while common concems unite it. Those differences exit for diferent reasons. Therefore besides what moves each person to his own private good there must be somethi everyone to the common good of the many. Therefore in everything that is ordered toa single end, one thing is found that rules the rest. In the physical universe, by the intention of divine providence all the other bodies are ruled by the fist or heavenly body, as divine providence directs, and all material bodies are ruled by rational creatures." In each man the soul rues the body and within the soul reason rules over passion and desire. Likewise among the pats ofthe body there is one rling pat, either the heat or the head that moves all he others, Soin every group, there must be something that rls. ‘When things are ordered to some end, one can proceed in the right, way and the wrong way. So the government of a group can be carted ‘ut in the right way or the wrong way. Something is done inthe right ‘way when itis led fits appropriate end, and in the wrong way when it is led to an inappropriate end. The proper end of a group of free men is different from that ofa group of saves, fr a free man determines his ‘own actions while a slave, qua slave, i one who belongs to another. If then a group of free men is directed by a ruler to the common good of sphere with cnn phere nlf on ect geing ian he ot Al Itt iene ae bet trl oe tet Gl nd te negrcr of he gel For te engin fa "ntact he De itio'n th even 16 Sr, Tomas Aquinas the group, his government will be right and just because iis appropriate for fice men, but ifthe government is directed not at the common good ‘of the group but atthe private good of the ruler it will be unjust and a perversion. God wams such rulers in the Book of Ezekiel, “Woe to shepherds that feed themsclves (because they seek their own benefit) Should not the Rocks be fed by the shepherd?”> Shepherds must seek the good of ther locks, and ruler, the good of those subject to them, Ifa government is under one man who seeks his own benefit and not the good of those subject to him, the ruler is called a tyrant. The word is derived from tyro, the Greek word for “strength,” because he uses force to oppress the people instead of justice to rule. Hence among the Ancients all powerful men were called tyrants. But if an unjust govern- ‘ment is exercised not by one but by more than one, if they are few it is called an oligarchy which means “rule by the few.” In this case a few rich men oppress the people. Such a government differs only in number from a trranny. An unjust goverment exercised by the many is called a democracy, that i, “rule by the people,” which occurs when the com- mon people use the force of numbers to oppress the rich. In this ease the whole people acts like a tyrant.® We ean also clasify the types of just goverment. Ifthe government is caried out by a large number, as when a group of warriors governs a city or province, iti usually called a polity.’ But if afew virtuous men carryout the administration, a government ofthis kind is called an aris- tocracy, that isthe bet rule, or rule of the best, who for this reason are called the aristocrats. But if good government is in the hands of one ‘man alone, iti appropriate to call him a king, So the Lord said in {the Book of] Ezekiel, “My servant David wl be king all over, and there will be one shepherd overall of them.”* Thus itis very clear that it is the nature of kingship that there should be one to rule and that he should bbea shepherd who seeks the common good of all and not his own be fit Since men must live together because they cannot acquire what is needed to live if they remain by themselves, a social group is more per- fect if it provides better for the necessities of life. A family in a single household provides adequately for some ofthe needs of life such as the natural acts of nourishment and the procreation of children, ete. In a single locality you will find self-sufficiency in a given manufacture. But a city which isa perfect community contains whatever is needed for life and even more 50 a province because of the need for common defense and mutual aid against enemies. Therefore the right name for someone who rules a perfect community, whether a city ora province, isa king, 5, ski 342. lp be ity an the ache wl be ete Th chateon i deed fm A's the pn o e Pe 8, ica 734 The wees ito King Dd Ts ged eons Arle’ ane ‘sh ed nerd ati Conay 2 od {on lic) at he sed ene ow ta bcved a bes ofthe sm ‘ia spa permet yh ayy (On Kinestu 7 while someone who directs a household is not called a king but the father of a family. Yet there isa certain resemblance to a king in his positon so that sometimes kings are called the fathers oftheir people. From what we have sad it is clear that a king is one who ules over the people ofa city ora province for the common good. So Solomon says in {the Book of] Ecclesiastes. “A king commands all the lands sub- ject to him. Chapter 2 Is it Better for a Group to Be under One Ruler or Many? Next we must inquite as to whether itis better for a province ora city to be ruled by one person or by many. We will approach this question from the point of view of the purpose of government. ‘The aim of any ruler should be to promote the welfare ofthe territory that he has been given to rule. The aim of a helmsman is to preserve his ship from the dangers ofthe sea and to bring it sfely to port. The welfare of any organized group is based on the preservation of its unity in what wwe eall peace. Without peace life in society is no longer beneficial and its divisions make social life burdensome. Thus the most important responsiblity of the ruler of a community isto achieve unity in peace Just as a doctor does not debate whether to eure a sick man under his care there is no reason fora ruler to question whether he should main- tain the peace of the community under him. No one should debate about the end of an action but about the appropriate means. Therefore the Apostle [Paul] when he endorses the unity of the faithful says, “Be solictous to preserve the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace.”" ‘Thus the more effective a government is in promoting unity in peace, the mote useful i wll be. We say more useful, because it leads more directly to its end. But it is evident that that which is itself one can promote unity beter than that which isa plurality, just as the most effective cause cof heat is that which isin itself hot, Therefore government by one person is better than by many. Furthermore, itis evident that many persons cannot preserve the unity of a group if they generally disagree. Some agreement among them is necessary for them to govern a all. A number of men could not move a ship in one direction unless they worked together in some way. But a number of people are said to be united to the extent that they come closer to unity. It is better therefore for one person to rule than for many to try to achieve unity In addition, whatever isin accord with nature is best, for nature always ‘operates forthe best. But in nature government is always by one. Among. the members ofthe body, the heart movesall the other parts; among the pats of the soul one power, reason, predominates. Among the bees there is one king bee, and in the whole universe one God is the Maker and 9, Eel, 5 1 Eph, 3, 18 Sr, Tuomas AguNAS Roler ofall? This isin accord with reason since every plurality derives from unity. Therefore since art imitates nature and a work of artis beter to the degree that it resembles what isin nature, i follows that itis best fora human group (multitude) tobe led by one person This is also apparent fiom experience. Provinces and cities that are not ruled by one person are tom by dissension and disputes without peace so thatthe words ofthe Lord spoken through the Prophet [Jere- mah] seem to be fulfilled, “Many shepherds have destoyed my vine- yard.”” On the other hand provinces and cities under a singe king enjoy peace, justice Rourishes, and they delight in the abundance of wealth. Hence the Lord through his prophets promises the people asa great favor that he will place them under one hand and that there will be “one prince in the midst of them.”* Chapter 3 Just Rule by One Person Is the Best Form of Government; Its Opposite Is. the Wort Just as government by a king is best, so government by a tyrant is the worst. Democracy stands in oppesition to polity as indicated above, since both are governments by the many. Oligarchy is opposed to aristocracy, since both are governments by the few. Kingship isthe opposite of fy- anny since both are governments by one person. We have shown above that kingship is the best form of government. Since that which is oppo- site to the best isthe worst, i follows that tyranny is worst form of gow emment.> In addition a force that is united is more effective than one that is divided. Many persons working together can pull load that individually, they could not pull. Thus just as a force operating for good is better at producing good if it is one, so a force operating for evil is more harmful If itis one rather than divided. The power of an unjust ruler operates to the detriment of the group because he replaces the common good of the sroup with his own advantage. Similarly in good governments, since a ‘more unified government is a more effective one, monarchy is beter than aristocracy, and aristocracy is better than polity, while in bad gov- cemnments the opposite isthe case so that the more unified itis the more hharmful itis, Thus tyranny is more harmful than oligarchy and cligar- chy is more harmful than democracy. Furthermore what makes a government unjust isthe fact that the private interes of the ruler is pursued in preference to the common good ‘of the society. ‘The further he departs from the common good, the more tnjust his government will be. An oligarchy depars from the common good more than a democracy because i seeks the good ofthe few rather 2. Ain pot dined. is, Gace) 4, Jemih 3021 Howe, the wing of reg fies tom Asta, Hato of Ante angets ef nay See 8 S Scene, oi 7 Semi 240 (On Kinestu 19 than the many. Tyranny departs sill more from the common good because it seeks the good of only one person. ‘The greater number comes nearer to the whole than a few, and the few nearer than only one person. ‘Tyranny therefore is the most unjust form of government. We can see this when we consider the order of divine providence which directs everything in the best way. The good in things results from single perfect cause, thats, from everything working together for good, while evil results from individual defects. There is no beauty in a body unless all its parts are properly integrated. Ugliness results from one ‘member not fitting in properly. And so ugliness comes indifferent ways from many different causes while beauty comes in one way from a single perfect cause. In all cases of good and evil God seems to provide that 00d from one cause will be stronger and evil from many causes will be weaker. It is proper therefore that just government should be exercised by one person so that it can be stronger. Bu ifthe government becomes, unjust is beter tat it be exerised by many, so that itis weaker because of internal divisions. Therefore among unjust governments democratic government is the most tolerable of the unjust forms of government, while tyranny is the worst. ‘This is also apparent when one considers the evils that result from tyranny. ‘The tyrant despises the common good and seeks his private good and as a result he oppresses his subjects in diferent ways and which 00ds will be affected will depend on the various passions to which he is subject. Ifhe is subject to the passion of yiced, lie steals the property of his subjects. Thus Solomon says “A jus king improves the land; a greedy man destroys i. If he is dominated by the pasion of anger, he sheds ‘blood for nothing, so that itis said in Ezekiel “The princes among them. ae like wolves seizing their prey and shedding blood.”” The wise man advises us to avoid this kind of government when he says “keep away fom the man with the power to kil” for he does not killin pursuit of iustice but uses his power to satisfy his willfl lst, ‘Thus when the ruler ‘pars from law there is no security and everything is uncertain. No reliance can be placed on the will, not to speak ofthe lust, of another. He theatens not only the bodies of his subjects but also their spiritual welfare, since those who seck to use rather than to be of use to their subjects oppose any progress by their subjects since they suspect that any excellence among their subjects isa threat to their unjust rule. Tyrants always suspect the good rather than the evil and are always aftaid of Virtue, They seek to prevent their subjects from becoming virtuous and developing a public spiritedness which would not tolerate their unjust domination. They prevent the bond of friendship from developing among their subjects and the enjoyment of mutual peace since as long as there is mutual distrust no attempt can be made to overthrow their rule. ‘Therefore tyrants sow discord among them, promote dissension, and & Pet. 294 8 Sick Wid 13 9 eee ae » Sr. Thomas AguiNas prohibit gatherings such as marriage celebrations and feasts and the like that foster familiarity and mutual trust among men. They try to prevent their subjects from becoming powerful or rich since, judging their sub- jects on the basis of their own bad consciences, they suspect that they will also use their power and wealth to harm them. Thus Job says ofthe tyrant, “The sound of terror is always in his ears and even when there is peace (that is, no one is trying to harm him) he always suspects pots’ ‘Thus it is that because rulers instead of inducing their subjects to be virtuous are wickedly jealous of their virtue and hinder it as much as they can, very ew virtuous men are found under tyrants. Foras Aristotle says, “Brave men are found where brave men are honored,”? and Cicero says, “What is despised by everyone decays and ceases to grow.”® It is natural that men who are brought up in fear should become servile in spirit and cowardly inthe face of any difficult o strenuous endeavor. So the Apostle (Paul] says “Fathers, do not provoke your children to indi nation lest they become discouraged." King Solomon had these evi effects of tyranny in mind when he said “When the wicked reign itis the ruination of men”® because the wickedness of tyranny leads their subjects to fall away from the perfection of virtue. He also says “When the wicked take power, the people weep as if they were being led into slavery” and “When the wicked rule, men will go into hiding” to avoid the cructy of tyrants. This is no wonder since one who does not rule according to reason but following the lusts of his spirit is no different from a beast, so that Solomon say8 “A wicked prince over his poor peu ples like a roaring lion and a ravenous beat."” So men hide from tyrants as from cruel beasts and there is no difference between being subject to a tyrant and being ravaged by a wild beast. Chapter 4 ‘The Kinds of Goverament in Rome, and How the Republic Sometimes Prospered under Popular Rule. Because monarchy, defined as the rule of one man, can result in both the best and worst forms of government, kingship is considered by many people as odious because itis associated with the evils of tyranny. Some- times those who desire to be ruled by a king are subjected to the savagery of tyrants and many rulers who are tyrants disguise themselves as kings. ‘The Roman Republic is an example of this. The Roman people drove ‘out their kings because they could not support the burden of their tyran- nical rule. They established consuls and other magistrates who began to rule and govern them since they wished to change ftom monarchy to aristocracy. Sallus refers to this when he says, “Iti incredible to recall how rapidly the city of Rome grew in a short time, once it had won its 9, The prceing despot Ae 3. Cir, Tanai 124 alt Skuson feted feng spe 4 Cowan teey Plies VT 3 em oa tat 6 Rove 292 288, 2 Arte, Niomchan Et Il 5 Reve 2818 On Kinestue a libety.* It offen happens that men who lve under aking are reluctant to work fr the common good since they think that what they do forthe common welfare will not benefit them but someone ele who seems to have the common good under his contol. But if they do not see one ‘person in control of the community, thy all work forthe common good 4s if it were their own rather than belonging to someone else. ‘Thus ‘experience shows that a city that changes its administration every year sah aming Seameleh mae thn thes o our ees ed by 4 ing, and small services exacted by kings weigh more heavily than hea burs inposedbyscammuntyoftiens This waste inthe deve ‘opment ofthe Roman Republic. The common people were consti formilitary sence and were pid wages forthe our sence, Whee the general treasury was not sufficient to pay those wages, private wealth ‘was put to public use so that even the senators did not keep anything made of gold for themselves except one gold ving and their individual seals ofofice.® However when their continual dissension finally le to civil war, the liberty for which they had worked so hard was snatched fiom their hands and they came under the power of emperors who never called themselves kings because that tite was hated by the Romans.* Some of them fathflly served the common good like kings, and by their efforts the Roman commonwealth was increased and preserved. But most of them became tyrants over their subjects and weak and vac ating to ter enemies and brought the Roman commonwealth Yo naught ‘A similar proces took place among the Jewish people. At frst when they were ruled by judges they were devastated by their enemies every. where, for everyone did what he pleased. But when at ther insistence God gave them kings, the kings became wicked and they withdrew from the worship of the one God and finally were led into capivity.? Thus there are dangers on both sides. Either because of fear of tyranny the advantages of the best form of government, kingship ar lst, or when they sek the advantages the ovement ofthe kng ts ino a Chapter 5 Tyranny is More Likely to Develop from the Rule ofthe Many than of ‘One Person. Therefore Monarchy Is Preferable. If. choice has to be made between two courses of action both of which involve danger, one should choose the course that leads to the lesser evil. A monarchy which changes into a tyranny lead to less evil 8, Ths dain ted on St Aegutie, T Rome at pn with th was betwen Main Gir ef God Wt He cone has oes s Sm on eee 54-1 epenheaugh Sa ws ‘oan 624m) Tenth ed eat Rema gw 07 RG, he 2 TS Sec ei gy ‘rie pene eee ico thelr he Jouppi an ets dee SS Regain TeGizofCal Ine Snot tempan apc ekg 1 Reams dig here wa in a ‘ n Sr. Tuomas Aguinas than the corruption ofan aristocracy. The dissension that usually results fom a goverment invaving many people wors agaist pace which the most important social good. Buta tyrant doesnot destroy peace but only takes avay some ofthe goods of individual men—unless the ty- amy is 30 excessive that it adversely afees the whole community. ‘Therefore government by one peron is preferable to government by ‘many, although there are dangers in both. Tn addition, we should avoid the course from which dangers more fiequently follow. The greatest dangers to the community more often result from the government ofthe many than fiom government by one person, When there are many people in government it is more likely that any one of them will fail to be concemed with the common good than when there is only one. When many people are exercising rule and ane of them ceases to be concemed with the common good, there is dlangerof strife among their subjects because distension among the rl es leads to general disension, But if one person i in charge, he will generally be concerned with the common good, o fhe divers his atten thon from the common good, it doesnot immediately follow that he will proceed to oppress his subjects and become an extreme tyrant, which is the worst kind of wicked government as we have shown above. So the danger tha ase fam ovement bythe many are eto be aoe those that result fom monarchy. archy to become yrannical, but more likely todo so. When dissension breaks out in a government by the many it often happens that one person dominates the others and usurps power over the multitude for himsel, as can be clearly sen fom the record of history. Neary all governments by the many have ended in tyranny, as is demonstrated in the case of the Roman commonwealth. After ithad been ruled by magistrates for a lng te; plot discs, and cl war arse and itll nde he most cruel tyrants. Whether we look to the pastor the present we see tat anny mre ofer's creed inns tat wet ove byte ‘many rather than in those ruled by one. Thus if itis argued that) mon- archy—the best form of government—is to be avoided mainly because ofthe danger of tyranny, and fyanny is more likely to result from gov- ment by the many, the conclusion is simply that it is eter to lve Under a single monarch than under the government ofthe many. Chapter 6 ‘The Rule of One Man Is Best. How to Limit the Possibility of Tyranny. ‘Tyranny Isto Be Tolerated to Avoid Greater Evils. ‘The rule of ne man is prefered the best nm ot government, but because it can change into a tyranny—the worst form of government— a particular effort must be made to ensure that the community will have 4. On the dette ong the slic pw, dato of Mar fal Tight, vl “sc fee a mend (Cage Cobudg Uaenty re 170 Peccone geste Aes On Kinestr 2B 2 king who will not become a tyrant. Inthe first place those whose duty it isto select the king should elevate someone to that office who is of such a character that itis unlikely that he will become a tyrant. Hence Samuel commends the providence of God in establishing king when he says, “The Lord has sought for himself man after his own heart" ‘Then once the king is established the government ofthe kingdom should be so consituted as to provide no opportunity for him to become a tyrant. His power should be limited so that he can not easily fall into tyranny. We will discus later how this can be done.° Finally we must consider what todo ifthe king does become a tyrant. Ifthe tyranny is not extreme, it is better to tolerate a mild tyranny for a time rather than to take action against it that may bring on many dangers that are worse than the tranny itself. For it may be that those ‘ho revolt against the tyrant cannot prevail, and the tyrant then is pro- voked to become more extreme. If the opposition to the tyrant docs prevail, the result is that there are deep divisions in the populace, and the community i divided into rival groups either during the revlt or regarding the structure of the government ater the tyrant has been over thrown. Again it sometimes happens that after someone has aided the community to overthrow the tyrant, he uses the power he has acquired to seize control of the tyranny, and out of fear that he may share the fate of his predecesor imposes a worse slavery upon the subject. It often happens with tyrannies that a subsequent tyrant is worse than his pre- decessor because he abandons none of the oppressive measutes of his predecessor but with intensified malice invents new ones, Thus at atime ‘when everyone in Syracuse wished for the death of Dionysius, an old ‘woman kept praying for his safety and continued survival. When the tyrant found out about this he asked her why she did itt She replied, “When I was a litle gir] we were ruled by an evil tyrant and | kept praying that he would die. When he was killed his successor was still ‘ore oppresive, and I kept wishing for his rule to end. ‘Then we began to have a third ruler who was even worse—you. And so if you ae taken foom us a worse ruler will tke your place.” If the tyranny is so exteme that it is unbearable, some have argued that it is a virtuous act for brave men to un the risk of death in order to killa tyrant and liberate the community. We have an example ofthis in the OM Testament where a certain Ehud killed Eglon, the king of Moab, with the dagger on his thigh because he was oppressing the people of God—and was made a judge of the people,” But this is notin accord- 4.1 Sue, 114 Sue eet cetny cet of Beni (150-1264, Slo Hise she Hebe pope noted Sauls sil, 8. Deana ana pant eke dts “4 ‘ic aay of Scien Sey eo Sic dicuson ner neil ince Aguinn Rasicanhrcnaer eh Aidt copie heneste Ft een hoe tensa be had eh dacs of Shemaed contin he Suns Thee, lisa feo aba Ue Fin Soap 38 Tian he ce the ld etme sample 6 Thesouceof tis enol tenakct is Pees NS ‘hehe century Dean bin, "4 Sr. Twowas Aguiss ance with Apostolic teaching. Petr teaches us to be subject not only to os fag To ed ae a Lndeserved suffering out of reverence for God, thsi (the work of) grace. “Thus when the Roman emperors persecuted the Christian faith the great suber of people, bth nobles and commoners who were converted to the faith did not resist but patiently suffered death for Christ, as hap- pened inthe case fhe hl legion of Thebes In Ehud’ case, he must be understood as having killed an enemy king rather than a ruler of the people who was a tyrant. Again in the Old Testament we read that those ‘who killed Joas, the King of Judah, were put to death despite the fact that he was an apostate—but that following the provisions of the law their children were spared.' It would be very dangerous for the com- munity and for its rulers if any individual, using his private judgment, Could attempt il thos in goverment, evn when they ae tants ‘This is because evil men are more likely to expose themselves to the danger involved (in an assassination attemp) than are good men. Evil men id the rule of kings no less oppresve than that of rant since, {King Solomon ss, “A wise king sates the impious”? The more likely consequences of such presumption would therefore be to threaten the community with the loss of its king, rather than to benefit it by ing rid of a tyrant ‘ams tha sli rth of ran er ain thre decision of a few but in proceeding through public authority. Fit of alia given commnity hes the ight to appoint a lr nt uns for the comunity to depose the king o rest his power if he abuses ity becoming a tyrant. The community should not be accused of i loyalty fit desposes a tyrant even iit had previously agreed to obey him forever, sine he didnot ule the community asthe ofc of King egies and ths he deserved to have his suet break thei agreement. So the Romans who had accepted Tarquin the Proud (as their king) expel hhim from the kingdom because of the tyrannous rule that he and his children exercised and replaced him with the lesser power of the con- ‘subs, So also Domitian ater he had succeeded two mild emperors, Ves- pasian, his father, and Titus, his brother, was executed by the Roman. senate when he ued ania, andl he wicked ain ha he fone to the Romans were properly annulled by senatorial decree. Teasan ul ofthat sont eo tht Bese Jo he ange mos states ty tt LID ueenernimians Seebaringnms sal Lirias Eermrnramaten Taamabiencktpes etceenmnseucapl tke Bret Reararmes Geomcmmcncsetns pen oie kod 1 Rene ay of Col Vand TSH ange 4 Rr, hcy fe. ad Ace Agsinas tok det Sung at yn ofthe Me of 5. fbn the Joact orate: Weany, ine Sema sh ofthe Furth Cod Fee: Heit ur 2? ow pO be (On Kineste 2 list, the beloved disciple of God who had been exiled to the island of Patmos, was brought back to Ephesus, If on the other hand it i the right of a higher authority to appoint a king over a certain community, then the remedy for the wickedness of the tyrant is to be sought fiom that authority. Thus when Archelaus began to rule in Judea in place of Herod, his father, and proceeded to imitate his father’s wickedness, the Jews complained about him to Cac. sar Augustus. At frst his power was limited by taking away the ttle of king from him and dividing half of his kingdom between his two broth- crs. Then when this did not keep him from ruling in a tyrannical fash. jon, he was exiled by Tiberius Caesar to Lyons, a city in Gaul.” However if no human aid is possible against the tyrant, recourse isto bbe made to God, the king of all, who isthe help of those in tribulation ** + * But for a people to merit such a benefit from God, they must abstain from sin, since God allows the impious to rule asa punishment for sin, as the Lord says in [the Book of] Hosea, “I will give you a king in my wrath”® and in (the Book of] Job, “He maketh a man who is 2 hypocrite to rule because ofthe sins ofthe people." Therefore, for the scourge of tyranny to cease, guilt must frst be expiated. Chapter 12 The Duties of « King. The Likeness of the King in His Kingdom tothe Soul in the Boy uid to God in the Universe. Next we wll consider the duty ofa king and how he should act. Since art imitates nature and we lear fiom nature how to actin accordance with reason, it seems best to derive the duties ofa king from the exam ples of government that appear in nature. In nature we find both un. versal and a particular form of government. The universal government isthe one by which God through his providence governs everything in the universe. The pattcular rule that i found in man is like God's tle, and therefore he is called a microcosm (minor mundus) because the form in which the universe i ruled is alo found within him. Just as all created material things and all spixtual powers come under the rule of God, so als the parts of the body and other powers of the soul are ruled by reason, so that reason acts in man in the way that God aes in the world, Moreover since we have shows above, man is by nature a social animal who lives in community, thete isa likeness to the divine rule not only in the fact thatthe individual is directed by his reason, but that the reason of one man directs the group (multitude) as the special responsibility of the king. Among certain animals that are organized socially, there is (also) a kind of likeness to this form of rule. The bees ae said to have kings, not because they ate ruled by reason inthis way, 5, Agia suc the sandad comment) Anbu re ode fom 446 toa 6 (Gina Orne be Cape of Wither whch Hey 131 ‘5m chon fuss ston of Be Teer Jee 6 Sr. THoMAs AQUINAS a natural instinct implanted by the Highest Ruler, the Author of Nant Terfore the king tuleogie ht hes 3 oat his kingdom like the soul in the body and God in the world. If he ree- ognizes this, he will be driven by a zeal for justice when he considers that he has been appointed to exercise judgment over the kingdom in God's place, and he will acquire kindness and mercy when he regards the individuals under his rule as members of his own body. * * * Chapter 14 1e King Should Follow the Example of God's Rule. The Similarity Bice oetnent nd Pte Sip A Caparo of eRe Priests and Kings. Jot the yesh yo King can bel om the creation ofthe word, 20 it principle of goverment ca be taken from the governance ofthe wold, We must fist keepin mind that we govern is to direct what is governed to its appropriate end. A ship is sa to be governed when the sailor guides it on its right course safely to port. Ifa thing is ordered to an end beyond itself, asa ship is to is port, its the dy ofthe one who det it not onl to ep tafe butt bing the goal which is beyond it, But if something did not have an enc Beyond isl the ask ofthe one who diet it woul be to keep it ‘unharmed and in good condition. While there is nothing of this kind among created things-—only God Himself who is the end of all—things that ate ordered to an extemal goal are cared for in many ways by difer. tent people. One man may be responsible for keeping something in good condition, and another for improving it, as in the case ofa ship that we hrave given as an example of government. The carpenter has the tespon- ibility for repairing any damage on the ship while the sailor has the task ‘of guiding the ship to por. The same thing happens in the case of man. “The doco i sponsible for keeping a man in good eat; dhe stenae for keeping him supplied with the neces of ie the scholar responsible for his knowing truth; and the instructor in morals fr ead ing him to live according to reason. If man were not ordered to some good beyond himself, these attentions would suffice for hrm. : "There a good that extraneous to mana ong ashe es his mort fe—finalhappines (Beatitude) in the enjoyment of Cod which avai hhim after death. As the Apostle [aul] says, “While we are in the body, swe ae exiled from the Lord.”® So itis thatthe Christian for whom that Happiness has ben bought bythe ed of Chi and whos recive gift of the Holy Sprit to attain it, needs further spiritual guidance ty Beth the por of tema ie Therapy overheat is exercised by the ministers ofthe Church of Chis. The same conclusion must e drawn for the end of a whole society that of an individual man. Ifthe end of man were some good in man 8 Wabi, 56 Ow Kinositr n himself, then the end ofthe government of society (multitudinis) would also be to secure and preserve that good for society. If that ultimate end of man and society were the life and health ofthe body, doctors would rule. Ifthe ulimate end were affluence and wealth a steward would be king. Ifthe knowledge of truth were to be attained by the multitude, the king would be a scholar. But it seems thatthe end of organized society isto live lif of virtue. Men gather together so that they may ive well which they could not do if they lived by themselves. The good life is one thats lived in accordance with virtue. Therefore the virtuous lifes the end of human soe ‘An indication ofthis is the fact that only those who share in the good life are parts of organized society (multitudins). If men came together simply forthe sake of mere existence, animals and slaves would have a part in civil society (congregations). If they did so in order to acquire Fiches, all those engaged in trade would belong to one city. But we see that only those who are under the same laws and government for the Purpose of living the good life are considered to be members ofa soc ety.” Now, because the man who lives the life of virtue is destined fora higher end which is, as we have said, the enjoyment of the divin, this must alo be the fins! end of human society. The final end of organized society then isnot [merely] olive the life of vetue but through a ife of Virtue to attain the enjoyment of God. IFt were posible to artve at this end by the power of human nature, it would be the duty of kings to direct men to this end. (We mean by the term, king, de one wt has the highest responsibility for human affairs.) Government is ofa higher ‘order when its ordered towards a further end. The one who is respon sible forthe last end directs those who ate responsible for carrying out the things that are ordered to that end. Thus the navigator who is respon: sible fr piloting the ship directs the shipbuilder as tothe most suitable ‘ype of ship to construct and the citizen who bears ams tells the black. smith what kind of weapons to make, But man cannot attain the enjoy. ment of God by human power but only by the power of God as the Apostle [Paul] tells us, “The gift of God is etemal life.” Divine, not ‘human rule, will lead to that end, This kind of rule belongs tothe king who is both God and man, Our Lord Jesus Christ, who by making men sons of God has led them tothe glory of heaven, ‘This is the government given to him, a rule which will never pass away, by virtue of which he is called both priest and king inthe Sacred Scriptures, where [the Prophet] Jeremiah say, “The king shall reign and he shall be wise."? From him a royal priesthood derives. What is more, all those who believe in Christ as his members are called priests and king. So that pritual and earthly things may be kept distinct, the min- istry ofthis Kingdom is entrusted not to earthly kings but to priests, and especially to the Highest Pris, the succesor of Peter, the Vicar of Chri, 9, Sex Aide, Pai, 1,24 9, 2 Jem, 235 1 Rowmmn 633 28 Sr. Tuowas Aguinas the Roman Pontiff, to whom all kings over Christian peoples should be subject as to Christ himself. For those who are responsible for interme- diate ends should be subject tothe one who is responsible forthe ut ‘mate end, and be directed by his command, Since the pagan priesthood and the whole cult ofthe gods were for the purpose of aequiring tem- poral goods to serve the common good of society which was the respon- sibility ofthe king, it was proper that the priest should be subject tothe pagan kings. Also in the Old Law since the people who espoused the {rue religion were promised early goods not by demons but by God, we read that in the Old Law priests were subject to kings. But under the New Law there is a higher priesthood that leads men to the joys of hheaven, so that under the law of Christ, kings should be subject to pris Chapter 15 To Gain the Ultimate End, the King Should Direct His Subjects 'o a Life of Virtue as Well as to Intermediate Ends. What is Needed forthe Good Life Just as the good life of men here is directed to the blessed life which wwe hope for in heaven as its end, so alo all the good things that men secure, whether wealth or money or health or kil or learning, are directed to the good of the community as their end. As has been said, the one who is responsible for an ultimate end should rule over those who are in charge of things that are ordered to that end and should direct them by his rule. Its clear from this that just as the king ought to be subject to the dominion and rule ofthe priestly office, so he should rule overall hhuman offices and direct them by the power of his rule. Whoever isto

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