Using Research Evidence to Improve Educational Practice importa NT eds 1, Educational research is having an increasing impact on educational policy and practice. 2. Evidence-based practice is becoming more prevalent in medicine, psychology, education, and other professions. 3. Teachers’ traditional motivations and workplace conditions have not been conducive to evidence-based practice. 4, Evidence-based practice in education has four key elements: (1) focus on problems of practice, (2) reliance on research evidence, (3) clinical expertise, and (@) respect for stakeholders’ values. 5. An important impetus for improving education is heightened awareness of pressing problems of practice and a commitment to solve them. 6, Educators need to understand research methodology so they can evaluate the quality of others’ research or conduct their own research. 7, Educators need 10 view research evidence from multiple ethical perspectives. 8, Educators can collaborate productively with researchers by participating in research or program evaluation or by joining with researchers in influencing policy agendas for educational change. 9. Research differs from other forms of inquiry in its emphasis on (1) making direct observations of phenomena; (2) taking steps to eliminate personal bias in data collection, analysis, and interpretation; and (3) carefully determining the generalizability of findings to individuals and situations ether than those that were studied, 10. Research produces four types of knowledge: (1) descriptions, (2) predictions, @) evidence about the effects of experimental interventions, and (@) explanations. 11. The purpose of basic research is to understand fundamental processes and structures that underlie observed behavior, whereas the purpose of applied research is to develop and validate interventions that can be used directly to improve practice. 12, Post modernists believe that no one method of inquiry is inherently better than any other, whereas social scientists believe that their methods of inquiry have a special legitimacy and claim to authority, based on use of (1) explicitly defined concepts or procedures available for inspection by anyone; (2) replication studies to test the soundness of findings from a single study; (3) knowledge claims that can be tested, and possibly refuted, by empirical data; and (@) explicit procedures to minimize researcher errors and biases.Part Introduction 13. Quontitative and qualitative research differ in various ways, but chiefly in epistemology. Quantitative researchers assume an objective social reality that exists independently of observers and participants, whereas qualitative researchers assume that social reality is continuously constructed by observers and participants. 14, Mixed-methods research studies make use af hath quantitative and qualitative research methods, Key TERMS action research ‘APA Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice applied research basic research clinical expertise Cochrane Collaboration construct descriptive research ‘educational research epistemology ‘evaluation research ‘evidence-based practice interpretivism No Child Left Behind Act positivism postmodernism prediction research progressive discourse qualitative casearch quantitative research reflexivity refutation replication theory triangulation Each of the principal authors of this book (Mark Gall and Joy Gall) has bad a career in education spanning more than 40 years. From our current vantage point, we stand in awe of the many educational practitioners (called educators in this book) who do such a rematk- able job of teaching increasingly diverse students while maintaining schools and other learning institutions in the face of ever-present budgetary challenges and shifting policy initiatives, Tn addition, we are impressed by the expansion of educational research over the past 40 years. An ever-growing worldwide network of educational rescarchers have developed sophisticated methods for studying the complexities of the educational enterprise, produc ing a substantial body of research knowledge and highly efficient electronic methods for accessing it Unfortunately, something is missing from this picture of progress. We have nat yet ‘witnessed a meaningful bridge between educational research and educational practice. Re- searchers and educators live mostly in separate worlds. They come together only occasion- ally in university courses, workshops, conferences, and journals that both groups read, ‘There are signs, though, that the two worlds—the world of educational practice and the world of educational research—are coming closer. The signs, mostly seen at the level of national legislation and policy making, point to a sea change in education. The findings of educational research are becoming increasingly influential in shaping national legislation about education, which in turn is creating changes in educational practice. IF you are an educator, these changes mean that you will need to study research so that you can enter into a dialogue with researchers and the policy makers who make decisions based on research findings. Otherwise, you and your colleagues might find yourselves in the uncomfortable position of trying to implement programs and policies that you did not hhave a voice in shaping. In short, we claim that educational research is becoming too important for anyone interested in schools and students to ignore. In the next sections, we make our case for theChapter 1_ Using Research Evidence to Improve Educational Practice validity ofthis claim, We invite you to reflect on the soundness of the claim and, ithas merit, how you plan to respond in your role as an educator. Evidence-Based Professional Practice ‘The movement called evidence-based practice represents a striking change in the relation- ship between educational research and practice. This relatively new approach to profes- sional decision making relies on rigorous research findings rather than custom, personal experience, or intuition. For example, suppose a teacher recommends that a student needs ‘one-on-one tutoring to come up to grade level in writing skills. Suppose the parents ask ‘whether tutoring is likely to help their child, A teacher who is well versed in evidence-based practice would be able to refer to research findings demonstrating the effectiveness of tutor- ing and justify the applicability of this research to their child's needs, Evidence-based practice is changing the foundations of various professions. We will consider two of these professions—medicine and clinical psychology—before discussing. evidence-based practice in education. Our purpose is to help you see that evidence-based practice isa large-scale professional movement, not just a passing fad. Evidence-Based Practice in Medicine Suppose you have a heart problem and seek treatment fr it. How do you decide which is the best treatment? You might try to contact other patients with the same problem. Perhaps they will offer testimonials about some medicine or individual who helped them, Another ‘option is to seek a professional opinion, probably by making an appointment to see a doctor with expertise, such as a board-certified doctor in cardiology. ‘Testimonils, case examples, and expert opinion can be worthwhile. On the other hand, they might lead you astray if they are based on untested beliefs, inaccurate observations, or reliance on outmoded research, Evidence-based practice in medicine represent an effort to avoid such pitfalls. It does so by basing treatment decisions on the best possible research evidence about a patient's condition. Evidence-based medical practice has two significant feature. The first involves the need to identity good research evidence, The fat that a research study has been published does not necessarily guarante that is findings are sound, Professionals need to sift through research findings to determine which ones hold up well under critical scrutiny. Although researchers might be inthe best position todo this screening, medical practitioners lso need to understand research methodology to validate for themselves what others consider good research evidence for apantcular reaiment option. Researchers use systematic procedures to synthesize evidence collected across research studies ona particular medical intervention, such as meta-analysis, ‘which we describe in Chapter 5, Several organizations coordinate and publish these research syntheses. Among the most prominent isthe Cochrane Collaboration, whose website (www , include quantitative measures to represent the qualities of ach case they study. argue thatthe methods of social science inguiy ae not superior to other forms of investigation 4 emphasize the study of individual eases of a Phenomenon 10. Mixed-methods research 4. is designed to produce descriptive and predictive findings Within a single study by, was developed to speed up the transfer of research findings into educational practice. 6. uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods. 6. uses theories from mulkipl disciplines to study problems of practice. Chapter References ‘Adams, M. J, (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning ‘about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ‘APA Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice. (2006). Evidence-based practice in psychology. American Psychologist, 614), 271-285, Bereiter,C. (1994). Implications of postmodemism for science or, sc- cence as progresive discourse. Educational Peychologist, 29, 3-12. Cochrane Collaboration. (n.). Evidence-based medicine and heath care, Retrieved from www.cochrane org/éocslebm him Comoe, J. H., Jt, & Dripps, R. D. (1976). Scientific basis forthe support of biomedical science, Science, 192, 105-111 Darling-Hammond, L. (2007, May 21). Evaluating “No Child Left Behind." The Nation. Retrieved from www.thenstion com doc/20070521V¢arling-hammond Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In MC, Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd cd, pp. 119-161), New York: Macmillan, Graham, E., Doherty, I., & Malek, M. (1992). Introduction: The context and language of postmodernism. In J. Doberty, E. Graha & M, Malek (Eds), Postmodernism and the social sciences (pp. 1-23). Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Hawkins-Simons, D. (2008, May 19). Nota primary concern, U.S. News & World Report, 29-31, Institute of Education Sciences. (.4.). What Works Clearinghouse. Retrieved from hup/fies.ed.gov/ncse/wwe/overview Katz, L.G., de Rothenberg, . (1996). Issues in dissemination: An ERIC perspective. ERIC Review 5, 2-9. ‘McCaslin, M, Good, T.L., Nichols, 8. Zhang, J, Wily, C.R., Bo- zack, A. R, Burross, H. L., & Cuizon- Garcia, R. (2006). Compre- hensive school reform: An observational study of taching in grades 3 dough 5. Elementary Schoo! Journal, 106(6). 313-331 Popper, K. (1968). Conjectures and refitations. New York: Harpe, Slavin, R. E, (2002). Evidence-based education polices: Trans- forming educational practice and research. Educational Re- searcher, 310), 15-21, USS. Department of Education. (n..). About the Institute of Fue cation Sciences. Retieved from wwwed govlaboutfofficesisties! index ml20 Part Introduction Resources for Further Study Moss, PA. (Ed). (2007). Evidence and decision making (106th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 1), Malden, MA: Blackwell ‘The chapter authors examine the process by which educa tors use information to improve schools. They consider the use of both quantitative and qualitative research evi dence, standardized test scores, and survey and interview data, and also examine various materials, including sam- ples of students’ works. This book identifies the diffcal- ties, but also the promise, of evidence-based practice in education. Phillips, D.C., & Burbules, N.C. (2000). Postpostivism and ed cational research. New York: Rowman & Litlefield ‘Most of us understand something about how scientist, in- cluding educational researchers, work. However, few of us are aware of the fundamental assumptions that underlie sci- entific inquiry and also the ongoing controversies about these assumptions. If you wish to deepen your understanding of science, this book will enlighten you. Taber, K.8. (2007). Classroom-based research and evidence-based practice: A guide fr teachers, Los Angeles: Sage. ‘This book is written for teachers who are interested in in- corporating evidence-based practice into their instructional repertoires. The author deseribes skills needed to eritically evaluate research reports and to cerry ovt one's own school- based research. Sample Educational Research Study The Gully in the “Brain Glitch” Theory Wills, J. (2007). The gully n the "brain glitch” theory. Educational Leadership, 64(), 68-73, ‘The author of the following journal article notes that 20 to 35 percent of students have significant reading difficulties. In addition to being a major problem for these students, as most school learning involves reading, reading difficulties are also likely to handicap these sundents in their career choices and career advancement. Inreading ths article, will see how current research and theory is pointing to promising new approaches to solving this problem of educational practice. The author ofthe article is ‘both a board-certified neurologist and middle schoolteacher. “The article is reprinted in its entirety, just as it appeared when originally published. The Gully in the “Brain Glitch” Theory Judy Willis. | Learning to read is not Santa Barbara Middle School, | 2 natural part of humen Santa Barbera, CA | development. Unlike speech, reading does not follow from observation and imi- tation of other people Jacobs, Schall, & Scheibel, 1993) and has no specific regions of the human brain dedicated 10 it, Reading requires multiple areas ofthe brain to oper- ate together through intricate networks of neurons; thus, many different brain dysfunctions can interfere with the complex process of leaming to access, comprehend, and Use information from text. Knowing how interdependent these areas ofthe brain are, we should hardly be surprised that an estimated 20 to 35 percent of students experience significant reading difficulties (Schneider & Chein, 2008). In fact, its wonderul that anyone learns to read at all Unfortunately, misinterpretations of recent neurolog- cal research have ignored the complexity of the cognitive processes involved in learning to read. Some education policymakers have used the conclusions of this research to claim that neuroscience proves the necessity of intensive “The Guly inthe ‘Brain Glitch’ Theory,” by Judy Wills. nthe February 2007 isue of Educational Leadership, 643), pp. 68-73, © 2007 by ASCD. Used with permission, Learn more abaut ASCD at on asc ongChapter 1 Using Research Evidence to Improve Educational Practice 21 phonics instruction for students who struggle with reading. This oversimplified interpretation of the cognitive research harms students and schools ‘AN OVERSIMPLIFIED PICTURE OF THE BRAIN During more than 20 years of practicing neurology and conducting electron microscone research analyses of the neurophysiology of the cerebral cortex, | have been fasc- nated by the connections among many parts of the brain that neuroimaging revealed. Since leaving my medical neu- rology practice to become a classroom teacher, | have felt compelled to respond to research analyses that oversimplify and misinterpret the results of neuroimaging scans. Unfortunately, federal policymakers are currently using flawed research analyses to advance a narrow approach to reading instruction. When President George W. Bush pro- rmoted the Reading First program and introduced Head Start legislation that heavily favored phonics reading in- struction, he assured the nation that “scientific” brain re- search had produced definitive data proving the merits of this approach. To support such claims, phonics advocates often cite research conducted by Shaywitz and colleagues (1998, 2002, 2003)—research that falls far short ofthe medi cal scientific model. have read this research, and I believe that its conclusions are based on flawed studies end misin- terpretations ofthe findings Shaywite and colleagues used functional magnetic reso- nance imaging (fMIR) to measure differences in the brain activity of normal and dyslexic readers as they performed such tasks as reading a list of rhyming nonsense words Because the dyslexic readers’ brains showed a disruption atthe rear area ofthe brain, where visual and sound iden- tifications are made during reading, the researchers con- cluded that a “glitch” in the brain circuitry holds the key to reading difficulties. ‘The major flaw in the brain glitch research was its as- sumption that subjects were actually reading during the MRI scans. The reading tasks evaluated were not authen- tic reading. Rather, they were phonics-based sound-and- symbol tasks. The researchers’ interpretations of the FMIRI scans con- sidered only one portion of the brain's complex—and still not completely defined—reading network, focusing on @ brain region known to be more active during phonics pro: cessing, Predictably, this brain region became more meta- boolically active when the test subjects performed phonics processing activities. Also predictably, when students re- Ceive intensive phonics instruction, this region of the brain shows more activity, and the students’ performance on tests designed to measure phonics skils improves. But we can- not generalize from these findings that allreading improves when the so-called phonies center becomes more active Such a conclusion would be like taking a patient who has suffered permanent right-arm paralysis that has spared, bbut weakened the right pinky finger and treating the pa- tient by performing intensive physical therapy on that one finger. fthe patient moves that finger during an fMRI scan, the brain region with neurons dedicated to movement of the right pinky finger (there is such a place in the left fron- tal lobe) will show, an increase in metabolic activity, use more glucose and oxygen, and light up the colors of the MRI scan. Ifthe patient receives physical therapy exercis: ing that finger, a subsequent {MRI scan could show that the brain has responded by building more cellular connec- tions around the neurons in that dedicated section. Yet, no improvement would necessarily occur in the movement of any other part of the patient's arm; the therapy would not affect the demaged neurons that control the whole arm. In the same way, itis faulty science to conclude that reading ability has improved just because phonics-intense instruction has produced changes in phonics-functioning brain regions and improved performance on phonics- weighted post-tests. Nevertheless, researchers have used the brain glitch theory to lump diverse reading differences and learning styles under a single label of phonics impair- rent. And policymakers have used that label to promote cone-size-fts-all, phonics-heavy reading instruction (Coles, 2004). A generation of students is paying the price. LIMITATIONS OF NEUROIMAGING Functional magnetic resonance imaging and other neuro- imaging technologies—which show increased blood flow and blood oxygenation in parts of the brain that are ac- tivated during various cognitive tasks—are exciting tools for studying what happens in the human brain as people learn. But i's important that we use caution in drawing conclusions from the results of brain scans. The brain glitch researchers’ conclusions reached far beyond the current limitations of neuroimaging, ‘As an example of one such limitation, the observation that @ brain area is metabolically active during a resd- ing task does not prove that itis active explicitly in the reading task. To increase scan analysis precision some- what, we can use subtraction analysis (Friston, Zarahn, Jo- seph, Henson, & Dale, 1999). This technique takes baseline scans when the subject performs a task identical tothe task being studied in all but one cognitive variable and then subtracts the baseline scan's areas of metabolic activity from the overall metabo activity shown during the ex- perimental scans. This presumably leaves only the single cognitive operation as the remaining part ofthe brain that is different from the baseline scans. The brain glitch analy- ses did not use this technique and thus did not account for the complex patterns of brain activity that are involved in the reading process. ‘Another problem with current neuroimaging technol- ‘gy is speed. Both FMRI and positron emission tomogra- phy (PET) neuroimaging scans show changesin metabolism ‘over seconds, but many parts ofthe reading process take place during the 20 to 200 milliseconds before the eyes ‘move from one word to the next. To “see cognitive events ‘occuring that rapidly, such as individual word identitice- tion or naming, some research has used time-precise neu- roelectrie monitoring systems that measure the activation ‘of small clusters of cells (Kail, Hall, & Caskey, 1999). The brain glitch scanning studies did not use such technology22 Part Introduction and thus reliad on the gross metabolic activations of fMRt ‘scans to represent the complex brain activity that occurs as children read, THE COMPLEX BRAIN Although the brain glitch theory treats learning to read as an isolated, independent cognitive process, reading is actually @ complex process connecting multiple learn- ing and association centers in the brain. Neuroimaging shows that specific sensory inputs (sound, visual images, and so on) are received in the brain lobes specialized to accept them. Any new information en route to its desigr nated lobe passes through a type of alerting system in the limbic system (oarts of the temporal lobe, hippocampus, and amygdala). Here, the sensory information is linked to previously learned memory, connecting new data with the prior information and thus forming long-lasting relational memory. After the initial response to the new input, feed back goes back to the medial temporal lobe where the relational memory is sent along neural circuits to long-term memory storage areas. This process both reinforces and expands brain neurodendritic circuits that connect the multiple brain lobes. Just becouse fMRI scans during sound-and-symbol phonics activites show activation in one brain center, that does not prove that other brain areas are not equally or more metabolically active during other types of reading tasks or for children with diferent learning styles, Regard less of which center shows initial activation or even sus- tained activstion, all brain operations are complex and: involve communication among multiple lobes. At the minimum, reading stimulates the limbie system, occipital cortex, associational subcortical frontal lobe centers, and mecial temporal lobe. Reading instruction that stimulates multiple brain areas is likely to be more successful for dif ferent styles of leamers and more efficient in feclitating the multicentric, dynamic process of reading. ‘COMBINING SCIENCE WITH THE ART OF TEACHING ‘The implications of neuimaying fur education anu le ing research are stil largely suggestive. Researchers have not yet established a solid link between how the brain leans and how it netabolzes oxygen or glucose itis pre mature to claim that any instructional strategies are frmiy validated by # solid combination of cognitive studies, neu- roimaging, and classroom research. For now, educators must be guided by a combination of the art of teaching and the science of how the brain responds metabolically and electrically to stimuli. Here are some promising areas ‘of research and practice. ‘The Amygdala—Where Heart Meets Mind The education literature has included theories about the ‘effects of emotion on language acquisition for decades, Dulay and Burt (1977) and Kraslen (1982) proposed that strong positive emotion reinforces learning, whereas ex: cessive levels of stress and anxiety interfere with learning. Educators know from subsequent cognitive psychology studies and firsthand classroom experience that high stress, haveddom, canfisian, low motivation, ancl anxiety can hinder students’ learning (Christianson, 1992) Research using neuroimaging and neuroelectrical brain ‘wave monitoring supports the connection between emo: tion and learning, enabling us to see what happens in the brain during stress (intraini-Collison, Miyazaki, & Mc Gaugh, 1991). The amygdala, part of the limbic system in the temporal lobe, senses threat and becomes over- active, delaying or blocking electrical activity conduction through the higher cognitive centers of the brain. When the amygdela is in the overactive metabolic state associ- ated with stress, the rest of the brain's cortex does not show the usual fMRI or PET scan activation that represents the processing of data (Chugani, 1998; Pawlak, Magari- nos, Melchor, McEwen, & Strickland, 2003). New informa- ‘tion coming through the sensory intake areas of the brain cannot pass as efficiently through the amygdala's affec- tive filter to gain access to the brain's cognitive process- ing and memory storage areas such as the left prefrontal cortex Additional evidence of the amygdala’s role as an affec- tive fiter comes from real-time neuroelectric studies, which demonstrate that the somatosensory cortex areas are the most active areas of the brain during the moments when new information is received. These are regions found in each brain lobe that receive input from each individual sense—hearing, touch, taste, vision, end smell (Andrea- sen et al, 1999), Mapping studies show thet bursts of brain activity rom the somatosensory cortex are followed riliseconds later by bursts of electrical activity in the hip- pocampus, the amygdala, and then the other parts of the limbic system (Sowell, Peterson, & Thompson, 2003). This is one of the most exciting areas of brain-based leaming research because it shows which strategies stimulate and impede communication among the parts of the brain when an individual processes and stores information (Shadmehr & Holcomb, 1997) Tris brain research supports educators’ isthand experi- noe, whic tllsus that superior leaning lakes place when learning activities are enjoyable and relevant to students! lives, interests, and experiences Puca & Schmelt, 1999) Teachers recognize the state of anniety that occurs when students feel alienated from their reading experiences or anxious about their lack of understanding, | witnessed this response when, as a student teacher, | worked in school district that had implemented time-and-page syn- chronization of its phonics-heavy reading program (Open Court). All teachers were required to cover material at 2 mandated pace, so that students at each grade level were con the same page of the program cach day. Second grad. ers were brought to tears or outbursts of frustration when they were confused, their requests for help went unheeded as teachers struggled to keep to the timetable. Students were told, “Don’t worry if you don’t understand or finishChapter 1 now, youll be taught this same material in a lesson some time in the future.” Neurochemical, neuroimaging, and neuroelectric re search support a learning model in which reading expe- riences are enjoyable and relevant. The brain research evidence reinforces the need for classrooms to become places where students’ imaginations and spirts are em- braced when reading time begins. ‘The Chemistry of Motivation Research on neurochemistry also supports the benefits of intrinsically rewarding, positive experiences associated with the learning process. Chemical imbalances in the brain enable information to travel across nerve synaps es—the gaps between neurons. (information travels along the nerve cells’ branching and communicating sprouts— axons and dendrites—as electrical impulses ands tempo- rarily converted from an electrical impulse into @ chemical tone to travel across the synapses.) Neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are brain proteins that are released by the electrical impulse on one side of the synapse and then float across the synaptic gap carrying the informa- tion with them to stimulate the next nerve ending in the pathway, Neurochemical neuroimaging analyses show that do- amine release increases in response to pleasurable and positive experiences (Brembs, Lorenzeti, Reyes, Baxter, & Byme, 2002). Early studies suggested that when an indi- Vidual engages in certain activites (for exemple, playing laughing, exercising, being read to, and recognizing per- sonal achievements), the amount of dopamine released by the brain increases. Later studies discovered that neuron Circuits going from the limbic system into the frontal lobe and other parts of the cerebrum, rich in dopamine recep: tors, respond to this dopamine release (Wunderlich, Bell, & Ford, 2005), Follow-up research has also shown increased release of dopamine even when subjects anticipated plea: surable states (Nader et al, 2002) Because dopamine is the neurotransmitter associated with attention, memory, learning, and executive function, it follows that when the brain releases dopamine in expecte tion of pleasurable experience, this dopamine willbe avail able to increase the processing of new information Unfortunately, most phonies-based reading curriculums do not place a priority on providing enjoyable reading ma- terials that induce pleasurable states in the brain, pacing lessons at comfortable speeds, giving students opportu- nities for self-satisfaction, and acknowledging authentic achievement, The decodable reading books in phonics- heavy reading systems are often overly simplistic, and their language sounds unnatural because of the limitations of phonetically decodable vocabulary. Such books lack per- sonal elevance or interest to many young readers, They do not stimulate a student's intrinsic interest in reading, Brain Stimulation in Action Researchers at the University of Maryland (Guthrie, Wig- field, Barbosa, & Perencevich, 2004) mixed reading strat- Using Research Evidence to Improve Educational Practice 23 egy instruction and motivation support in a paradigm called Concept-Oriented Reading instruction (CORI), The program helped students establish content goals for read- ing, allowed students to choose texts, used interesting texts, and encouraged social collaboration during read ing. It also employed the cognitive strategies of generat- ing related questions, activating background knowledge, summarizing text, searching for information, organizing information graphically, learning the structure of stories, and monitoring comprehension. Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction was imple- ‘mented in whole classrooms of elementary students. Using 2 variety of standardized tests to measure understanding, reading strategies, and motivation, the researchers found that classrooms that used the combined CORI formula scored significantly higher on standardized tests of react- ing comprehension and on measures of reading motiva- tion than did classrooms that used strategy instruction alone. The researchers concluded that teaching reading strategiesis effective for improving reading, but not nearly as effective as coupling those strategies with motivational strategies. Considering the research on the amygdala, limbic system, and dopamine, it is not surprising that the motivation support paradigm of this program was so successful WHERE ARE WE NOW? The stated goal of much education legislature is for all stu- dents to learn to read. The goal of most educators extends beyond that—for students not only to leam the mechanics of reading, but also to develop a love of reading, We can begin to achieve these goals when we teach students to read in nonthreatening, engaging, and effective ways. Cognitive psychology, affective filter data, and rieu- roimaging, neuroelectric, and neurochemical evidence do not support an approach that puts phonics frst at the expense of intrinsic appeal and significance to the young reader. They do support a phonics-embedded approach that uses literature as @ medium through which motivated, engaged students can enjoyably learn reading skills and strategies Although valid neurological research offers exciting possibilities and must continue, we should not be fooled by policyrnakers or program developers who use the term brain-based learning in ways that many medical and teach- ing professionals consider irresponsible. Until there is adi- rect connection between double-blind, variable-controlled analysis and confirmed results, interpretations of data to “prove” that certain instructional strategies are superior fall into the realm of speculation. As educators, we cen only evaluate the research, read objective evaluations by neutral third-party reviewers, and create or use strategies that are compatible with what we know about the brain. Teaching reading is stil far from being pure science, and educators need to call on their training and experience as well as consider the findings of neurological research to shape their instruction24 Parti. Introduction References ‘Andreasen, N.C, O'Leary, D.S, Paradiso, Cizadlo,., Amat, S,, & Watkins, G.L. (1999, The cerebellum plays a role in conscious eptodie memory retieval. Human Dain Mapping, 98), 226-234. lowe City, A: Wiley-Liss. Brembs,B, Lorenzeti,F, Reyes, F, Baxter, D., Byne, J. 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