Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Modelling of Vertical Drains With Smear Installed in Soft Clay PDF
Modelling of Vertical Drains With Smear Installed in Soft Clay PDF
Research Online
University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
2005
Recommended Citation
Sathananthan, Iyathurai, Modelling of vertical drains with smear installed in soft clay, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, School of Civil,
Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong, 2005. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1924
Doctor of Philosophy
from
UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG
by
2005
AFFIRMATION
I, Iyathurai Sathananthan, declare that I am the sole author of this dissertation. The wo
presented in this thesis is original unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged and has
Wollongong. The document has not been submitted for any other degree at any other
academic institution.
Iyathurai Sathananthan
September 2005
11
List of Publications
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Book Chapter
Theoretical and Numerical Perspectives and Field Observations for the Design
Journal Papers
numerical solutions for a single vertical drain including the effects of vacu
iii
List of Publications
Conference Papers
Norway. 17-27.
(2005). Analytical and Numerical Solution for Soft Clay Consolidation using
th
IV
Abstract
ABSTRACT
prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) subjected to preloading (with and without vacuum
pressure application). This investigation was carried out in fourfold. First, an analyt
Cam Clay theory has been formulated to estimate the extent of the smear zone. Second,
the smear zone characteristics were evaluated using a large-scale radial drainage
consolidometer and then compared with predicted values. Third, the existing
axisymmetric and plane strain theories of a unit cell were modified and incorporated
with a linearly distributed (trapezoidal) vacuum pressure for both Darcian and non-
Darcian flow. Finally, multi-drain plane strain analysis was conducted on a number of
case histories taken from Australia and Thailand to study the performance of the entir
smear zone. A central vertical drain was installed in soil specimens (previously place
inside a large cell) with a band shaped (rectangular, hollow) steel mandrel, during wh
any variations in pore water pressure along the radial direction were recorded. Then,
surcharge load was applied in stages up to 200 kPa and the clay then consolidated. At
the end of consolidation, soils samples were collected from several locations in order
carry out a number of oedometer and triaxial tests to establish the variations of soil
properties. It was observed that drain installation disturbed the soil immediately
v
Abstract
adjacent to it, creating a "smear zone" in which a change in clay properties was caused
shear from the periphery of the mandrel. The smear zone was 2-3 times the equivalent
radius of the mandrel with horizontal permeability (in the smear zone) varying from
1.09 to 1.64, an average of 1.34 times smaller than that of the undisturbed zone. The
estimated extent of smear zone from the large-scale test was very close to the predicted
The analytical solutions are incorporated in the finite element code (e.g. PLAXIS,
ABAQUS) employing the Modified Cam Clay theory. Selected numerical analysis
incorporating the proposed solution was carried out to study the behaviour of a number
the soft clay foundation and the predictions are compared with available field data. A
good agreement between the finite element analysis and field data was found. Finally,
numerical analyses incorporating the proposed solution were conducted to study the
smear zone, multi-stage loading and surface crust on the failure of the soft clay
foundation.
VI
Acknowledgments
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author takes this opportunity to express his profound gratitude to Professor
Buddhima Indraratna for his enthusiastic guidance, invaluable suggestions, constructive
criticisms, and constant encouragement throughout this research project. His patience
and availability for any help whenever needed with his heavy workload is appreciated.
From Professor Indraratna, the author realized n e w ways of thinking about soil
mechanics, of blending complex mathematics with the principles of mechanics. This
guidance into n e w avenues of knowledge will be useful to author throughout his career.
I would like to express my gratitude to senior technicians Alan Grant for his
continuous help with the initial set-up of equipment and during the laboratory work. 1
appreciate Cholachat Rujikiatkamjorn, a fellow doctoral candidate for sharing views
and mutual help. A special note of sincere appreciation also extends to Dr. Hadi
Khabbaz, Professor A.S. Balasubramaniam, Dr. G.S.K. Fernando and Dr. Brett Lemas
for their continuing support and good wishes.
I would also like to extend thanks to fellow postgraduate friends for their
discussions, support, and social interaction outside the "geotechnical" world. M y
appreciation is also extended to all past and present members of the Department of
Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong for their
warm-hearted cooperation. The author w a s financially supported by the Australian
Commonwealth (IPRS and U P A Scholarships) fund administered through the
University of Wollongong and this deserves special acknowledgment.
My special and sincere gratitude is offered to my beloved wife Ramani for her
constant love, prayers, encouragement and m a n y sacrifices throughout the research
period; her constants affection and forbearance has been a source of strength.
Last but not the least, the author humbly dedicates this piece of work to his
beloved parents, wife, brothers and sisters, without whose sacrifice and understanding
the author could never have reached where he is today.
I. Sathananthan,
University of Wollongong, Australia.
vii
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Affirmation ii
Abstract v
Acknowledgments vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
viii
Table of Contents
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.3.1 Inclinometers 18
2.3.3 Piezometers 19
ix
Table of Contents
x
Table of Contents
2.6.4.6 Indraratna and Redana (1997) - Rigorous Solution for Parallel Drain
Wall 55
xi
3 0009 03366597 2
Table of Contents
2.10 Summary 79
3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 82
3.1 Prediction of Smear Zone Caused by Mandrel Driven Vertical Drains using
3.1.1 General 82
xii
Table of Contents
3.2.1 General 95
3.2.3 Modelling of Plane Strain Solution with Applied Vacuum Pressure.... 108
3.3 Plane Strain Consolidation Equation for a Single Drain under Non-Darcian
121
Flow
121
3.3.1 General
122
3.3.2 Proposed Plane Strain Solution
xiii
Table of Contents
xiv
Table of Contents
xv
Table of Contents
202
IMPLICATIONS
202
7.1 General..
xvi
Table of Contents
7.3 Design of Embankment Constructed on Soft Clay with Vertical Drains 213
236
xvii
Table of Contents
BIBLIOGRAPHY 246
262
xvm
— List of Figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Potential benefit of vertical drains (adapted from Lau et al.2000) 4
Figure 2.2 Typical installation rig (Source: Colbond bv, The Netherlands) 16
Figure 2.3 Basic instrumentation for a highway embankment (After Rixner, 1986) 17
Figure 2.5 Typical drain installation patterns and the equivalent diameters 20
Figure 2.8 Possible deformation modes of PVD (adapted after Holtz, et al. 1991) 25
Figure 2.9 Typical values of discharge capacity (data from Rixner et al., 1986) 27
Figure 2.10 a) Schematic section of the test equipment showing the central drain and
the consolidation and permeability characteristic (Indraratna and Redana, 1998) .32
Figure 2.11 Ratio of kyfkv along the radial distance from the central drain (modified
Figure 2.12 Approximation of the disturbed zone around the mandrel (Rixnet et al)....
xix
List of Figures
Figure 2.15 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (after Hansbo, 1979) 46
Figure 2.16 Average consolidation rates a) for vertical flow, b) for radial flow 47
Figure 2.17 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition 51
Figure 2.18 Comparison of average degree of consolidation (data from Chai et al.,
1995) 54
Figure 2.19 Comparison of excess pore pressure variation (data from Chai et al., 1995)
55
Figure 2.20 Average degree of consolidation (modified after, Indraratna et al., 2000).
Figure 2.21 Comparison of the average surface settlement (Indraratna et al., 2000) 58
Figure 2.22 Comparison of the excess pore pressure (Indrarataa et al., 2000) 58
Figure 2.26 Isotropic normal consolidation line plot in critical state theory 69
Figure 2.29 Yield locus of Cam Clay and Modified Cam Clay model 73
xx
. List of Figures
Figure 3.3 Consolidation process (a) conventional loading (b) vacuum preloading 96
Figure 3.4 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (adapted from Hansbo, 1979)
98
Figure 3.5 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different vacuum
Figure 3.6 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different drain spacin
105
Figure 3.7 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different smear zone
parameters 106
Figure 3.9 Comparison of average excess pore water pressure distribution 115
Figure 3.10 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition (adapt
xxi
List of Figures
Figure 3.12 Ratio between smear zone permeability to undisturbed zone permeability of
Figure 3.14 The variation of function gp (n, y) withy for selected n 124
Figure 3.15 The variation of function/^, (n, y) withy for selected n 126
Figure 3.17 Variation of normalized excess pore pressure with exponent n 130
Figure 3.19 Equivalent plane strain ap value as a function of Blbw, bjbw and KhJKs of
Figure 3.20 Equivalent plane strain J3p value as a function of B/bw, bslbw and KH/KS of
equivalent plane strain cell to those of axisymmetric cell as a function of B/bw ..135
Figure 3.22 Ratio between undisturbed zone permeability to smear zone permeability of
equivalent plane strain cell as a function of Blbw, bjbw and KH/KS of axisymmetric
xxii
List of Figures
Figure 4.2 Location of pore pressure transducers and cored samples 142
Figure 4.5 Pore pressure variation during mandrel installation for different initial
Figure 4.6 Normalized pore water pressure variation with distance 152
Figure 4.7 Variation of (a) horizontal permeability, (b) vertical permeability, (c)
permeability ratio, and (d) the normalized permeability, with radial distance .... 154
Figure 4.8 Variation of (a) water content and (b) normalized water content reduction,
Figure 4.9 Variation of water content with depth and radial distance for an applied
Figure 4.10 Correlation between the reduction of permeability and the water content
Figure 4.11 (a) Comparison of surface settlement, and (b) FE mesh used in Plaxis.... 1
Figure 5.1 Map of Australia showing the location of the study area 164
xxiii
List of Figures
166
Figure 5.6 Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their
Figure 5.7 Normalised pore water pressure variation with radial distance 171
Figure 5.14 Lateral displacement profile at the middle of the main batter 177
Figure 5.15 Lateral displacement profile at the toe of the berm 178
Figure 5.17 Lateral displacement contours at the end of 100 days 180
Figure 5.18 Excess pore pressure variation with time beneath the middle of the berm 181
xxiv
List of Figures
Figure 5.19 Variation of excess pore pressure below the embankment centreline 182
Figure 6.1 Location of SBIA site (after Moh and Lin, 1997) 186
Figure 6.2 General soil properties at SBIA site (modified after Sangamala, 1997) 18
Figure 6.3 Compressibility parameters at SBIA site (adopted from Sangmala, 1997). 18
Figure 6.4 Cross section of embankments with key instrumentation at SBIA (modified
Figure 6.6 Types of elements used in ABAQUS (Hibbitt et al., (2004) 191
Figure 6.7 Normalized pore water pressure variation with radial distance 192
Figure 6.9 Finite element mesh used in the analyses (Model 2) 194
Figure 6.10 Measured total pore pressure and simulated vacuum pressure at surface.
Figure 6.11 Settlement variation with depth for embankments (a) TV1 and (b) TV2.. 1
Figure 6.12 Variation of excess pore water pressure at 3m depth below ground level,
0.5m away from the centreline for embankments (a) TV1 and (b) TV2 198
Figure 6.13 Lateral displacement profiles (after 150days) through the toe of the
Figure 7.1 Finite element mesh (consists of 15-node elements) used in this analysis
xxv
List of Figures
Figure 7.2 Surface settlement at the embankment centre with fill height 206
Figure 7.3 Surface heave at embankment toe with fill height 206
Figure 7.6 Excess pore pressure contours for different slopes 209
Figure 7.7 Surface settlement at embankment centreline with fill height 210
Figure 7.8 Displacement (heave) at embankment toe with fill height 211
Figure 7.9 Contour plots for a loading rate of 0.2 m/week (the height and the slope of
Figure 7.10 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for different drain spacing 215
Figure 7.11 Displacement at embankment toe for different drain spacing 215
Figure 7.12 Lateral displacement contours for different drain spacing 216
Figure 7.13 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for two different smear zones
218
Figure 7.14 Displacement at embankment toe for two different smear zone 218
ratios 220
Figure 7.16 Displacement at embankment toe for different permeability ratios 220
xxvi
. List of Figures
Figure 7.18 Surface settlement at embankment centreline with (a) time, (b) fill height
222
Figure 7.19 Displacement contours when the fill height is 1.6 m 223
Figure 7.20 Lateral displacement contours when the fill height is 1.6 m 223
Figure 7.22 Increment contours when the embankment height increases from 1.8 to 2.0
m (a) vertical displacement, (b) lateral displacement, and (c) shear strain 225
Figure 7.23 Measured settlement of Muar test embankment, Malaysia (after Indraratna
Figure 7.25 Variation of induced vertical stress and shear stress 229
Figure 7.26 Variation of shear stress with horizontal direction at different depths 23
Figure 7.27 Shear stress distribution with normalized depth under embankments 231
Figure Al Variation of the isotropic and conventional overconsolidation ratio with slo
xxvn
List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.6 Normalized deformation factors (modified after Indraratna et al. 1997) 79
Table 5.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters used in the finite element analysis 167
Table 6.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters of SBIA site (Indraratna et al., 2005) 190
Table 6.2 Axisymmetric and Plane Strain permeabilities for both embankments 193
xxviii
. — List of Notations
LIST OF SYMBOLS
av Coefficient of compressibility
Cc Compression index
Cr Recompression index
dm Diameter of mandrel
xxix
ds Diameter of smear zone
E Young's modulus
e Void ratio
ecs Void ratio on the critical state line for value of p'=l
G Shear modulus
Gs Specific gravity
xxx
H Soil thickness
Ip Plasticity index
i Hydraulic gradient
k Permeability
xxxi
L Well resistance factor
/ Length of drain
LL Liquid limit
M Oedometer modulus
n Spacing ratio
O15 Size of particle which is larger than 15% of the fabric pores
O50 Size of particle which is larger than 50% of the fabric pores
PI Plasticity index
xxxii
PL Plasticity Limit
Q Discharge capacity
q Deviator stress
r Radius
rm Radius of mandrel
s Smear ratio
xxxiii
t Thickness of the drain walls in 2-D model
Time
xxxiv
List of Notations
ur Average excess pore pressure throughout the soil mass due to radial flow
uz Average excess pore pressure throughout the soil mass due to vertical flow
V Volume
Specific volume
v Specific volume
v Smear factor
Velocity of flow
w Water content
WL Liquid limit
wp Plastic limit
XXXV
List of Notations
x\ Cartesian coordinates
Greek Letters
s Strain
sj Final settlement of the soft soil equivalent to 25% of the drain length installed
sr Radial strain
£0 Circumferential strain
xxxvi
— — List of Notations
n. Stress ratio
JUP Smear and well resistance factor in plane strain under Darcian flow
v Poisson's ratio
p Settlement
o Total stress
xxxvii
a Effective stress
r Shear stress
E, Displacement
xxxviii
Subscripts
ax Axisymmetric
p Plane strain
r Radial
v Vertical or Volumetric
0 Initial
0 Circumferential
Superscript
p Plastic
xxxix
Chapter 1 Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
earth structures including major highways over soft clay deposits of low bearing
Australia and Southeast Asia, soft clays are widespread and extensive, often in the
vicinity of capital cities. These grounds have low shear strength and bearing capacity as
well as high compressibility and excessive settlements over long periods of time. When
these areas are selected for development work, the ground level must be raised above
the flood level with fill, but unacceptable differential settlement due to the heterogeneit
of the fill and compressibility of the underlying soft soils may cause the structures to be
damaged. Therefore, it is essential to stabilize the existing soft clay foundations prior t
stabilize the soft ground, the application of preloading with prefabricated vertical drains
is still regarded as one of the classical and popular methods in practice. It involves the
loading of the ground surface to induce a greater part of the ultimate settlement of the
underlying soft strata. In other words, a surcharge load equal to or greater than the
pressure dissipation via vertical drains. Application of vacuum pressure with surcharge
loading can further accelerate consolidation while reducing the required surcharge fill
material without any adverse effects on the stability of an embankment built on soft
1
. Chapter 1 Introduction
The major use of preloading and vertical drains is that preloading on its own can
reduce total and differential settlement facilitating the choice of foundations, whereas
when vertical drains are used with preloading, the settlement process can be accelerated
soils by expelling the water that occupies inside the pores between the solid soil
permeability and length of the drainage path. The amount of settlement is directly
related to the change in void ratio, which in turn is directly proportional to the amount
Hansbo, 1981; Onoue, 1988; Hird and Russell, 1992; Indraratna and Redana, 1998)
have investigated the factors affecting the progress of consolidation with vertical drains
The influence of smear on consolidation and the discharge capacity of the drain have
been the main focus of such investigations. The term 'smear zone' is generally referred
to as the disturbance that occurs when installing a vertical drain. This causes a
substantial reduction in soil permeability around the drain, which in mm retards the rate
of consolidation. In reality, the discharge capacity of a drain can be reduced due to well
resistance as a result of kinking, folding etc and also due to clogging of drain filters
during installation. The difficulties and uncertainties that prevent a proper assessment
radial consolidation around vertical drains arise from the following aspects:
(ii) Estimating the smear effect due to insufficient knowledge of smear zone
characteristics;
2
.— . Chapter 1 Introduction
(vi) Evaluating the effectiveness of vertical drains and discharge capacity; and
which could be overcome through research such as this, and indeed, the main focus of
this thesis is the effect of smear, which is a significant and unavoidable problem.
In this study, the effectiveness of vertical drains was evaluated by modelling its
modelling the smear zone developed during installation. The extent of the smear zone
was determined in the laboratory utilising the large-scale consolidometer apparatus and
verified with proposed analytical smear zone. A plane strain model including smear
The sub-soil properties were modelled according to the Modified Cam-clay theory, and
the finite element technique was adopted as the main tool for numerical analysis.
Vertical drains are artificially created drainage often used in soft deposits to accelerat
primary consolidation by shortening the drainage path such that dissipation of pore
water pressure can occur radially rather than the vertically. The main advantages of
(i) Increase the shear strength of soil by decreasing the void ratio;
(ii) Decrease the preloading time to minimize the same level of post-construction
settlement;
3
Chapter 1 introduction
(iii) Reduce differential settlements during the primary consolidation stage; and
(iv) Curtail the height of surcharge fill required to achieve the desired
precompression.
The potential benefit of vertical drains is shown in Fig. 1.1, where a faster rate of
foundation settlement is obtained compared to those without them. Vertical drains can
also be used as pressure relief wells to reduce pore pressure due to seepage, for instance,
below natural slopes, and to improve the effectiveness of natural drainage layers below
loaded areas.
Time (month)
Figure 1.1 Potential benefit of vertical drains (adapted from Lau et al.2000)
4
Chapter 1 Introduction
layers. This compression is caused by (i) deformation of soil particles, (ii) relocation o
soil particles and (iii) expulsion of water or air from the void spaces. In general,
elastic deformation of moist, dry, and saturated soils without any change in the moisture
content, might be calculated using various solutions, hence these settlement calculations
are generally based on equations derived from the theory of elasticity (Giroud and
Rebatel, 1971; Poulos and Davis, 1974). These elastic solutions have been popular due
soils due to the expulsion of wafer that occupies in the void spaces, are predicted by
laboratory oedometer test. The rate of settlement can be predicted using Terzaghi's one-
dimensional consolidation theory (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967; Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
For embankments stabilized with vertical drains, the rate of settlement can be predicted
different from primary consolidation in that it takes place under constant effective
5
. Chapter 1 Introduction
stress, i.e. after the entire excess pore pressure has dissipated. Secondary compression
might be predicted using the relationships given by Raymond and Wahls (1976), and
There are many practical engineering problems for which one cannot obtain exact
solutions. This may be attributed to either the complex nature of governing differential
equations or the difficulties that arise from dealing with boundary and initial condition
To deal with this problem one needs to resort to numerical approximations. In contrast
to analytical solutions, which show the exact behaviour of a system at any point within
the system, numerical solutions approximate exact solutions only at discrete points,
called nodes. The first step of any numerical procedure is discretisation, which divides
the medium of interest into a number of small sub-regions and nodes. There are two
common classes of numerical methods: (i) finite difference and (ii) finite element
methods. With finite difference methods, the differential equation is written for each
node, and the derivatives are replaced by finite difference equations. This approach
results in a set of simultaneous linear equations. Although finite difference methods are
easy to understand and employ in simple problems, they become difficult to apply to
element method uses integral formulations rather that finite difference equations to
is assumed to represent the solution for each element. The complete solution is then
6
Chapter 1 Introduction
by element shape, the displacement variation within each element, and the constitutive
analysis are that the settlement and stresses within the soil are coupled, and therefore
more realistic soil behaviour can be simulated. Finite difference methods for vertical
drains have been developed by several researchers (Brenner and Prebaharan, 1983 and
Onoue, 1988b). Of these, two techniques are generally known in the finite difference
concluded that the implicit method provides better numerical stability, although a set of
simultaneous equations needs to be solved at each time step (Desai and Christian,
1977).
correct, and therefore observational support is required to justify the predictions. Ther
are several observational methods available whereby using the initial settlement
consolidation, for which engineers estimate the time-settlement relations using Barron's
7
Chapter 1 Introduction
solution (which assumes a simple case of no peripheral smear, no well resistance, and
researchers and engineers in soil mechanics have been interested in both peripheral
smear and well resistance. Nowadays, most of the prefabricated drains used in practice
have negligible well resistance. Therefore, the accuracy of the predictions using the
consolidation theories depends on the correct assessment of the extent of smear zone
and its permeability. But, these are often difficult to quantify and determine from
them.
the extent of smear zone using cylindrical cavity expansion analysis incorporating the
Modified Cam-Clay model. This predicted extent of smear zone was compared with the
experimentally evaluated smear zone propagation using a large scale, radial drainage
consolidometer. Then, the existing axisymmetric (3-D) and plane strain (2-D) theories
laboratory tests were compared with the predicted value, using the finite element
computer programmes incorporating the critical state theory in soil mechanics. Various
case studies on vertical drains were also analysed to verify the analytical model. This
Various laboratory tests have been conducted to model the smear effect around
vertical drains. Based on those findings, the smear zone can be quantified and verified
with the proposed analytical solution and then incorporated in the finite element
analysis. Compressibility and permeability tests were also conducted to determine the
8
Chapter 1 Introduction
variation of compressibility, and vertical and horizontal permeability of the soil close
and away from the central drain, in a large, radial drainage consolidometer. The
apparatus can accommodate 650 mm diameter samples, upto 950 mm in height. The
samples recovered at a known radial distance surrounding the centrally inserted drain in
the large-scale consolidometer, the extent and the variation of the permeability inside
and outside the smear zone were determined. The soil sample (450 mm diameter x 950
The model proposed in this study has been applied to several embankments built
on soft clay stabilized with vertical drains founded in Australia and Thailand. The
settlements and pore water pressure responses of these soft clay foundations were
determined and compared with the field measurements. Finally, the knowledge gained
from the analysis of consolidometer cell and real embankments was used to demonstrate
how the plane strain analysis can be employed to predict the stability of embankments
under different conditions such as, with and without vertical drains, preloading,
This introductory Chapter highlights the aim and scope of the present research, while
Chapter 2 is devoted to a detailed literature review associated with the present work. In
fact, the available publications on vertical drains, plane strain modelling, and the
9
.—. Chapter 1 Introduction
inside and outside smear zone, and the analysis of embankments stabilized with vertical
Chapter 3 presents the mathematical formulation for the present research. First, an
analytical solution is described to evaluate the extent of the smear zone caused by
mandrel driven vertical drains using the cavity expansion theory incorporating Modified
Cam Clay model. Then, a modified consolidation theory incorporating vacuum pressure
for axisymmetric and plane strain conditions, with a linearly distributed (trapezoidal)
vacuum pressure was discussed. Finally, a new plane strain consolidation equation
smear zone, to monitor settlement and pore pressure was discussed. The settlement
response of the soil with vertical drains (tested in the large-scale equipment) is predic
analysis was carried out and the predictions were compared with available field data.
Chapter 7 discusses the use of 2-D plane strain numerical analysis for soft clay
foundations to predict the failure height under different conditions such as, with and
10
Chapter 1 Introduction
this thesis are defined where they first appear, either in the text, or by diagrams.
11
. Chapter 2 Literature Review
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
To improve the soft ground different types of vertical drainage system (e.g. sand
compaction piles, prefabricated vertical drains) have been used extensively over the pas
few decades. This concept was first proposed around 1920's and patented in 1926 by
of sand drains to stabilize the mud soil beneath the roadway approach to the San
consolidation, and in 1936 Porter described these successful trials and contributed to t
further study and development. After World War Two the application of sand drains has
soft clays (Jamiolkowski et al., 1983). In Japan, during 1940's, vertical sand drain
behaviour was not understood very well because the foundation bearing capacity was
considered sufficient for a full load immediately after installation which resulted in
Walter Kjellman installed the first prefabricated drain system in a field test in
1937 using tubes made from a wood/fibre material but after realizing this material was
inappropriate and too expensive, Kjellman invented and patented a band shaped
cardboard drain in 1939, and a method for driving it into the ground. This cardboard
drain consisted of two cardboard sheets glued together with an external cross-section
12
— Chapter 2 Literature Review
Mellosa in a full-scale test, after which several types of prefabricated band drains such
consisting offilterfabric sleeve or jacket surrounding a plastic core. The sleeve acts as a
physical barrier separating the core and the surrounding soil but permits pore water to
synthetic paper. The plastic core has grooved channels which act as flow paths and
There are many types of vertical drains used for the ground improvement, the first were
cylindrical columns of sand constructed using conventional piling equipment and were
placed at fairly large centres to avoid disturbing the ground. It was soon realized that
their performance depended on the spacing and surface area of the drain. T o reduce the
spacing a sand drain called "sandwicks" were used where the sand was contained within
this time Kjellman was experimenting with a narrow cardboard drain, all of which had
Sand drains collect water expelled from the soil and transport it out of the ground. The
controlled by the size of the grain. The discharge capacity however, can be reduced and
13
Chapter 2 Literature Review
ultimately clogged, by the intrusion of fine soil particles. Generally, sand drains were
relatively large (30-70 cm) but later on smaller diameter drains (sand wick - 50 mm,
sand pack -120 mm) were used. In these drains, the sand is packed into a synthetic fibre
net tube which prevents the drains from necking. Sand compaction pile is also a sand
drain which is compacted during its installation and can carry more loads and operate as
(i) The sand must have adequate drainage properties and is seldom found near the
construction site;
(ii) The drains may become discontinuous due to careless installation or excessive
(iii) Sand bulking during placement may lead to formation of cavities and subsequent
collapse on flooding;
(iv) The large diameter required for the sand drain may pose a construction problem
(v) Disturbing the soil around each drain during installation may reduce its hydraulic
(vi) The reinforcing effect may reduce the efficiency of the surcharge loading in
The development of various types of prefabricated band shaped drains that can
overcome most of the shortcomings of sand drains are being marketed under different
trade names (Rixner et al. 1986). The number of commercially available band drains has
increased rapidly since the first cardboard wick type drain used by Kjellman in 1948.
With the development of the first band drain by Akzo in 1970, and the rapid
14
Chapter 2 Literature Review
(or filter jacket) of today's wick drains are usually made from synthetic geotextile
which provides higher tensile strength and ensures consistent performance and quality.
Several types of PVD are available, such as Geodrain, Mebra drain, Audrain, Colbond
and Flodrain. PVD is more efficient than a sand drain due to its rapid installation rate
which saves time and money. PVD also creates fewer disturbances to the soil during
installation and has a greater resistance (stiffness) to lateral ground movement. Typica
types of PVDs such as Mebra and Colbond drain are shown in Figure 2.1. The most
Band drains are generally placed within a steel mandrel by displacement methods
using static pull down or vibratory techniques. Static pushing is preferable for driving
the mandrel into the ground; whereas the dynamic methods seem to create a higher
excess pore water pressure and a greater soil disturbance during installation. The
installation rig was shown in Figure 2.2, where the vertical drain is protected during t
installation by a mandrel.
15
Chapter 2 Literature Review
The site must be prepared before installing a vertical drain, this may involve removing
surface vegetation and debris and grading the site for a sand blanket to act as a medium
for expelling water from the drains, and as an appropriate working mat. Vertical drains
can be installed by the washing jet method, the static method, or the dynamic method.
The washing jet method is primarily used w h e n installing large diameter sand drains,
Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) are usually installed by the static or dynamic
method. In the latter, the mandrel is driven into the ground with a vibrating or drop
hammer, but in the former, the mandrel is pushed in by a static load. The static method
usually causes less ground disturbances and is m u c h preferred for more sensitive soils.
Although faster, the dynamic methods generate higher excess pore pressures and more
16
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Dummy
Piezometers
Figure 2.3 Basic instrumentation for a highway embankment (After Rixner, 1986)
Figure 2.3 shows a typical scheme of instruments required to monitor the soft clay
A diagram of the vacuum preloading method is shown in Figure 2.4 (Shang et al.,
1998). The working platform consists of a sand layer through which vertical drains are
placed into the soil. The treatment area is sealed by a flexible membrane which is keyed
into an anchor trench surrounding the area and a perforated pipe system is placed
beneath the liner to collect water. It is essential that the site be securely sealed and
isolated from any surrounding permeable soils to avoid leaks in the membrane and loss
of vacuum. To obtain and sustain a high vacuum, the membrane is covered with water.
17
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Finally the vacuum p u m p s with sufficient capacity to generate a vacuum in the soil and
capable of pumping water and air are connected to the collection system.
Water
Vacuum pump Election pipe Impervious
membrane liner
Clay revetment
Sand layer
2.3.1 Inclinometers
These instruments are used to monitor the lateral (transverse) movements of natural
slopes or embankments. An inclinometer casing has a grooved metal or plastic pipe that
is placed into a borehole (Durmicliff, 1988). The space between the borehole and the
casing is backfilled with a sand or gravel grout. The bottom of the pipe must rest on a
firm base to achieve a stable point of fixity. To monitor the embankment inclinometers
are normally placed at or near the toe where excessive lateral movement is usually of
some concern.
18
Chapter 2 Literature Review
predicted (Dunnicliff, 1988) to record the magnitude and rate of settlement under a load
Settlement plates are steel plate which should be placed immediately after installing the
vertical drains and before constructing the embankment. Typically, a reference rod and
reduced frequency, measuring the elevation at the top of the reference rod. Benchmarks
used for reference datum must be stable and remote from all vertical movements
2.3.3 Piezometers
Piezometers should be installed at the bottom of the sand blanket and at various
installed a sufficient distance away from the embankment to record the natural ground
water level and excess pore water pressure at a given location is determined by
Vertical drains are generally installed in either a square or equilateral triangular patt
an axisymmetric unit cell in most vertical drain consolidation theories where the drain
well and its influence are assumed to be cylindrical. The influence area of each drain i
usually approximated into a cylinder with an equivalent cross sectional area. As shown
19
Chapter 2 Literature Review
in Figure 2.5, the equivalent diameter of the influence zone (De) can be found in terms
Drains in a square pattern may be easier to lay out and control during installation
in the field but a triangular pattern usually provides a more uniform consolidation
between them.
Drains
De=1.128S De=1.05S
Square pattern Triangular pattern
Figure 2.5 Typical drain installation patterns and the equivalent diameters
The radius of sand drains, or their modern derivatives such as sand wicks or plastic tube
drains, can easily be determine from the size of the mandrel, which is usually circular in
cross section. However, most prefabricated drains have rectangular cross section (band
20
Chapter 2 Literature Review
shaped, Figure 2.6), but for design purposes, the rectangular (width-a and thickness-,))
section has to be converted into an equivalent circle (Figure 2.6) with a diameter of dM
because the conventional theory of radial consolidation assumes that drains are circular.
Geotextile filter
equivalent circular
cross-section
Kjellman (1948) first suggested that, "the draining effect of a drain depends to a
great extent upon the circumference of its cross-section, but very little upon its cross-
sectional area". Based on finite element analysis Hansbo (1979) verified Kjellman
suggestion and thus band shaped and circular drains lead to practically the same degree
diameter dw of a band shaped drain with width a and thickness b can be expressed as
21
Chapter 2 Literature Review
, 2(a + b)
dw=— " (2.3)
7t
Atkinson and Eldred (1981) proposed that a reduction factor of K/4 should be
applied to Eqn. (2.3) to take account of the corner effect where the flow lines co
rapidly. This was subsequently confirmed with finite element studies performed by
'„-%-* (2-4)
Pradhan et al. (1993) suggested that the equivalent diameter of band-shaped drains
should be estimated by considering the flow net around the soil cylinder of diamet
(Figure 2.7). The mean square distance of their flow net is calculated as:
-2 1
2 1 2 2®
s =~di+
e — a' jde (2.5)
4 12 71
dw=0.5a+0.7b
<^ong&Covo(1994)
\ dw=2(a+b)/7t
™ ', Hansbo (1979)
*b!
' Assumed water
yi—iflow net
Pradhan etal. (1993)
e.. - ^"
More recently, using an electrical analogue field plotter, Long and Covo (1994)
No definitive research exists that clearly shows that one of these formulations is
superior to the others. Various research efforts have supported each of the equations
presented above.
The pore or apparent opening size (AOS) of the filter should meet its design criteria
the one hand, the AOS has to be small enough to prevent fine particles of the soil
entering the filter and the drain but on the other hand it cannot be too small becaus
must provide sufficient permeability. The two key parameters that indicate filter qua
are AOS and permeability. Generally, filter permeability (&/;.._,-) must be at least
Several researchers have proposed some criteria for AOS; a commonly used
°2L*(2-3) (2-9)
D85
23
Chapter 2 Literature Review
where, O95 is the AOS (the size of largest particle that would effectively pass through),
O50 is the size which is larger than 50% of the fabric pores, and Dgs and D50 refer to the
sizes for 85% and 50% of passing soil particles by weight. The apparent opening size
(AOS) of a prefabricated vertical drain is usually taken to be less than 0.09 mm. Filter
material can also become clogged if the soil particles become trapped but this can be
>3 (2.11)
D15
o15 (2.12)
= (2-S)
The discharge capacity is the most important parameter that controls the performance of
prefabricated vertical drains. Only PVDs having sufficient discharge capacity can
function well. There are two major uncertainties related to the discharge capacity of a
vertical drain. The first one is the determination of the required discharge capacity to
used in design (Holtz et al., 1991) and the second one is the measurement of the
discharge capacity of the drain in the laboratory and the field. To measure discharge
Holtz et al. (1991), the discharge capacity depends primarily on the following factors:
(i) The area of the drain core available for flow (free volume);
(iii) Possible folding, bending, and crimping of the drain (Figure 2.8); and
24
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Relatively
uniform soil
mass
1 1
AH •
AH i
- i
Weak Weak V"* <
zones
zones \ \
>=•
v\ p>
>
i
c) local bending d) local kinking e) multiple kinking
Figure 2.8 Possible deformation modes of P V D (adapted after Holtz, et al. 1991)
B y incorporating the above factors the actual discharge capacity qw, is then given by:
<lW=(FtXFcXFfc}lreq (2.12)
where, F,, Fc and Ffc are the reduction factors due to time, folding, or drain condition,
and filtration and clogging, respectively. The term qreq is the theoretical discha
€fU10l7B2h
(2.13)
Hreq
4T,
drain installed into soft ground, U10 is the 10% degree of consolidation, / is the dep
25
Chapter 2 Literature Review
the vertical drain, ch is horizontal coefficient of consolidation and Th is the time fact
The reduction factor due to time Ft, has been estimated from laboratory tests to be
between 1.03 and 1.48, with an average of 1.25 (Bergado et al., 1996). The percentage
reduction of discharge capacity under the worst conditions of bending, folding, and
twisting has been tabulated in Table 2.1, from which the average reduction can be taken
as 48%), which gives the reduction factor of the deformed drain condition Fc about 2.
The filtration tests show that the trapped fine soil particles decrease the permeability
the PVD and its discharge capacity. This deterioration is complicated by the biological
and chemical growth in the geotextile filter. From filtration tests the value of Ffc is
suggested to vary between 2.8 and 4.2 with an average of about 3.5. After considering
all the worst conditions that may occur in the field the discharge capacity qw could 500
800 m /year but reduce to 100-300 m /year where the hydraulic gradient is unity under
elevated lateral pressure (Rixner et al., 1986). The discharge capacity of various types
drains is shown in Figure 2.9 where the discharge capacity is influenced by lateral
confining pressure.
In lieu of laboratory test data, it is also suggested that the discharge capacity can
2.2.
26
Chapter 2 Literature Review
1 0 % Bent 26%
2 0 % Bent 32%
Average 48%
1200
Hydraulic Gradient = 1
1000
m
a
Mebradrain
800 MD7407 (4)
fr
a Castel Drain
600
03 Board (4)
U
<_>
CX-l 000(4)
400
c_
_3
a Colbond
173
Q 200 CX-l 000(4)
Figure 2.9 Typical values of discharge capacity (data from Rixner et al., 1986)
27
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Geodrain 26 20 20 16
24 22 14 12
15 14 14 12
10 05 01 Clogged
21 19 17 15
— 17 13 12
19 17 09 04
Kremer et al. (1982) stated that the m i n i m u m vertical discharge capacity must be
160 m3/year under a hydraulic gradient of 0.625 applied across a 40 cm drain length
subjected to a 100 kPa confining pressure. Based on laboratory data and their
experience Jamiolkowski et al. (1983) concluded that for an acceptable quality of dra
qw should be at least 10-15 m3/year at a lateral stress range of 300-500 kPa, and for
drains that may be 20 m long. Hansbo (1987) specified that qw becomes a critical
property for long drains if its capacity is less than 50-100 nrVyear. Holtz et al. (1
reported that the qw of PVD could vary from 100-800 nrVyear. For certain types of PVD
affected by significant vertical compression and high lateral pressure, qw values may
reduced to 25-100 nrVyear (Holtz et al., 1991). The current recommended values are
28
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Vertical drains are installed in the field using a steel mandrel which is pushed in
ground statically or dynamically and then withdrawn leaving the drain in the subsoil
This process causes significant remoulding of the subsoil, especially in the immedia
vicinity of the mandrel. The resulting smear zone will have reduced lateral permeabi
which adversely affects consolidation. Barron (1948) stated that if drain wells wer
installed by driving cased holes which are back filling as the casing is withdrawn,
driving and pulling the casing would distort and remould the adjacent soil. The fine
more impervious layers in varved soils will be dragged down and smeared over the
29
. Chapter 2 Literature Review
more pervious layers, resulting in a zone of reduced permeability in the soil adjacent
The combined effect of permeability and compressibility within the smear zone
causes a different behaviour from the undisturbed soil. Predicting soil behaviour
surrounding the drain requires an accurate estimation of the smear zone properties. In
many classical solutions (Barron, 1948; Hansbo, 1981, Indraratna et al., 1997),
considered the influence of the smear zone with an idealized two-zone model where the
smear zone is the disturbed region in the immediate vicinity of the drain and the other
zone is the intact or undisturbed region outside the smear zone. Onoue et al., (1991);
Madhav et al., 1993; Bergado et al., 1996 introduced a three zone hypothesis defined
by:
(i) An inner smear zone in the immediate vicinity of the drain, where the soil is
(ii) An outer smear zone where permeability is moderately reduced as a result of the
The use of constant but different values of permeability for the smear zone and
undisturbed soil helps to obtain closed form solutions for consolidation with vertical
drains but due to the complex variation of permeability in the radial direction the
solution for the three-zone approach is difficult. For practical purposes the two-zone
approach is generally sufficient but two parameters are necessary to characterize smear
effect, namely, the smear zone diameter [ds) and the permeability ratio (Mk), i-e., the
value in the undisturbed zone (h) over the smear zone (ks). Both the smear zone
diameter and its permeability are difficult to quantify and determine from laboratory
30
Chapter 2 Literature Review
tests and so far there is no comprehensive or standard method for measuring them. The
extent of the smear zone and its permeability vary with the installation procedure, siz
and shape of the mandrel, and the type and sensitivity of soil (macro fabric). Field and
laboratory observations (Onoue et al., 1991; Madhav et al., 1993; Bergado et al., 1996;
Indraratna and Redana., 1998) indicated a continuous variation of soil permeability wit
the radial distance away from the drain centreline. Also, the smear zone diameter (ds)
has been the subject of much discussion in literature dealing with PVD.
Investigations by Holtz and Holm (1973) and Akagi (1977) indicate that:
d,=2dm (2.14)
where, dm is the diameter of the circle with an area equal to the cross sectional area o
da=&°&dm (2-15)
2
ds=(l.5-3.0)dw (2-16)
where, dw is the equivalent drain diameter. Based on a laboratory study and back
analyses, Bergado et al. (1991) proposed that the following relationship could be
assumed:
d =2d (2-17)
31
Chapter 2 Literature Review
a) Settlement
erne L o a d
transducer
>ouc
permeable.
U M
1,1 1 1 __ .
23 cm
Til T2 w
specimen
24 cm
TI -eg T4 "
smear zone
k'
24 cm
vertical drain
T5-L. £j~ T6"
Pore water T f /
pressure
JU. 24 cm
transducer.
impermeable
D = 45 c m
smear zone
horizontal
vertical specimen
specimen
Figure 2.10 a) Schematic section of the test equipment showing the central drain and
associated smear zone; and b) locations of small specimens obtained to determine the
consolidation and permeability characteristic (Indraratna and Redana, 1998)
Indraratna and Redana (1998) proposed that the estimated smear zone could be as
consolidometer and the location of the recovered specimen are shown in Figures 2.10(a)
and 2.10(b). Figure 2.11 shows the variation of kyjkv ratio along the radial distance
the central drain. According to Hansbo (1987) and Bergado et al. (1991), the /QA ratio
32
Chapter 2 Literature Review
was found to be close to unity in the smear zone, which agrees with the study by
Indraratna and Redana (1998). The studies of Bo et al. (2000) and Xiao (2001) indicate
that the smear zone can be 4 times of the size of the mandrel or 5-8 times the equivalent
drain diameter. The recommended smear zone parameters by different researchers have
-^ 2.00
%
c_ 1.50
s-
expected trend
1.00
_ Mean Consolidation
u Pressure:
drain Smear zone
— e — 6.5 kPa
| 0.50 16.5 kPa
32.5 kPa
64.5 kPa
_
129.5 kPa
o
No 260 kPa
5 10 15
i 20
"S
X 0.00 Radial distance, R (cm)
Figure 2.11 Ratio of ki/kv along the radial distance from the central drain (modified after
For soil with a pronounced macro fabric, the ratio of horizontal permeability to vertica
permeability (Mfcv) can be very high, whereas the kh/kv ratio becomes unity within the
disturbed (smear) zone. Vertical drains are very efficient when the clay layers contain
lot of thin horizontal sand or silt lenses (micro layers) but if they are continuous in
horizontal direction, vertical drains may not be effective because the rapid drainage o
pore water may occur irrespective of whether they are installed or not.
33
Chapter 2 Literature Review
rs: radius of smear zone, ks: smear zone permeability, and kv: vertical permeability.
Disturbance generally increases with the total cross sectional area of the mandrel so
1981) observed while studying the effect of mandrel driven drains in soft clays that
when a closed-end mandrel is driven into saturated clay there was a great deal of exces
pore water pressure due to heave and lateral displacement which caused a decrease in
the strength and coefficient of consolidation of the surrounding soil. However, this
34
— . Chapter 2 Literature Review
excess pore pressure dissipated rapidly followed by consolidation after the mandrel was
installation or before the fill was placed. Bergado et al. (1991) reported from a case
study of a Bangkok clay embankment stabilized with vertical drains that settlement was
faster where the drains were installed using a mandrel with a smaller cross sectional
area, rather than a larger one. This verifies that a smaller smear zone was developed in
the former.
matter in soil mechanics. Baligh (1985) developed a strain path method to estimate the
disturbance caused by the installation of various rigid objects into the ground. The
strain state during undrained axisymmetric penetration of closed end piles has three
deviatoric strain components, namely, __./, is. and E3. Ei is the shearing strain in a
conventional triaxial test, __._ is the strain from pressure-metre tests and E3 is the stra
from simple shear tests. The second deviatoric strain invariant, the octahedral strain,
Figure 2.12 shows the theoretical distribution of octahedral shear strain (;&_,) with rad
35
Chapter 2 Literature Review
r - * -/5ro6,
A/2
rfflZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZL.•;"/
6 ___ Q / 2 '<_/:.. Undisturbed soil
w
w/s/f//w/r.
PV drain
Mandrel
m •71wl
Figure 2.12 Approximation of the disturbed zone around the mandrel (Rixnet et al)
Part or all water ingress into drains will flow to the ground first and then exit thr
the sand mat. Since the hydraulic conductivity of sand is considerably higher than cl
it can usually be assumed there is no hydraulic resistance in the sand mat but in some
cases, depending on local materials, lower quality clayey sand may be used. In these
instances the hydraulic resistance in the sand mat may influence the rate of
consolidation of the clay sub-soil, the amount of which is a function of its hydraulic
36
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Well resistance refers to the finite permeability of the vertical drain with respect to
Head loss occurs when water flows along the drain and delays radial consolidation to a
certain extent. It should be pointed out that well resistance is controlled by the drai
discharge capacity qw, and also by the soil's permeability fa, the maximum discharge
length /-, and any geometric deficiencies (bending, kinks, etc) in the drains.
Mesri and Lo (1991) proposed the governing equation for vertical flow within the
vertical drain in terms of excess pore water pressure at the soil-drain interface. Bas
the magnitude of pore water pressure. Eventually, the well resistance factor (R) can be
expressed as follows:
„=-^V (2-19)
k I2
K l
hm
Analysis of the field performance of vertical drains in soft clay deposits indicated
that well resistance is negligible when R is greater than 5, i.e., the minimum dischar
capacity qw(mi„), of vertical drains required for negligible well resistance may be
determined from:
_... = 5k J2 (2-20)
The above relationship is illustrated in Figure 2.13 for most typical values of fa
and lm. The most typical value of qw(mi„) can range from 2 to 80 m3/year (Lin et
al.,2000). Table 2.5 summarizes the well resistance indices proposed by various
37
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Note that the proposed indices are also converted to the well resistance factor (R)
proposed by Mesri and Lo (1991). It can be seen that all these indices depend only on R,
except for the expression proposed by Aboshi and Yoshikuni (1967) and Stamatopoulos
5 10 15 20 25 30
Drain length ( m )
Laboratory and field data generally indicate that the discharge capacities of most
commercial PVDs have almost no influence on the consolidation rate of clay, especially
drains that are not too long (Indraratna et al., 1994). For values of qw greater than 1
150 m3/year (in the field) and where drains are shorter than 30 m, there should be no
claimed that for commercial PVDs, well resistance is usually negligible in most
38
Chapter 2 Literature Review
practical situations unless the drains are excessively long and geometric deficiencies
occur during installation (bending, kinks, etc). In most soft clays, well resistance c
fl \
Hansbo (1981) W= 2^- 2n—
wVwJ R
1 ku fi > ________
Stamatopoulos and Kotzias (1985) /?, =
F{n)kw V^y F(n)R
fl \
ZengandXie, 1989 _______
G = ^ -
4 kwVwj 4 R
f \
Mesri andLo, 1991 R=7r^- r
k^m
Deformation problems have occupied civil engineers for over a century but a rational,
quantitative approach has only been available since the introduction of Terzaghi's
39
Chapter 2 Literature Review
mechanics. Since then a great number of contributions have been made to improve the
du d 2u .--..
- =c v T T (2-21)
dt dz
cv=K/Ywmv (2-22)
urut
where, kv = coefficient of vertical permeability, YW ~ weight of water and mv =
In deriving the above equation (2.21), the following assumptions were adopted:
The permeability is constant throughout the layer and the process; and
40
. Chapter 2 Literature Review
limited but they can be analysed through a consolidation theory which accounts for
three-dimensional drainage and strain conditions. There are two basic approaches for
two or three-dimensional consolidation problems, the first being the direct extension of
assumes that total stress remains constant during consolidation, i.e. the internal
volumetric components of total stress are assumed to have the same time history of
behaviour as the applied volumetric stress. This pseudo-theory does not provide for a
coupling between the magnitude and the progress of settlement, it only assumes that the
The second theory was derived directly from the theory of elasticity by Biot
(1941), and is commonly known as the Biot's theory. This theory is mathematically
much more complex and provides for a coupling between magnitude and progress of
displacement i.e., at any point in the consolidating soil continuum, there is continuous
interaction between dissipating excess pore water pressure and changing total stress.
The final form of Biot's equations in terms of excess pore water pressure is as follows:
__________ V^ (2-24)
41
Chapter 2 Literature Review
f _2 A
the xi direction, G = shear modulus, V = Laplacian operator = V and s =
2
I dx /
volumetric strain.
It should be pointed out that in two and three-dimensional problems the degree of
consolidation settlement Us, is no longer equal to the average degree of pore pressure
•f
Vertical Drain
•9 i
'ed
Q -Smear Zone
o
tgi
_
—.
"Undisturbed Clay
vertical drains invariably employs the "unit cell" model as illustrated in Figure 2.14.
This is appropriate and reasonable considering that the flow of water into a single drain
is axisymmetric in nature. Theory for radial drainage consolidation has been addressed
42
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Nakanode, 1974; Hansbo, 1981,1997; Onoue, 1988a, 1988b; andZeng and Xie, 1989)
Rendulic (1936) formulated and solved the differential equation for one-dimensional
du d2u 1 du)
c
= h (2.25)
2
~d~t Kdr r dr j
Carillo (1942) showed that for radial drainage and associated one-dimensional
du d u
'*>- 1'--^
du
= Ch
+ cv^ (2.26)
8t ydr2 r dr j dz
«-._ = _______
(2.27)
u0
where, ur and uz are the excess pore water pressure due to radial flow and vertical flow
only, and wo=initial pore water pressure. By substituting the average excess pore wat
pressure into Eqn. (2.27), the average degree of consolidation of the stratum can be
obtained by combining Uz and Ur which are evaluated separately from Terzaghi's and
{l-u)={l-Uz){l-Ur) (2-28)
43
Chapter 2 Literature Review
where, U = the average degree of consolidation of the clay at time / for combined
vertical and radial flow, Uz and Ur are respectively the average degree of
consolidation at time t for vertical flow and radial flow only. It should be noted that
both Rendulic's and Carill's solutions are for ideal drains (infinite discharge capacity
Since perfect drains are impossible Barron (1948) addressed the smear and well
resistance effects that can decrease the performance of vertical drains. Barron (1948)
included the smear effect in his solutions for consolidation by vertical drains. He
presented closed form solutions for two extreme cases for radial drainage induced
consolidation which might occur in the clay layer, namely, 'free strain' and 'equal
strain' and showed that the average consolidation in both cases is almost the same. The
'free strain hypothesis' assumes that the load is uniform over a circular zone of
influence for each vertical drain, and that the differential settlements occurring over th
zone have no effect on the redistribution of stresses by arching of the fill load. The
'equal vertical strain hypothesis' on the other hand, assumes that arching occurs in the
upper layer during the consolidation process without any differential settlement in the
clay layer, which means the vertical strain is uniform in a horizontal section of the soil
The difference in the predicted pore water pressures calculated using the free strain and
equal strain assumptions are shown to be very small. Therefore, the approximate
solution based on the 'equal strain hypothesis' gives satisfactory results compared to the
The Figure 2.15 shows the schematic illustration of a soil cylinder with a central
vertical drain where rw = the radius of the drain, rs = the radius of smear zone, R = the
44
Chapter 2 Literature Review
radius of soil cylinder and / = the length of the drain installed into the soft ground. The
coefficient of permeability in the vertical and horizontal directions are kv and fa,
respectively and k'h is the coefficient permeability in the smear zone. Based on the sa
cylinder with an ideal centre vertical drain and impervious boundary except at the dra
is characterized by the Eqn. (2.25) and gave a solution of the excess pore pressure for
radial flow only, ur of Eqn. (2.25) incorporating the effect of smear is given by:
7 (r \ (' J2 J
Ur —Ur - In _ _ _ _ _ _ ) 4. *i n —s \ln(s) (2.29)
v 2
\sJ r
2R \'h \ n
f
5.0 (2.30)
where, u = u0 exp
v. yJ
in which, u0: initial excess pore pressure, and the smear factor vis given by:
n fn\ 3 S ku\ n
Kf, -s
v = F\ n,s,kh,kh In ln(s) (2.31)
2 2 4 4n2
n -s VsJ
where, n=R/rw is drain spacing ratio and s is the extent factor of the smear zone with
The average degree of consolidation Ur, in the soil body is given by:
Ur = 1 - =u- = 1-exp
Uo
'_*_T (2.32)
{ y)
(2.33)
h
~D2
45
Chapter 2 Literature Re\ iev.
Drain
S m e a r zone
Figure 2.15 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (after Hansbo, 1979)
(2.34)
ch =
"v/w
where, av is the coefficient of compressibility of the soil, and e is the void ratio.
Curves of average degree of radial consolidation versus time factor Th for various value
of n are shown in Figure 2.16. The average degree of vertical consolidation versus time
46
Chapter 2 Literature Review
-3
-. 20
K
s^OO
~s 40
t 6\ .-,
? 60 \\ \°
s_
•2 A<
*-_
._
._>
80 \d) V LItical Flow
fl . Vr.
ru\ r>«.
yuj iva.lial Flow
s\
^_ \ \
o
to
S,
100
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2
X ^
0.5
a Time Factor, Tv and Th
Figure 2.16 Average consolidation rates a) for vertical flow, b) for radial flow
with vertical drains based on the 'free strain hypothesis'. The development of the
solution is very long and therefore not included here. However, a summary of the
governing equations is given below. In this solution, only the effect of well resistance
included but the effect of smear is not taken into consideration. The consolidation of
soil cylinder with vertical drain at radius r = rw and at depth z is given by:
'O U 2 kh fdu^
+ — = 0 (2.35)
dz' Kdtj
m 8khlj
_.= « . * » (2.36)
2
it fa 71
°w
47
Chapter 2 Literature Review
smear and well resistance based on the 'equal strain' hypothesis. The general con
this solution is the same as illustrated previously in Figure 2.15. The average d
expressed as:
f
8T^
Un =l-exp (2.37)
\ VJ
in which
f / A
M = n
^l
f \
In n
\khj
ln(s)-0.75 + 2
„ -i V^
4n'
V (2.38)
h i S-l 2 , + nz(2l-z)^-\l~
+ - S+l
khn2~l
4n2
f \
p-ln ln(s)-0.75 + 7a(2l-z)-*- (2.39)
<lw
The average degree of consolidation l/-,_v of the whole layer can be obtained by
f \
fn\ 2khid2 (2.40)
p.=ln + ln(s)-0.75 +
3
\s) ykhj <lw
48
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Although the classical theory of consolidation of vertical drains (Barron, 1948) and its
later developments are all based on the validity of Darcy's law, in the consolidation
Darcy's law was observed at small hydraulic gradients. It was concluded that Darcy's
where, i0 = i,{n -l)/n, is a threshold gradient, below which no flow will take place.
exponential flow correlation which is supported by the full-scale field test at Skd-
Edeby, Sweden. The average degree of consolidation is related with time as follows:
l/n-l
f \n-l
, At u (2.42)
Ur=l- 1+ aD2 D 0
\ rwj
modulus, D is diameter of the influence zone of the drain, a is n2nJ3" J4{n -1)"+ and
49
Chapter 2 Literature Review
1 n-1 (n-1)2
P = 3n-l n(3n-l)(5n-l) 2n2(5n-l)(7n-l)
V D
n \n-i K f £) Y«-i (2.42a)
+•
2n KdsJ s \uwJ
Kh7JZ\2l - z)
njyDj DJ
+-
2qM
The average degree of consolidation Ur,av of the whole layer can be obtained by
J—f j2\
(i-i) I — Kh7d
v. n) D Dz (2.42b)
3qv
W h e n the exponent n-»l, E q n (2.42) yields the same result as Eqn. (2.37) assuming
A, = ch and Kh/Ks=kh/ks.
Even though each vertical drain is axisymmetric, finite element analyses dealing with
multi drain embankments have commonly been conducted under 'plane strain'
plane strain analysis for vertical drains, the appropriate equivalence between the plane
strain and axisymmetric analysis must be established. Figure 2.17 depicts the
conversion of an axisymmetric vertical drain into an equivalent drain wall. This can be
achieved in several ways (Hird et al. 1992, Indraratna and Redana, 1997), for example:
50
Chapter 2 Literature Review
(i) Geometric matching - the drain spacing is matched while the same
(iii) Combination of (i) and (ii), with the plane strain permeability calculated for
Drain
Smear zone
kh
__ 0
_"
» *
> * —
» * —
» *
» *
• *
b) Plane Strain
a) Axisymmetric
Figure 2.17 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition
51
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Shinsha et al. (1982) first proposed an acceptable matching criterion for converting the
based on the assumption that the required time for a 50% degree of consolidation in
kptftax^B/DjTw/Trso (2.43)
By adapting Hansbo's (1981) theory for the plane strain case Hird et al. showed that the
average degrees of consolidation U, at any depth and time in the two unit cells were
V __ 2B' (2.44)
f \ 3
(R\ (k In K
3R' In + 3
\rsJ v ks VrW
substituting B=R. In the event of significant well resistance, its effect can be matche
52
Chapter 2 Literature Review
V__ 7dO{l-as)
(2.46)
^ fu \ f J \
2S in + in
\ds ) Kks J \dwJ
where, as=t/D; t: thickness of the walls in 2-D model; D and S: the row spacing and
pile spacing of actual case respectively; a = De/D; S=D and a = 1.05 for square
Chai et al. (1995) successfully extended the analysis by Hird et al. (1992) to include
effect of well resistance and clogging. In this approach, the discharge capacity of th
drain in plane strain (qwp) for matching the average degree of horizontal consolidatio
4khV
qwp (2-47)
2
^ 17 2l i±h
3B In + ^-ln(s) +
W 12 3qy
The model developed in this study was refined using a single drain model of 5 m
long, and both elastic and elasto-plastic analyses were applied to predict its
performance. Excellent agreement was obtained between the axisymmetric and plane
strain models, especially with the varied discharge capacity qwp, as shown in Figures
53
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.18 and 2.19. There the varied discharge capacity yielded a more uniform and closer
match between the axisymmetric and plane strain methods compared to the constant
They assume that the time for two systems to achieve a 50% and 90% degree of
consolidation are the same, then the following simple expression is obtained, as sh
below:
0
___N Elasto-plastic analysis
_? 20h
0
O
| 40
o
_o 60
a
o F E M axisymmetnc
o FEM plane strain (varied qwp)
i 80 i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
_
Q 0.01 0.1 1
100 Time factor, T^
Figure 2.18 Comparison of average degree of consolidation (data from Chai et al,
1995)
54
Chapter 2 Literature Review
0
^r^_rrr^r_~J~^^_Axisymmetric
s
\ 1
-1 \ \
Plane strain \ ^
a -2 (constant q wp ) \ \ 'Plane strain
xf \ \ (varied q^)
+-»
\ \
OH \ \
_ \
Q -3 i
i
Excess pore pressure \ I
Figure 2.19 Comparison of excess pore pressure variation (datafromChai et al., 1995)
2.6.4.6 Indraratna and Redana (1997) - Rigorous Solution for Parallel Drain Wall
Indraratna and Redana (1997) converted the vertical drain system shown in Figure 2.17
They assumed that the half width of unit cell _5; the half width of drains bw
width of smear zone bs are the same as their axisymmetric radii R, r>. and rs
then the average degree of consolidation in plane strain condition given as:
r
— u -8Thp^
(2-49)
U hp = 1 = 1 — exp VP
\
Pi a+(p)k-^{ei2lz-z2) (2.50)
k"hP
55
Chapter 2 Literature Review
k,
"hp
kfjp-r- (2.51)
fn\
In + ln{s)-0.75 + 7t\2h-z2)^-
The associated geometric parameters a, /3 and the flow term 6 are given by:
2 \
2 2b,
a =3 B
,-^+A_ (2.52a)
B 3B2
P= ^s-bJ+^-{3b2w-b2s) (2.52b)
B 3B-
2kL
c
hp ( 1 _____
b (2.52c)
0 =
V B
hpii B
To verify the above model a finite element analysis was undertaken for both
axisymmetric and equivalent plane strain models. As an example, a unit drain was
considered installed to a depth of 5 m below the surface at 1.2 m spacing. The mode
parameters and soil properties were: rw=0.03 m, rm=0.05 m, fa=l x 10" m/s, kh=5 x 1
9 -10
m/s, and the corresponding equivalent plane strain permeability were khp-5.02 x 10
m/s, and /cv=2.97 x IO"9 m/s based on Eqn. (2.65). The water table was assumed to b
the surface, and rs=5rm (based on experimental result). For the elasto-plastic fini
element analysis, Modified Cam-Clay model (Roscoe and Burland, 1968) was used as
follows: X = 0.2, K = 0.04, M=1.0, ecs = 2 and Poisson's ratio v = 0.25, with a
56
Chapter 2 Literature Review
The results of both axisymmetric and plane strain analysis are plotted in Figure
2.20, where the average degree of radial consolidation Uy, (%) is plotted against the tim
factor Th for perfect drain conditions. As illustrated, the proposed plane strain analysis
agreed with the axisymmetric analysis, with the maximum deviation between the two
0
_N
20
rf
o
• _H 40
-*_
-3 Perfect drain
"o (no smear)
V} 60
d
o
u Plane strain
80
O Axisymmetric
0>
a.
Q 100
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 10
Time Factor, Tj,
Figure 2.20 Average degree of consolidation (modified after, Indraratna et al., 2000)
Figures 2.21 and 2.22 illustrate the settlements and excess pore pressure variations
over time for single drains, including smear plus well resistance, where again the
axisymmetric model agreed with the equivalent plane strain model. It is important to
Based on the above single drain analysis, Figures 2.20 - 2.22 provide sufficient
evidence to prove that the equivalent (converted) plane strain model is an excellent
substitute for the axisymmetric model. In finite element modelling, 2-D plane strain
analysis is. expected to cut down computational time considerably compared to that
57
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Figure 2.21 Comparison of the average surface settlement (Indraratna et al., 2000)
Figure 2.22 Comparison of the excess pore pressure (Indraratna et al, 2000)
A simple approximate method for modelling the effect of PVD is proposed by Chai et
al. (2001). Because PVD increases the mass permeability of subsoil in the vertical
approximately represents both the effect of vertical drainage of natural subsoil and
radial permeability towards the PVD. This equivalent vertical permeability {kve) was
58
Chapter 2 Literature Review
obtain a simple expression for kve< an approximation equation for vertical consoli
is proposed as follows:
Uv=l-exp(-CdTv) (2.53)
where, Tv =time factor for vertical consolidation; and C_/=constant (3.54), determin
from curve fitting (Figure 2.23). The equivalent vertical permeability kve can be
expressed as:
j 2u \
2.51%
kve ~ fa (2.54)
MDeK j
^ k, , / x 3 ____-__
it2Vk
M = lnl + ^ / „ ( , ) _ £+ (2.55)
\sj K * 3<1
The effects of smear and well resistance have been incorporated in the derivation of the
The primary parameters governing the rate of consolidation are the coefficient of
consolidation (cv), thereby fa, is estimated from the results of standard oedomete
by assuming an appropriate ratio of cyjcv. The parameters of the smear zone are mo
complicated to estimate and all the available theoretical and empirical solutions
59
Chapter 2 Literature Review
0 i,..,.
TT
20- \ \ ^ 0^—3.2,
c
__
+->
CO 40-
~3
o Q=3.54
c/_
c 60-
o
o 80- -L/v=l-exp(-Qfv)
-Terzaghi's IDsoIution
100-
0.0001 0,001 0.01 0.1 10
Time factor, Tv
The vertical coefficient of consolidation (cv) can be obtained from the standard
= TvH2/t (2.56)
where, Tv is the time factor for a certain degree of vertical consolidation (e.g. c o m m o n
useful values are T50=0A91 and r«.=0.848) , t is the corresponding time for Tv, and is
usually obtained by using curve fitting methods such as: Taylor's 4t method (1948) or
Cassagrande's log . method (1936). Hd is the length of the longest drainage path.
60
Chapter 2 Literature Review
The coefficient of vertical permeability (fa) of the soil can be indirectly estimated
from the results of oedometer test. The relevant relationship is given by:
where, av is the coefficient of compressibility, which is the slope of the e~ <JV curve,
i.e. av = Aej Aav , and eo is the initial void ratio of the sample.
During consolidation the void ratio and permeability may decrease significantly.
relating the coefficient of permeability and void ratio have been proposed. For clays, t
logk=logk0-{e0-e)/Ck (2.58)
where, fa and e0 are the initial values of permeability and void ratio, respectively, and
Ck is the permeability change index. Tavenas et al. (1983a) found that the Ck could be
related to the initial void ratio e0 of natural clays byQ *0.5e0. Babu et al. (1993)
k = Ce"/(l + e) (2-59)
in which the power n typically in the order of 4-5, and C is a reference permeability
61
Chapter 2 Literature Review
where, r„: permeability anisotropy, is a significant characteristic for most natural sof
clays, approximately given based on the type of soil in which the drains are installed.
Tavenas et al. (1983b) reported that for soil tested in a conventional oedometer the rk
was varies between 0.91 and 1.42 for intact natural clays and from 1.2 to 1.3 for
Matagami varved clay. Leroueil et al. (1990) found that n is generally small (^ 1.15)
for natural clays and r„=3.5-5.5 for varved clay. Through a laboratory study Bergado et
al. (1991) reported that the kp/ks varied between 1.5 and 2 with an average of 1.75, an
more significantly, rk was found to be almost unity within the smear zone. Shogaki et al
(1995) reported that the average values of rk were in the range of 1.36-1.57 for
undisturbed isotropic soil samples taken from Hokkaido to Chugoku region in Japan.
Redana, 1995), the value of n in the smear zone varies between 0.9 and 1.3 with an
average of 1.15. Hansbo (1987) argued that for extensive smearing, the horizontal
permeability coefficient in the smear zone (kh) should approach that of the vertical
permeability coefficient (fa), suggesting that the ratio rk could approach 1. The
experimental results shown in Figure 2.11 (Indraratna and Redana, 1995) seem agree
with Hansbo (1987). For applied consolidation pressures it is observed that the value o
rk varies between 1.4 and 1.9 with an average of 1.63 in the undisturbed zone.
62
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Aboshi and Monden (1963) presented a curve fitting method using log U and linear t
developed by taking 'log' on both sides of Barron's solution (Eqn. 2.38 or 2.44), and
V
' I F JD2
where, F is given by Eqn. (2.37) for the perfect drains case (i.e. F=F(n)) and by Eqn.
(2.42) when the smear effect is taken into consideration (i.e.F = v).
From the Eqn. (2.75), the coefficient of radial consolidation chcan be written as:
_ D2Fdln(l-U) (262)
Ch
~ ~T~ dt
dln 1 U
where \ ~ ) [s the slope of the graph of logarithm of the average degree of
dt
consolidation against linear consolidation time using settlement data (Figure 2.24).
Instead of settlement data, pore water pressure data can also be plotted in this method.
Note that the coefficient of consolidation calculated in the case of F=F(n) is the
coefficient of average consolidation with radial drainage, whereas F = v will yield the
63
Chapter 2 Literature Review
______ (o.
U=-Z-ro
50 100 250
— (sec/cm2) —
dc
Asaoka (1978); Magnan and Deroy (1980) developed a method to find the coefficient of
a combination of both) and the maximum settlement using the available settlement data.
into equal time intervals J/. The settlements, pl,p2, corresponding to times
in a
(ii) The settlement values pltp2, are plotted as points (A_/>A)
coordinate system with axis /?,_, and/?,. A straight line, /?,_, =/>,- is also
64
Chapter 2 Literature Review
(iii) The plotted points arefittedby a straight line whose corresponding slope is
read as/? and its intercept with the ordinate axis isy_?0. The point of
intersection with the 45° line gives the final consolidation settlement; and the
Pi
Pi-r
.,=-___/'___ (2.63)
12 At
In the case Of radial drainage, the horizontal coefficient of consolidation is given by:
D2vlnp (2.64)
c
h=-
8 At
65
Chapter 2 Literature Review
should be replaced by the drain spacing factor F(n), as expressed in Eqn. 2.37, which
gives:
D2F(n)lnj3
c
h = (2-65)
8 At
For combined radial and vertical drainage, Asaoka's equation was modified by
Magnan and Deroy such that the coefficients of consolidation are related by only one
8ch , X2 C
v InB
(2.66)
D2v 4 H' At
estimate the coefficient of consolidation for an isotropic soil. For isotropic soil the
In fi
At (2.67)
ch =
f 2
8 n^
+
D v 4H2
2
In/3
66
Chapter 2 Literature Review
By definition the constitutive model is a mathematical model that describes the physical
should therefore be able to simulate at least the prominent physical phenomenon that
has been understood for a given material in a qualitative and quantitative fashion.
assumes a linear elastic material at small stresses which is probably true for over-
consolidated clay although most soils exhibit plastic behaviour as stresses increase.
The behaviour of material can also be modelled as elastic-perfectly plastic where the
first part of the stress-strain curve remains linear-elastic until the material yields. The
models are widely used and various yield criteria can be implemented to define when
Currently, constitutive models based on plasticity theories are popular and widely used
soil engineering problems. A more sophisticated model has been introduced utilising the
critical state concept based on the theory of plasticity in soil mechanics to represent th
behaviour of clay (Schofield and Wroth, 1968). The Cam-Clay model (Roscoe et al,
1963) and Modified Cam-Clay model (Roscoe and Burland, 1968) for yielding soils
67
Chapter 2 Literature Review
based on plasticity theory has received wide acceptance due to its simple and elegant
predictions, especially for normally and lightly over consolidated clays. In these mod
the shear strength of the soil is related to the void ratio. The main variables in cri
state soil mechanics theory are the effective mean stress p , the deviator stress q, a
specific volume v (or the void ratio e). These are defined as follows:
p = °l+°2+°3 = Cr]+(J2+CT3 _u
y
3 3
1 t rV / I i\2 / t i\2
o-}-a2\ +\o-2-o-3\ +\o-3-or2 (2.69)
where, cr7, cr2,cr5 are major, intermediate and minor principle stress (effective),
In critical state theory, the virgin compression, swelling, and recompression lines
shown in Figure 2.26. The isotropic virgin compression line or isotropic normal
V = N-Aln(pj (2-7°)
2
where, N is the value of specific volume K w h e n p = 1 k N / m .
V = VK-Kln\p\ (2-7l)
68
Chapter 2 Literature Review
The X and K can be related with compression (Cc) and recompression (Cr) indexes as
follows:
Normal Consolidation
Line ( N C L )
Recompression
Line
In(p')
Figure 2.26 Isotropic normal consolidation line plot in critical state theory
The straight line in the q-p'plot is called Critical State Line (CSL) as shown in Figure
q=M p (2.73)
In the V-lnp 'plot the critical state line can be expressed as:
V = r-Xln(p (2.74)
69
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Combining the C S L E q n . (2.87) into the M o h r circle plot, the relationship between
6 sin 0 (2-75)
M =
3 - sin <f>
T h e initial specific v o l u m e can be estimated at any given depth below the ground level
once/?', q and p'c are known, and the V-lnp'plot is shown in Figure 2.28.
The intersection between the swelling line and the CSL is assumed to be at point
A given by coordinates VA and pA. Point P represents the intersection between the initial
specific volume F and the effective mean normal stressp'. Then the following relation
may be established:
(2.76)
VA=r-Xln\pA
70
Chapter 2 Literature Review
PA P PC In(p')
Along the swelling line (K -line) passing through the initial stress state at point P, the
Note that r = N-(X-tc)ln2 for Modified Cam-Clay and r = N-(X-K) for Cam-
Clay.
71
Chapter 2 Literature Review
The introduction of isotropic hardening plasticity into soil mechanics led to the fam
of soil models of strain hardening cap type developed at Cambridge University. The tw
of those models are widely used known as Cam Clay and Modified Cam Clay Model.
One of the key assumptions of Cambridge theory is that the flow rule follows the
A second key assumption (flow rule), arises from a consideration of the work dissipate
during shear. Thurairajah described the energy dissipation term during plastic
deformation as:
This led Roscoe, Schofield, and Thurairajah to complete the energy balance equation
dep.
72
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Using the Eqns. (2.93) and (2.96), Cam-Clay yield locus (Figure 2.29a) can be obtained
as:
q = Mp In^pjpj (2.83)
Substituting Eqn. (2.87) into the above equation p'A can be found asp'A =p'c/2.718
V =r + X-k-(X-k)ln(p'c]-Kln(p (2-84)
By eliminating pc between Eqns. (2.97) and (2.98), the Stable State Boundary Surface
Mp
r + X-k-V-Xln\p (2.85a)
{X-K)
vA=r+(x-kli-Tj/M) (2.85b)
(a) (b)
73
Chapter 2 Literature Review
It was found that the Cam-clay model was deficient in some aspects of modelling the
stress-strain behaviour of soil, namely the shape of the yield locus at increased p
the predicted value of Ko (the coefficient of earth pressure at rest). Therefore Mod
Cam-Clay was introduced to address those set backs (Burland, 1965; Roscoe and
Burland, 1968). The obvious difference between Modified Cam-Clay and Cam-Clay
model is the shape of the yield locus, where the yield locus of Modified Cam-Clay i
elliptical as shown in Fig. 2. 29b. The flow rule for Modified Cam Clay is given by
dsP M2-TJ1
(2.86)
p 2rj
de .
r t
q2+M2p2=M2ppc (2.88)
74
Chapter 2 Literature Review
k (X-K)
where, Cu =—7 + (2.90a)
op up M2 + TJ2
C
_{X-KY 2TJ
12 ~ C21 ~ (2.90b)
up A T2 +7?
, „2
( A 2 \
C 22 _ 1 , (*-*)4TJ (2.90c)
3G up M4-q4
(
4KA ,2 >
de? = 4
drj (2.91)
v M -TJ4
K
where, A = 1 :plastic volumetric strain ratio.
X
site with vertical drains can be accurately analysed using sophisticated finite ele
element analysis of lateral deformation has been relatively poor compared to settle
(Indraratna et al., 1994). The recent finite element models applied to vertical drai
described below.
75
Chapter 2 Literature Review
vertical drains at Muar clay, Malaysia, using the finite element code CRISP (Britto and
Gunn, 1987). The effectiveness of the prefabricated drains was evaluated according to
A plane strain analysis was applied to a single drain and to the whole PVD
single drain analysis over-predicts the measured settlement, even though the smear
effect was included. In the case of multi-drain analysis underneath the embankment, the
over-prediction of settlement is more significant than single drain analysis and therefo
it was necessary to consider the dissipation of the excess pore pressure at the drain
the embankment, as shown in Figure 2.30 where 100% represents zero dissipation when
the drains are fully loaded. Accordingly, at the end of the first stage of consolidation
(ie., 2.5 m of fill after 105 days), the un-dissipated pore pressures decrease from 100%
to 16%. For the second stage of loading the corresponding magnitude decreases from
100% to 18% after 284 days during which the embankment has already attained its
maximum height of 4.74 m. It can be deduced from Figure 2.30 that perfect drain
conditions are approached only after 400 days. Although the general trends between the
finite element results and field data agree during the initial stages, the marked
discrepancy beyond 100 days is too large to be attributed solely to the plane strain
76
Chapter 2 Literature Review
assumption. These excess pore-pressures reflect retarded efficiency in the vertical drains
(partial clogging). A better prediction was obtained for settlement, pore pressure, and
lateral deformation when 'non-zero' excess pore pressures at the drain interface were
put into the finite element model simulating 'partially clogged' conditions.
100;
together with geogrid and vertical band drains, and sand compaction piles constructed
on Muar clay in Malaysia. The settlement and lateral displacement of the soft clay
foundation were analysed using plane strain finite element formulation and the findings
The analysis employed critical state soil mechanics, and the deformations were
predicted on the basis of the fully coupled (Biot) consolidation model incorporated in
77
Chapter 2 Literature Review
the finite element code CRISP (Britto and Gunn, 1987). In the analysis, the soil
underneath the embankment was discretised using linear strain quadrilateral (LSQ)
elements. The vertical drains were modelled as ideal and non-ideal, where the well
resistance factor was ignored in the former. This study shows that an accurate
prediction of lateral displacement depends on correctly assessing the value of the Cam-
clay parameters, the shear resistance at the embankment-foundation interface, and the
nature of assumptions made in the modelling of drains and sand piles. The actual soil
properties are influenced by the working stress range and the assumed stress path of th
sub-soil at a given depth. The normally consolidated parameters associated with the
The normalized deformation factors for a few trial embankments are compared in
Table 2.6. The ratio of maximum lateral displacement to fill height{fi,), the ratio of
maximum settlement to fill height {j32), and the ratio of maximum lateral displacement
at the toe to the maximum settlement at centre line (a), are used as normalised
stabilized foundations are characterized by considerably smaller values for a and Pi,
which elucidates their obvious implications on stability. The normalized settlement (P2)
on its own is not a proper indicator of instability but is still a useful stability indi
when taken in conjunction with a and Pi. For example the foundation having SCP gives
the lowest values of Pi and P2, clearly suggests the benefits of sand compaction piles
78
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Table 2.6 Normalized deformation factors (modified after Indrarataa et al. 1997)
Sand compaction piles for pile/soil stiffness ratio of 5 0.185 0.018 0.097
(/z=9.8 m , including l m sand layer)
2.10 Summary
In this Chapter, literature on consolidation analysis, constitutive models for soft soil
and related merits and demerits have been described. A brief summary of this critical
1. Vertical drains have been widely used to accelerate primary consolidation of soft
parameters inside and outside the smear zone and therefore appropriate laboratory
2. The soil adjacent to the drain mandrel is disturbed and the fabric of the soil is
effect), the compressibility increases and the permeability decreases in the soil
79
Chapter 2 Literature Review
within the smear zone. The combined effect of changes in both the
compressibility and the permeability within the smear zone results in a decrease in
3. The soil in the smear zone behaves so differently from the undisturbed soil,
the extent of smear zone and its permeability. However, these are often difficult to
standard method for measuring them. In the past, for example, Indraratna and
Redana (1998), Sharma and Xiao (2000) have conducted laboratory tests to
evaluate the smear zone parameters. Indraratna and Redana (1998) proposed that
the estimated smear zone could be as large as 4-5 times the equivalent drain radius
and that the horizontal to vertical permeability ratio is close to unity in the smear
zone. Sharma and Xiao (2000) proposed that the radius of the smear zone is about
four times the equivalent mandrel radius, and the horizontal permeability of the
clay layer in the smear zone is approximately 1.3 times smaller than that in the
undisturbed zone. This laboratory results indicate that the extent of smear zone
and its permeability depends on many factors, such as, type of soil, method of
axisymmetric consolidation (e.g. unit cell). For large construction sites where
many PVDs are installed, 2D plane strain analysis is most convenient given its
conversions provide good agreement with measured data and these simplified
80
Chapter 2 Literature Review
plane strain methods are now widely and successfully used in finite element
analysis.
promotes radial consolidation while controlling the soil's lateral yield compared
6. Laboratory and field evidence tends to indicate that the capacity of most
consolidation of clay.
81
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
3.1.1 General
Cavity expansion analysis has attracted the attention of many researchers because it has
earlier works, albeit they were primarily concerned with metals (Bishop, Hill and Mott,
1944) because they provide a theoretical groundwork and guidelines for deriving
solutions. In the field of geotechnics some of the areas related to cavity expansion are
pile driving (Carter et al., 1978), tunneling (Atkinson and Potts, 1977), and soil testing
(Ladayi, 1963). In this study, an attempt is made to estimate the extent of the
disturbance zone (smear zone) using the Cylindrical Cavity Expansion theory
incorporating the Modify Cam Clay model (this model has been widely adopted for
histories).
When a mandrel is driven into the ground it displaces soil equal to its volume.
With small penetrations up to about ten times the radius of the mandrel, some ground
surface heave occurs but at greater depths, soil is predominantly displaced outwards in a
radial direction. This has led to the installation process being modelled as the expansio
of a cylindrical cavity with a final radius equal to the mandrel. In reality, the mandrel
band shaped hence the equivalent mandrel radius is evaluated by comparing the
perimeter between the assumed circular cross-section and the true rectangular shape.
82
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
Figure 3.1 shows a cavity with an initial radius ao and an initial internal pressure<J0.
Compressive stresses and strains are taken as positive. The cavity expands to a radius of
distance ro from the centre of the cavity moves to a new radial position r from the
centre, resulting in a displacement % = r-r0. The soil on the cavity wall will yield
when the pressure is sufficiently large while further increases in pressure will lead to
plastic zone forming around the cavity. The radial distance of the plastic zone around
the cavity is denoted by rp while the soil beyond this would remain in a state of elastic
equilibrium.
»• r
Elastic zone
an assumption that the soil obeys Hooke's elasticity law until yielding commences. The
83
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
both elastic and plastic region) for the case of a cylindrical cavity is:
^ + &-£el =0 (3.1)
dr r
where, o~r and cr0 are radial stress and circumferential stress respectively. These
stresses can be written in terms of mean stress (p) and deviator stress (q) as follo
o~e = p — j = q (3.2b)
B y Hooke's law the radial strain (_?,.) and circumferential strain (se) can be related to
= —[v/-v,)°V-i/cr0_
dr 2G
(3.3a)
K 1
r 2G
Substituting Eqn. (3.3a) into (3.3b), the following equation can be obtained:
84
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
(7_v)_^_._v_^_ (3.4)
crr-are =r
dr dr
The Eqns. (3.1) and (3.4) can be solved for stresses and displacement by using the
boundary conditions, i.e. <jr = arp at r=rp and ar = a0 when r -> oo as:
ar =CT0+{crrp-cr0){rp/rf
(3.5a)
cre =o-0-(arp-o-0)(rp/rf
(crr+cre)
(3.5c)
P= 2 = ~0=A)
du = -/c\dp j p \ = 0 (3.6)
This implies that the mean effective stress ( p ) is constant in the elastic zone since the
(3.5c) indicates that the mean total stress p is constant. Consequently, excess pore
85
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
After initial yielding at the cavity wall a zone of soil extending a radial distance rp will
become plastic as cavity pressure continues to increase. For soil obeying the MCC
rj = M\{P'CIP)-- (3.7)
From the elastic analysis, the m e a n effective stress at the elastic-plastic boundary is
equal to (p0), so the stress ratio {TJ) at this boundary can be found as:
f \
o
7z f=M4R~ : : I (3.8)
yp )r=. Po
on yield locus (pc0 ) and the in situ mean effective stress (p0). There is a small
deviation between the R and the conventional overconsolidation ratio (OCR). The R can
be related with OCR and the slope of critical state line-Af as follows (detailed
86
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
The Eqns. (3.2a) and (3.2b) can be rewritten in terms of elastic-plastic boundary stresses
as:
1
a
rp-Po+-j=ap (3.9a)
1
C7 (
0p=Po-^ lp (3.9b)
known as volumetric strain sv and shear strain^, for an undrained cylindrical cavity
sv = sr + se = 0 (3.10a)
£s=
Jj(£r~£0) (3 10b)
-
volume gives the following relationship between r, the current radius of a material
element which was initially at r# and current and initial radii of the cavity a and ao,
respectively.
r2-r02=a2-a20 (3.11)
This leads to the radial speed of the soil element (a>) in terms of the rate of cavity
(da\
expansion — as:
{dt)
87
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
_ dr _(a\da
(3.12)
dt \r)dt
So the radial, circumferential, and shear strain rate can be expressed as follows:
der dco a da
2
dt dr r dt
(3.13a)
dsQ CD a da
2
dt r r dt
de, 1 i \ 2a da
s (3.13b)
and —
dt- = J3—r=[e -e
r e )- 43r2 dt
The later equation can be written in terms of the initial position of the particle r0 as:
de 2a da (3.14)
2 2
dt 43~[a +rg -a 0)dt
Since r0 isfixedfor a given particle the Eqn. (3.14) can be integrated to give the finite
4s V
des =—dq
3G
+
4KA
v
__1__Jdrj (3.15b)
M4-rj4
88
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
Substituting, Eqns. (3.15a) into (3.15b) and integrating them with the boundary
condition (Eqn. 3.8), a relationship between the stress ratio and radial distance from
[a2-alj] 2(l + v) K rr KA , x
In 1-i ^ = - T7T77—TI -ri-Ul—f(M, rj,R) (3.16)
vM
rl j 3V3(l-2v) v
In the plastic zone the total volumetric strain consists of two components: the elast
and plastic volumetric strains. Under the undrained condition, the sum of the elastic
dp dpc (3.17)
up upc
1 ,
f 'v
r 1 'V7+; (3.18)
Pc = PcO Rp
PoJ KPo)
R (3.19)
P =Po
\+ {TJIM)2
89
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
Eqns. (3.16) and (3.19) are closed form solutions for effective stresses in the plastic
zone. The effective stress can be evaluated from Eqn. (3.19) for a given stress ratio,
therefore the deviator stress and location can be found from Eqn. (3.16).
Total stress in the plastic zone can be determined from Eqn. (3.1) but, it is impossible
integrate to give a closed form solution because Eqns. (3.16) and (3.19) cannot be
problem (author used an Excel spreadsheet formulations). The solutions for total
stresses are:
P
2 rq
*,.-*,.„ \ , \^dr (3-20a)
* 43 r<r
A series representation of (q/rfr) is determined from Eqns. (3.16) and (3.19). Then the
variation of total stresses with radial distance can be obtained from the above equatio
u = p-p <«»
90
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
The author suggest that the extent of the smear zone as the region in which the pore
water pressure is greater than the initial overburden stress (total) based on a qualitativ
assumption that the soil is severely disturbed and thus the anisotropy with respect to its
(ii) Determine the stress ratio TJ at the elastic-plastic boundary using Eqn. (3.8);
(iii) Determine the radius of plastic zone rp, by substituting q = rjpm Eqn. (3.16);
(iv) Tabulate the TJ value between rjp and M (take sufficient number of points);
(v) Corresponding to the tabulated TJ effective mean stress, deviator stress and radius
(vi) Using the above tabulated values and numerical integration techniques (eg. Excel
spread sheet), pore water pressure variation with radial distance can be estimated;
and
(vii) The extent of smear zone can be determined using the graphical techniques.
Calculation of smear zone for a typical soil is given in Table 3.1 (the input parameter
are bolded). The normalized pore pressure variation with radial distance is plotted in
Figure 3.2, which shows that the extent of the smear zone is about 2.77205 times the
mandrel radius.
91
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
92
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
93
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
0 2 ~ 6 ~
rlrm
94
• . Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
3.2.1 General
The first conventional procedure for radial consolidation by vertical drains with
surcharge loading was proposed by Baron (1948). This was modified later by various
researchers including Yoshikuni and Nakanodo (1974), and Hansbo (1981), to include
the effect of smear and well resistance (reviewed in previous Chapter). Although
consolidation around vertical drains is axisymmetric, most finite element analyses are
based on the plane strain assumption. Therefore the equivalence between plane strain
and axisymmetric analysis needs to be established to use a realistic 2-D finite element
analysis for vertical drains. Hird et al. (1992) introduced an equivalent plane strain
strain finite element analysis has become popular, Indraratna and Redana (1997) further
modified Hird et al. (1992) solutions to include the effect of both smear and well
resistance.
the application of vacuum pressure with surcharge load along the surface based on 1-D
the same as conventional surcharge. In earlier studies vacuum preloading was often
condition. Figure 3.3 shows consolidation by the conventional method and vacuum-
greater than the conventional method because the lateral hydraulic gradient increases.
The application of vacuum with PVDs requires modification of existing theories. In this
95
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
vertical drains using Hansbo's (1981) and Indraratna and Redana's (1997) approach is
introduced under axisymmetric and equivalent plane strain conditions. The effect of
various factors such as drain spacing, well resistance and smear effect are also
examined.
a Time Time
O
o Q.
CL CO
CO CO
CO
-100 0 -100
0 O
u X
X LU
LU
00 TO
Q_
100 0. 100
CO
__:
CO
CO
0 co
c_
CD 0
> >
Time Time
o _
_ 0
_ TO
TO o -100
o -100 __
_ 0
> > (b)
(a)
Figure 3.3 Consolidation process (a) conventional loading (b) vacuum preloading
96
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
vacuum pressure at several points along the drain which indicated that the vacuum
to the uniformly applied surface suction. In reality, the rate of vacuum development
within the drain may depend on the length and type of PVD (core and filter properties)
even though some field studies suggest it develops rapidly even if the PVD are long (Bo
et al., 2003). Given these factors the assumption of an immediate vacuum development
(rather than gradual) is used as boundary condition. Since the drain spacing is relativel
small, it is realistic to assume constant vacuum distribution across the soil and that
decreases linearly along the drain, i.e., the vacuum varies along the drain length (/) fr
Figure 3.4 shows the schematic illustration of a soil cylinder with a central vertical dr
where _v=the radius of the drain, rs= the radius of smear zone, R =the radius of soil
cylinder and /= the length of the drain installed into soft ground. The coefficient of
permeability in the vertical and horizontal directions is fa and fa, respectively, and kh
the coefficient permeability in the smear zone. The axisymmetric analysis described by
Darcy's linear law, the radial velocities of water in the undisturbed zone (v_) and smear
zone (vr) are given by Eqns. (3.22) and (3.23), respectively, as follows:
kh (du\
vr =• (3.22)
\drj
r
97
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
du
dr (3.23)
rw V J
is m e
where, YW unit weight of water and u and u are excess pore water pressure in
Drain
Smear zone
Figure 3.4 Schematic of soil cylinder with vertical drain (adapted from Hansbo, 1979)
It is postulated that the flow of pore water through the boundary of the cylinder
with radius r is equal to the change in volume of the hollow cylinder with outer ra
2xvr=4R2-r2)— (3.24)
r v
'dt
98
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
where, e is vertical strain in the (z) direction. Substituting Eqn. (3.22) into Eqn. (3.24),
and subsequent rearranging gives the following equation for pore pressure gradient in
2
du Yy (R de_
r dt (3.25)
dr 2fa
Similarly, in the smeared zone(r w < r < rs), the corresponding pore pressure gradient is
given by:
du _ Yv fR2 ^ de_
(3.26)
dr 2fa dt
J
drain with radius rw, the total change in flow from the entrance face to the exit face
k (*2\
7tr2u
dQi = w ay dzdt for r < r„ (3.27)
rw Kdz
The horizontal inflow of water into the slice from the surrounding area is given by:
f '\
wk du
dQ2 J - dzdt for r = r„ (3.28)
dr
rV. V J
dQ}+dQ2=0 (3.29)
99
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
It is assumed that at the boundary of the drain (r=rw) there is no sudden drop in pore
pressure so u = u . Substituting Eqns. (3.27) and (3.28) in Eqn. (3.29) and rearr
f >\
7 f i\
2 du
du + __________ =0 (3.30)
rw KW dr
f 7 >
d 2u = _z^(^_7) (3.31)
dz2 kw dt
r=ru,
Integration of Eqn. (3.31) in the z direction is carried out subject to the foll
boundary conditions:
Y^dji 2 {n -l)[t- 2
r r A_, dt
+ uvac /-C-c)f (3.32)
~w ""W
Integrating Eqn. (3.26) in the r direction using the above boundary condition (Eqn.
100
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
U =-
7w Se
g> Inr -?''r- + k> [n> -l\2lz-z
- 2
)
r
2khdt w 2 kw
(3.33)
^~Uvac 1-(i-c)z-
*• _
Integrating Eqn. (3.25) in the r direction with the boundary condition as ur=r
J
= ur=r
's
2 _ 2\
l
r r2-r2 +k/ r
R ln R2lns. jL-JjL
2 k
Yw de V J
u = + u vac /-(7-c)i (3.34)
2kh dt
+ ^(n2-l\2lz-z2)
Let u be average excess pore water pressure for the whole unit cell at a given time .,
then:
Substituting Eqns. (3.33) and (3.34) for u and u into Eqn. (3.35) and rearranging, the
where,
101
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
n m ^_k m ( s )_l + 2
L
p = -j
n -\ s fa 4 n -\ An2
(3.36a)
fa 1 f SJ 2 2fanl1( \_
+- -4-s +\ '2
v*m An2
3
?V v nJ
Or in a simplified form:
. n kh , / \ 3 IfaTlV (3.36b)
P ln — + -~ln\s)— +
s
fa 4
2<lw
de _ du kh du (3.37)
v
dt dt chYw dt
coefficient of consolidation.
Substituting Eqn. (3.37) into Eqn. (3.36) and integrating subject to the boundary
f - \ 8T^
U Uvac , Uvac (3.38)
+ exp
u
sur u
sur \ u
sur J K PJ
where, usur is the applied surcharge pressure and uvac = uvac (l + c)j2 is the average
102
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
where, ut and u / are the initial and final excess pore water pressure respectively, and,
2khKV
(a) // = + (with both smear and well resistance)
s
h 4 2<]w
/ 3
(b) p = ln—+-7- /«(_.) — (smear effect only)
s 4
fa
2/Cft.rr
(c) // = Inn -0.75 + (well resistance only)
3^w
In the above expressions, qw is the drain discharge capacity at the unit hydraulic
gradient.
In the absence of vacuum pressure (i.e. surcharge pressure only), the Eqn. (3.39) is t
same as the Eqn. (2.49), which was developed by Hansbo (1981) and is rewritten below:
8T,^ (3.40)
u \ p
In the absence of surcharge pressure (i.e. vacuum pressure only, usur-Q), the Eqn. (3.39)
leads to:
— Uj-U u 1 (3.41)
Uh = - — = — = = — = 1-exp
P J
Ui -Uf Uvac
103
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
The following parameters are used in this analysis: w-10, s=2, fa/fa=3, uvac= -50 kPa,
usur=25 kPa and three different values of c (1, 0.5, 0). The excess pore water pressure
distribution (Figure 3.5) shows that with the increase of vacuum propagation factor (c),
the rate of pore water pressure dissipation is accelerated. Note that the average excess
pore pressure equals to the applied surcharge pressure at time t=0 and to the applied
20 -
^*s_* v "•
-3 "^\ Surcharge only
__ -
\\ s
_ 0 ^ N
\ \
\ — — — _
— .-
- \ \ \
_ /Sss_. v
\ \
Vacuum pressure only / \
-
& -20
t/2 Both vacuum+surcharge \ A \ ~ _^_^
§3
- \ \^v
g \ \v ^
CD \ \ >. v
i — 1
fc -40
—
> c=0.5
< c=0
' • i i i i i i 1 i
-60 i i i i i i i 1 1 i i . i . i 1 1 1
Figure 3.5 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different v a c u u m
pressure distribution
104
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
The following parameters are used in this analysis: 5=2, fa/fa=3, uvac= -50 kPa, c=
usur=25 kPa and three different values of n (5, 10, 20). The excess pore water pres
distribution for different drain spacing ratio is shown in Figure 3.6. This clearly
that with the increase of drain spacing, the rate of pore water pressure dissipatio
retarded, because when the drain spacing is large the influence of drain is less.
40
spacing ration n=5
spacing ration n=l0
e_ spacing ration w=20
5a 2 0 -
<-
CM
CM
_
_
— o-
CS
s-
o
a
3 "20
_
u
X
a
o
%
§ -40
<
-60 i i i 1 1 1 | — 1 1—II Mil) i—i—i i i i in - i — i — i i i 111
Figure 3.6 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different drain spacing
105
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
Figure 3.7 presents the variation of excess pore pressure distribution with different
smear zone parameters. For this comparison the following parameters are used: «=20,
uVac= -50 kPa, c=1.0, usur=25 kPa and three combinations of smear zone parameters
(5=2, fa/fa=3); (5=2, falfa=5) and (5=4, falfa=5). The distribution for a perfect drain is
also plotted in the same figure for comparison and as expected, the rate of pore pressure
1 1—[MM
Figure 3.7 Average excess pore water pressure distribution with different smear zone
parameters
106
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
By combining Eqns. (3.33), (3.36) and (3.38), the excess pore water pressure (at any
point within the smear zone) with time can be found as:
_\usur-uVgc)kh ( 8Ti ^ 2 2
u = •yexp 2
R ln^- r -*L+*L(n2-lhz-z2)
R2p K P J w 2 fa„X A
'
(3.42)
+u
vac i-d-«)f
By combining Eqns. (3.34), (3.36) and (3.38), the excess pore water pressure (at any
point outside the smear zone) with time can be found as:
.2 ,.2 2 2^
2
R2lnL-Cz!L+hL\B ins--> r, -r,
2
u
Wsur -~ vac) 8TU
exp
R2p V P
*L(n2-ll21z-z2) (3.43)
+
+ u. i-if-c^
Differentiating Eqn. (3.42) in the r direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (i )
with time at any point within the smear zone can be found as:
Differentiating Eqn. (3.43) in the r direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/)
with time at any point outside the smear zone can be found as:
107
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
—*• 1
m X
' • ' : .
: ••) .
ui utn
K
B
include the application of vacuum pressure as follows. Considering Darcy's linear law
the horizontal velocity of water in the undisturbed zone (vx) and smear zone (vx) is
k
hP (du)
V
x = (3.46)
dx \vxj
rw
c
hp du
vv (3.47)
dx
rw V J
108
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
where, khp and khp are the coefficient of horizontal permeability in a plane strain
water; u and u are excess pore water pressure in the undisturbed and smear zone at
Consider a horizontal slice of thickness dz of the unit cell (Figure 3.8). For the
plane strain model it is postulated that the flow in the slice at a distance x from
centreline of the drain is equal to the change in volume within a block of soil of w
vx=^(B-x) (3.48)
dt
where, e is the strain in the vertical (z) direction. Substituting Eqn. (3.46) into Eqn.
(3.48) and rearranging gives the following equation for the pore pressure gradient i
?l=hL^(B-x) (3-49)
dx khp dt
Similarly, in the smeared zone (bw < x < bs) the corresponding pore pressure gradient
is given by:
For vertical flow in the z direction of the drain, the change of flow from the entra
109
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
d u
dqz =• dzdt for x < b „ (3.51)
r> ydz2 ,
The horizontal inflow of water into the slice from the surrounding area is given by:
f <\
^hp du
dqs dzdt for x = bMl (3.52)
dr
rw V J
It is assumed that at the drain boundary (x=bw) there is no sudden drop in pore pressure
so u =u . Substituting Eqns. (3.51) and (3.52) into Eqn. (3.53) and rearranging wit
d 2u
Kdz
2 _____ £(__..) (3.55)
qz dt
Integrating Eqn. (3.31) in the z direction, subject to the following boundary conditions
u =uvac at z = 0 ; a n d ^ - = - ^ ( l - c ) a t z = / (3.55a)
dz- I
110
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
2(B-bw)Ywde
U
qz dt V 2
)
+ «,.
M^)f (3.56)
Integrating Eqn. (3.50) in the x direction using the above boundary condition (Eqn.
+ uvac
M/-)f
integrating Eqn. (3.49) in the x direction with the boundary condition as ux=bs =ux=bs
2{B-bw)khp
c(2B-x) + (21Z-Z2)
a
d£ z
rw + uvac l-{l-c)-\ (3.58)
u = 2k dt
hp
^{bs-bw\2B-bs-bw)-bs(2B-bs)
k
hP
Let u be the average excess pore water pressure for the whole unit cell at a given time .,
then:
lb, f IB
u(B-bw)l= J Jw dxdz+ ^judxdz (3.59)
OK
Substituting Eqns. (3.57) and (3.58) for u and u into Eqn. (3.59) and rearranging, the
where,
£ a+p-^+e (3.60a)
hP
In the above equation the geometric parameters a ,p and 0 are given by:
2 (n- sf
a =
3 n2(n-l)
4khp
0=
3Bq.
M V
I n)
B R b r 2 ( 1^
where, n = — =— , s =— = — , and note that a + p = - 1 —
h r h r 3\ nJ
Eqn. (3.60) may now be combined with the time-dependent compressibility governed
de _ du __ khp du (3.61)
v
dt dt chpYw dt
where, chp is the horizontal coefficient of consolidation under plane strain condition.
Substituting Eqn. (3.61) into Eqn. (3.60), and then integrating subject
8T,
hp (3.62)
•+ 1- exp
u
sur u
sur U sur J
112
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
This yields the average degree of consolidation Uhp of the whole layer as:
U j U U r.j.y. U
UhP = = sur = 1 - exp (3.63)
Uj Uf Usur —Uvac pp,
In the absence of vacuum pressure (i.e. surcharge pressure only), the Eqn. (3.63) yields
U hp = 1— u = 1-exp (3.64)
u pp,
In the absence of surcharge pressure (i.e. vacuum pressure only, usur=0), the Eqn. (3.63)
leads to:
Ui —u u (3.65)
UhP = = = — = 1 - exp
Ui -Uf Uvac
By combining Eqns. (3.57), (3.60) and (3.62), the excess pore water pressure with time
x(2B-x)-bw{2B-bw)
\usur~Uvac) ___£_
' _8T^
u f exp
B2M, c
hp PP. + **-**)** fas) (3.66)
+ uvac i-(i-cy
B y combining Eqns. (3.58), (3.60) and (3.62), the excess pore water pressure with time
113
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
2{B K)h
x(2B-x) + - '{2lz-z2)
\Usur~Uvac)
u=
B
exp
Pl PP ;
+ • ^(bs-bw\2B-bs-bw)-bs{2B-bs) (3.67)
c
hp
+uvac i-d-cY-,
Differentiating Eqn. (3.66) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (i )
with time at any point within the smear zone can be found as:
Differentiating Eqn. (3.67) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/')
with time at any point outside the smear zone can be found by:
For a perfect drain (neglecting both smear and well resistance) the average exc
pressure variation in axisymmetric (Eqn. 3.38) and plane strain (Eqn. 3.62) unit cell can
be rewritten as follows:
114
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
For axisymmetric,
8T^
U = U vac + \Usur - U vac jexp (3.70)
V PJ
For plane strain,
' SThp^
U=Uvac + \Usur - U vac )exp (3.71)
pP J
2
where, p = Inn-0.7 5 and Pp = —
nj
Assuming the same value for the axisymmetric and plane strain case, say «=10, fa~fap,
usur = 25, and uvac = -50kPa, the average excess pore pressure distribution is plotted in
Figure 3.9. It can be seen that the pore pressure dissipation rate is higher in the plane
strain cell. This is attributed to using the same parameters and therefore it is important
to use the proper matching procedure when conducting plane strain analysis instead of a
40
03
-Equal to applied surcharge
_
_ 20
CO
CO
\
cu
_ \
cu
c_
O
DH
CO -20 Equal to applied average
02
u Axisymmetry vacuum pressure
o
X Plane strain
u •40
CD
00
c_
__ -60 11 ,i i i i ' 1 1 1 1 1 • i i ' i i
115
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
In practice, the clay foundation will usually have a large number of vertical drains
beneath an embankment. In such cases, finite element modelling using the plane strain
model is the common approach where it is pertinent to convert the vertical drains
system into an equivalent drain wall. The equivalent plane strain theory can convert a
row of individual drains to a continuous drain wall based on geometry and permeability
into an equivalent drain wall. This can be achieved in several ways (Hird et al. 1992,
(i) Geometric matching - the drain spacing is matched while the same
(iii) Combination of (i) and (ii), with the plane strain permeability calculated for a
convergence time and the required computer memory, while still giving the correct
time-settlement response. Various researchers have described these advantages for field
studies where a large number of drains are used and for which a true 3D analysis may
be cumbersome and impractical (e.g. Hird et al., 1992, Chai et al., 1995, Indraratna et
al., 1997).
In the method proposed here, the vertical drain system is converted into
equivalent parallel drain walls by adjusting the coefficient of soil permeability while
keeping the half width of unit cell B, the half width of drains bw, and the half width o
116
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
smear zone bs of plane strain cell are the same as their axisymmetric radii R, rw and
respectively.
Drain
Smear zone
\
du
0
3z
». «
» «
• «
• *
• «
• «
• «
Figure 3.10 Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into plane strain condition (adapted
At each time step and at a given stress level the average degree of consolidation for both
axisymmetric (Uh) and equivalent plane strain (Uhp) conditions are m a d e equal, hence:
Uh=Uhp (3.72)
B y substituting Eqns. (3.41) and (3.63) into the above equation, the following equation
can be obtained:
•117
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
*hp _ ^hp Pp
T (3.73)
h h P
B y substituting Eqns. (3.36b) and (3.60a) into the above equation, the following
a+p-^+e
khp
^hp ~ (3.74)
, n kh , / \ 3 2kh7rV
ln- + -fln[s)— + — s —
5 4
fa 3qw
By ignoring the both smear and well resistance in Eqn. (3.74), the equivalent plane
2
3V nj
hp -^h (3.74a)
N n)-0.75
By ignoring the well resistance in Eqn. (3.74), the influence of the smear effect can be
isolated and the equivalent plane strain permeability in the smear zone written as:
Pk.hp
khp -' (3.74b)
l
f \
hp
In + ln(s)-0.75 -a
\kh)
Well resistance is derived independently and yields an equivalent plane strain discharge
*<=*«» (3.74c)
118
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
In this study Eqns. (3.74a)-(3.74c) are incorporated into the numerical analysis
(employing PLAXIS and ABAQUS) to compare laboratory data and study selected case
ratio (n), smear ratio (s) and the permeability ratio of axisymmetric cell \khjkh are
40 60 100
Spacing ratio, n
plane strain cell to that of the axisymmetric cell (khp/kh) is shown in Figure 3.11 as a
function of n. When the spacing ratio (n) increases the value of (khp/kh) sharply
119
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
0.5-
S m e a r ratio, s = 3
0.4- V„'*=3
_g-0.3H
•J*
0.2-
0.1-
n | i | r - i | i | i | i | r -
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Spacing ratio, n Spacing ratio, n
S m e a r ratio, .v=5
v„;,3
Wh=4
1 1 1 1 | r °i—•—i ' i •
' r r
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Spacing ratio, n Spacing ratio, n
Figure 3.12 Ratio between smear zone permeability to undisturbed zone permeability of
The ratio of coefficients of permeability of the smear zone to the undisturbed zone
of the equivalent plane strain cell is shown in Figure 3.12 as a function of n, s, and
kh/kh . When the spacing ratio (n) increases the value of khp/khp increases and attains
a m a x i m u m (w 0.45) at about «=10, and then decrease at a diminishing rate. Since, the
effect of smear will play a major role at small n, the khp/khp value increases up to a
certain extent and then decreases due to the insignificant effect of smear (at large n).
120
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
3.3 Plane Strain Consolidation Equation for a Single Drain under Non-Darcian
Flow
3.3.1 General
M a n y researchers (e.g. Hansbo, 1960; Miller & L o w , 1963; Olsen, 1985; Dubin &
Moulin, 1986) pointed out there was a deviation from Darcy's law at small hydraulic
h H i (n-l)/n) .1
Hydraulic gradient, /'
exponent (ri) of 1.5 the threshold hydraulic gradient (/0) values of 1 to 4 correspond
the limiting hydraulic gradient (/,) values of 3 to 12. Permeability tests carried out
121
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
Dubin and Moulin (1986) on high-plasticity, moderately organic clay showed similar
correlations to those by Hansbo (1960). According to their tests, the i{ value was in
described under non-Darcian flow for a single drain incorporating smear effect only
The flow velocity (vx) under non-Darcian low (exponential flow correlation) can be
written as:
vx = hP mv Yw i" (3J5)
where, subscript p stands for plane strain, and coefficient of plane strain consolida
zone.
On the assumption that the flow in the slice at a distance x from the centreline of t
drain is equal to the change in volume within a block of soil of width (B-x), such th
v,=-(»-«Kf (376)
Inserting Eqn. (3.76) into Eqn. (3.75) gives:
]_
. _ 1 du B du^ n f\-±\"
X ]n
(3-77)
Yw dx hPYw d* J V.
122
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
By rearranging Eqn. (3.77) the pore pressure gradient in the undisturbed soil can be
n-1 -\
du = v n B du n f Y\
1 - - (3.78)
dx i w ^ hp dt j y B
Similarly, in the smear zone(bw <x<bs), the corresponding pore pressure gradient is
given by:
i
f „ „-xz N
du — B du f
= y " 1-- (3.79)
- / w v hP dt; Bj
OX
The last term in the above expression can be expanded in the following binomial series:
V, cX {n-\) (w-l)(2w-l)
B) n B 2\nd 3\n \B)
(3.80)
(»-l)(2w-l)(3w-l)
4!» KBj
Substituting Eqn. (3.80) into Eqn. (3.79) and integrating term by term, and inserting the
boundary conditions u =0at x=bw, the excess pore water pressure within the smea
n-\(
< x^ __L for (bw<x<bs) (3.81)
_______
u =B7w" _j n,— -8, n,-
B
1„
S dt L
\ P J V Bj
where,
123
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
,3 1
1(V {n-l)(y]2 (n-l)(2n-l)(y
1-
2! \n) 3! I « 4! n
8. {n,y) = y (3.81a)
(n-\)(2n-\){?>n-\)( y^.
5! \nj
In the above equation the variabley represents — or — and the function gp{n,y) for
B B
..=1.2, 1.3 and 1.5 is graphically illustrated in Figure 3.14. This indicates that the
function gp(n,y) increases from zero to a maximum value of 0.6 for increasing values of
n andy.
Substituting Eqn. (3.80) into Eqn. (3.78) and integrating term by term, and
incorporating the boundary conditions u'x=bs =ux=bs, the following expression can be
124
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
derived for excess pore water pressure u in the undisturbed zone (bs < x < B) at a given
time t:
g,
x^
g>
( V
V Bj K B j
n-1
u = B7wn _______ (3.82)
1
hP dt
K
hp b
s) ( b \
+ gi Si n,-
yKsp j \ B
u
J
Let u be the average excess pore water pressure at a given time /, then:
bs . B
u(B-bw)= ji. dx+ \udx (3.83)
bw bs
Substituting Eqns. (3.81) and (3.82) into Eqn. (3.79) and integrating, the average excess
pore water pressure u at a given time t becomes (assuming that bw and bs are negligible
where,
(~
K
\ f U \ ( b>
hp (3.84a)
P» = fv n,^w -f
{KsP J L ' V B j
J P
\ B)
+ fp\n>
B
125
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
(7.-IX272-IX477-I) 5 (7.-1X272-1X377-1X577-1) 6
4 y .-. * -^
5!T7 6!T7"
The variable y represents — or —— and the function fp(n,y) for n=\.2, 1.3 is
_5 B
graphically illustrated in Figure 3.15. The function fp(n,y) increases with the exponen
.7=1.2 1
/i=1.3 I
— __ «=1.5
5 0.2
a
o
'4—
o
a
3
1 I I I 1 L J I I L
Since n > 1, the Eqn. (3.84) can be integrated using the boundary conditions u = uo at
t=0, to give:
126
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
4a
( D
Yw (3.85)
2
u n 1
A
hp
i)~ W .
where,
tt
a
P =
4(77-1) (3.85a)
Uhp=l-^- u (3.86)
WO
Aa n-\ Dn+\
t=
P Yw'
w_ B
- \n-l
(3.87)
XhP (wo)"
k-v»Y
Rearranging the above equation, the degree of consolidation U hP at a given time . is:
l f ~ \"~] l-n
Uhp=\- 1+-
h P up (3.88)
ap(2Bf
Substituting Eqn. (3.84) into Eqn. (3.81) and rearranging, the normalized excess pore
water pressure =u— with time, at any point within the smear zone can be found as:
wo
127
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
;
K
W hp
"(l-Uhp) (3.89)
wo K
\^ sp J
Similarly, substituting Eqn. (3.84) into Eqn. (3.82) and rearranging, the normalized
excess pore water pressure =w- with time, at any point outside the smear zone is given
wo
by:
r
( x^ b^
Si -Si n,-
B)
\ Bj V »
w _\t-Uhp) (3.90)
uo Pi f
K
hp b\
+ g,V B j Sx n,-
I \KSP J B
>
Differentiating Eqn. (3.89) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/ )
with time at any point within the smear zone can be found as:
K n
hn (l-Uhp)uQ (3.91)
. = 1-*
Yw y sP K
j BPP B
Differentiating Eqn. (3.90) in the x direction and rearranging, the hydraulic gradient (/)
with time at any point outside the smear zone is given by:
(l-Uhp)ui (3.92)
i = 1-*
Yw B0. B
128
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
In order to study the influence of exponent on the consolidation process, a plane strain
analysis has been executed with the following parameters using different values of n
(1.00-1.50 in 0.05 interval). _5=0.7m, _>==0.105m, & w =0.035m, khp =Khp =0.008 m/yr,
KP =KsP =0.002 m/yr, chp=Xhp =0.4 m2/yr and two points (x=0.07 m, within smear
zone and x=0.35 m, outside the smear zone) are considered for comparing excess pore
pressure and the hydraulic gradient. The estimated average degree of consolidation,
excess pore pressure and hydraulic gradient after a consolidation period of 0.5 years are
Figure 3.16 shows that the average degree of consolidation increases from about
129
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
0.6
o at a point 0.35m from the centre (outside the smear zone)
3
at a point 0.07m from the centre (inside the smear zone)
_
t/a
CD
<D
_-» 0.4
-s
(U
_
o 0.3 -
P.
__
_n
-a
_
N___; 0.2
o
c_
X
O<D
Figures 3.17 and 3.18 show that variation of normalized excess pore pressure and
hydraulic gradient at selected points (within and outside the smear zone) with exponent
n. When 77 increases from 1 to 1.5, excess pore pressure within the smear zone and
outside the smear zone is decreased by 24% and 35%, respectively and the
corresponding hydraulic gradients decrease by 52% and 75%. This means that not only
is the consolidation process in the undisturbed zone influenced more than in the smear
zone by the value of 77, but also the hydraulic gradient is more sensitive than the ex
zone is considerably higher compared to the reduced permeability in the smear zone.
130
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
£
_
T3 3.0
cd
(-i
bO
_
1
_3
-_ed
(D 1.0
ON
z
_L _l_
o.o 1.4 1.5
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Exponent, n
At each time step and at a given stress level, the average degree of consolidation for
both axisymmetric (Oh) and equivalent plane strain (Uhp) conditions are made equal,
hence:
(3.93)
Ur = Uhp
B y substituting Eqns. (2.56) and (3.88) into the above equation, the following equation
can be obtained (assume the dimensions of both unit cells are equal):
(
l
hp a^ (3.94)
2 n+lKa J
Substituting a _ and a , which are given in Eqns. (3.85a) and (2.56) respectively, in the
131
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
'n-lBvy
khp=2k} (3.94a)
2n2 P
where, /?_ and /? are given in Eqns. (3.84a) and (2.56a), respectively.
Ignoring the smear effect in Eqn. (3.94), the equivalent plane strain permeability in the
f (
K hp _ ^hp
= 2
ft n,D
V
o J (3.94b)
Kh X ( r B
\
2f n,-
V AR J J
f r >
where, fp npL is given in Eqn.(3.84b) and / is given below (Hansbo,
K
K J
1960):
n-\ (n-lf
3n - 1 n(3n - l\5n -1) V.n1 (5n - lpn -1)
n-1 3n-l
' r "\ n fv \ 1 1 77-1 fr V
+ •+ (3.94c)
fP n-1 2n\R) 2n 3n-l 2
2n {3n-l)_
\RJ
5n-l
n-\ fr V
77-1
+
(^if + ..
+
n{3n-l\5n-l) 4n3(5n-l) 2n2(3n-l) KRJ
For convenience of practical use the equivalent parameters in terms of spacing ratio
(Blbw), smear ratio (bs/bw) and permeability ratio of axisymmetric cell for different 77 are
graphically illustrated in Figures 3.19-3.22. Once the field permeability values and
geometric parameters are known (or assumed) then the equivalent plane strain
132
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
0.5-
Perfect drain
"\ bs=2bw
bs=lbw
_"
s
'3
"I /,. \ ,Kh/Ks=4
bs=Abw
J3 0.3
in
_ /Ks=3
a 0.2-
J3
n.
I 0.1-
"3
> nTTTTj I I I I llll| 1 I I I 111 (| 1 I I Mill
T
10000 'B 10 100 1000 10000
10 100 1000
o- Blbw (=Dldw)
Blbw {=Dldw)
w
Figure 3.19 Equivalent plane strain ap value as a function of Blbw, bjbw and KH/KS of
As shown in Figure 3.19, when the B/bw ratio increases, the value of ap
(equivalent plane strain) increases and attains a maximum. For KhJKs >2, a distinct
major role at small B/bw, the a _ increases up to a certain extent and then decreases due
to the insignificant effect of smear (at large B/bw) and converges to a value
corresponding to that of a perfect drain (i.e. negligible smear). The equivalent plane
strain parameter p is plotted in Figure 3.20, which also shows a similar trend to a _.
133
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
n=1.2
^.=4
K h /K s =3
n=1.3
a.0. K h /K s =4
__
a K h /K s =3
'3 0.6-
b
0.4-
Perfect drain
o-
w 2-
0
- _»,=46_,
i,11HI—i riuuij—i 111iui|—i i ci '! Illlll| [ l.lllli| 1 I I (1111| I I I Mill
2 10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
Blbw (=_ /_/w) Blbw (=£>/_/J
Figure 3.20 Equivalent plane strain pp value as a function of Blbw, bJK and KH/KS of
of the equivalent plane strain cell to axisymmetric cell (Xhp/X = Khp/fch) is shown in
Figure 3.21, as a function of B/bw. When the Blbw ratio increases the value of
rate.
134
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
~ — i — i i i u | 1 1—i—i i i M | 1 1—i—i i i ii
100 1000 10000
B/bw (=D/dw)
equivalent plane strain cell (KhpJKsp ) is shown in Figure 3.22. This shows that the
noted that the ratio KhpJKsp increases at a faster rate at large Blbw ratios when the smear
effect becomes less. These converted parameters can then be incorporated into the finite
element analysis.
135
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
25-
n=l._
i i i i 11 1 1 — i — i i i i 11 1
100 200 4 10 100 200
BIbw{=Dldw) B/bw (=D/dw)
i i i i 11 1 1 i i i i i 11 i i i i 11 1 1 — i — i i i i 11
4 10 100 200 4 10 100 200
Blbw (=D/dw) B/bw(=D/dJ
Figure 3.22 Ratio between undisturbed zone permeability to smear zone permeability of
3.4 Summary
1. An analytical solution to estimate the extent of smear zone has been formulated
Clay theory.
136
Chapter 3 Theoretical Background
2. The existing axisymmetric (Hansbo, 1981) and plane strain (Indraratna and Redana,
1997) theories of a unit cell were modified to include the vacuum pressure
application. It was assumed that the applied vacuum pressure is constant along the
top surface and propagates immediately along the length of drain in a trapezoidal
pattern.
3. New plane strain lateral consolidation equations neglecting the well resistance of
vertical drains are formulated and can be applied for both Darcian and non-Darcian
flow. The new parameters are graphically illustrated for practical use. Finally, plane
strain matching procedure for the proposed solution has been explained.
137
— Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
4.1 General
Bergado et al. (1991); Indraratna and Redana, (1995); Xiao (2000) conducted laboratory
tests to study the behaviour of vertical drains installed in soft clay using a specially
PVC cylinder (455 mm x 920 mm x 10 mm wall thickness) with a steel base plate but
the excess pore water pressure measurements were considered unrealistic with this
setup. The cylinder was filled with soft remoulded Bangkok clay and a PVD (Ali drain -
settlement behaviour was monitored under a surcharge pressure of 47.8 kPa. The
permeability coefficients were calculated from conventional oedometer tests, carried out
mm) to investigate the effect of smear due to the installation of prefabricated vertical
drains. They examined the reduction of soil permeability to assess the extent of the
smear zone around vertical drain installed by a mandrel. Xiao (2000) also conducted a
series of large-scale tests to study the behaviour around vertical drains installed in s
measure the pore pressure development during mandrel installation to assess the extent
of the smear zone around a vertical drain. In addition, the extent of the smear zone was
estimated using the permeability and water content measurements by taking samples
138
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
predict the smear zone using the permeability and water content measurements, such as:
(ii) Using the permeability anisotropy (horizontal to vertical permeability ratio, M:.)
(iii) Using the normalized lateral permeability (kh/khu), i.e., the coefficient of lateral
(v) Using the normalized water content reduction, i.e., (wmax-w)/wmax, where wmax=
In the Indraratna and Redana (1998) approach, the vertical permeability was shown to
normalized lateral permeability (kh/khu) and normalized water content reduction were
taken to be more realistic than the ky/kv ratio in deteraiining the effect of smear. Also,
correlation between the permeability reduction (i.e. difference between the undisturbed
and smear zone values) and water content reduction was proposed. The proposed
empirical equation is very useful in practice, because by measuring the water content,
the horizontal permeability may be estimated. Details of the apparatus and test
139
—.—. Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
4.2.1 Apparatus
The large-scale radial drainage consolidometer (Figure 4.1) consists of two cylindrical
(stainless steel) half sections, each of which has a flange running the length of the
cylinder so they can be bolted together. The cell is 650 mm internal diameter x 1040
mm height x 8 mm thick, and it has a 1.5 mm thick Teflon sleeve fitted around the
internal cell boundary to reduce friction and is then placed onto a steel base. A LVDT
monitor surface settlement, and strain gauge type pore pressure transducers (PPT's) are
also installed to measure the pore water pressures at various depths. In addition, an ar
of strain gauge type pore pressure transducers are installed radially at a depth of 0.5
from the top surface (the plan view is shown in Figure 4.2) to monitor pore pressure
The transducers used in this laboratory studies are based on the use of strain gauge
incorporated a ceramic pressure element in a stainless steel enclosure and bleed valve t
eliminate air traps (see Fig. 4.3). Model E-120 pore pressures are used in this study ha
a measurement range of 0-30 psi (0-207 kPa) and readability to 0.1 psi (0.69 kPa). The
transducers were calibrated using a Budenburg dead weight testing machine. A simple
computer programme was written using the calibration data to convert the transducer
output in voltage to an appropriate pore pressure and settlement units (kPa and mm).
140
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
Because this cell is very large (the volume is about 0.34m3), it is almost impossible to
obtain undisturbed samples of this size. Therefore, reconstituted alluvial clay from
Moruya, NSW was used to make large samples. The geotechnical properties (Table 4.1)
of the selected soils were determined from Atterberg limits and specific gravity tests
and were classified using the Casagranade Plasticity Chart or Unified Soil Classification
141
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
(b) (c)
Figure 4.2 Location of pore pressure transducers and cored samples
• The plastic limit, liquid limit, and natural water content of the clay sample were
• The clay was thoroughly mixed with water so the water content was equal to or
142
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
• The clay slurry was kept in a closed container for several days to ensure full
saturation.
• To ensure that the clay was fully saturated, a couple of small cylindrical specimens
(38mm x 76mm) were cored and tested in the triaxial equipment. Skempton's B
• Calibrated the pore pressure transducers using a Bundenburg dead weight testing
machine. Load cell and LVDT were also calibrated, and a simple computer
program was written using the calibrated data to convert the data logger output (in
• Each part of the apparatus was cleaned and the pressure chamber lubricated to
• The O-ring and elastic seal were placed into the groove in the bottom plate to
prevent air leakages. An elastic seal should be applied along the flanges of the two
• Placed a round plastic sheet with a hole at the centre and a round geotextile sheet
onto the bottom plate to prevent clay sticking to it and the clay particles from
eroding. Subsequently, a 1.5 mm thickness Teflon sheet was placed around the
inner periphery of the cell to minimize the friction between the side wall of the
143
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
• A 1.5 m long prefabricated vertical band drain (100 mm x 3 mm, equivalent radius
is 33mm using Eqn. 2.3) was taken and kept in water to make it saturate.
• Inserted the PVD into the slot in the specially designed rectangular mandrel (Figure
4.3), which was slightly larger than (125 mm x 25 mm, equivalent radius is 48mm
using Eqn. 2.3) the PVD. The end of the drain was attached to a shoe to ensure the
drain remained in the proper position when the mandrel is withdrawn after
insertion.
• Fill the cell, with the prepared reconstituted clay in 150 mm layers by compacting
or vibrating to expel the air trap in the clay slurry before adding the next layer, to
144
. Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
• Place a round plastic sheet followed by the top plate, and subsequently place the
load cell onto the top of plate to measure the applied load from the pressure
chamber.
• In this study, four tests were conducted with different initial consolidation pressur
(i.e. 20, 30, 40, and 50 kPa). The initial consolidation pressure was applied and left
for two weeks (or until about 90% of the consolidation was obtained). It is noted
• The pressure chamber, load cell, top plate and plastic sheet were removed at the end
of the preconsolidation phase and then the PVD was installed, at an average
penetrating rate of 0.5 m/min using a specially designed guider, during which the
pore pressure was recorded. The mandrel was withdrawn after it touches the bottom
of the cell.
• The top plate, load cell, pressure chamber and settlement transducer (LVDT) were
re-installed and the surcharge load was applied in stages in increments of 50, 100,
and 200 kPa to promote radial consolidation. It is noted that the time duration
• The horizontal and vertical undisturbed specimens (total of 32 specimens per test)
were taken (size of 38mm x 76mm) at the end of the test from several locations to
find the permeability coefficients and the water content using the standard (one-
145
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
The available finite element programs are generally based on the elastic-plastic Mohr-
Coulomb model or soft soil model (Cam-Clay model), so it is essential that the soil
parameters be determined. Figure 4.4 shows the relationship between the void ratio and
applied consolidation pressure, while Table 4.2 shows the evaluated soil parameters. It
is noted that the C a m clay parameters and the angle of shear resistance were estimated
1.9
Cc=0.34 =>>.=0.15
Cr=0.14 = > K = 0 . 0 6
1.2
146
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
* X K M N r u0 V
Pore pressure transducers, T1-T5 having a radial distance from the centre of 95, 105,
120, 140 and 190 mm, respectively, were installed 0.5 m below the surface (Figure
4.2a) to measure variation of pore water pressure during installation. Figure 4.5 shows
these variations over time elapsed for each initial surcharge pressure, during mandrel
installation and withdrawal. The pore pressure response shows an increase in magnitude
until the maximum value, which occurs when the mandrel tip just passes the depth at
which the PPT is located. The pore pressure continuous to drop as the mandrel is driven
deeper. Subsequently the pore pressure drops rapidly and then converges to a small
residual value when the mandrel is withdrawn. This also shows that the developed pore
pressure decreases in the radial direction (pore water pressure is higher at transducer
which is close to the mandrel and less at T5 which further away from the centre of
drain).
147
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
40-
TI
T2
T3
30-
cd Mandrel T4
withdrawal T5
u Mandrel pass the PPT's
c/a 20-
00 Before
_
mandrel After mandrel
s_
OH
installation withdrawal
_
o 10-
OH
0- -| i r-
0 100 200 300
Time Elapsed (sec)
(a) Initial Pressure = 20 kPa
148
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
0 100 200
Time Elapsed (sec)
(d) Initial Pressure = 50 kPa
Figure 4.5 Pore pressure variation during mandrel installation for different initial
149
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
In order to determine the smear zone, the normalized pore pressure (i.e., pore
pressure / surcharge pressure) was plotted against the normalized radial distance (i.e.,
pore water pressure at the location of each P P T is compared with the predicted,
normalized pore water pressure based on the proposed (described in the previous
Chapter) cavity expansion theory (CET) using the modified C a m clay parameters given
in Table 4.2. The predicted pore pressure ratios are very close to those measured, and
the predicted extent of smear zone is 2.401, 2.449, 2.588 and 2.623 times the equivalent
mandrel radius, corresponding to the initial surcharge pressure of 20, 30, 40 and 50 kPa,
respectively. This suggests that the extent of smear zone might be dependent on the
depth of overburden.
rlrm
(a) Initial surcharge = 20 kPa
150
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
Calculated extent of
smear zone, r s /r m = 2.4491
rlr
m
(b) Initial surcharge = 3 0 k P a
1.2
Normalized pore water
pressure - Measured
Calculated extent of
smear zone, rslrm = 2.5876
rlr.
m
(c) Initial surcharge = 4 0 k P a
151
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ~
rlrm
(d) Initial surcharge = 5 0 k P a
At the end of the large-scale consolidation test, horizontal and vertical specimens wer
cored at 0.5 m below the surface to measure the coefficient of permeability and the
permeability (fa and /cv), as well as the permeability ratios (/c„/frv) and the normalize
permeability (fa/khu) for different mean applied consolidation pressures are plotted in
Figure 4.7.
152
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
Applied pressure -
Smear zone
1 *•
o i
o
4=
4-
•a - Q
2
_
DH
c
o
N
•c
o
0-
0
rlrm
(a) Variation of horizontal permeability
o
b
c_
u
u
OH
1.
o
>
153
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
2.000
1.800-
«4_
1.600-
c_
_
0. 1.400-
U
—
OJ
CL,
1.200-
1.000
1.000-
J 0.900H
_^
3 0.800H
c_
•o 0.700H
4)
__
"c_
| 0.600H
Marginal Insignificant
Highly disturbed zone disturbance disturbance
»*-
0.500-
0
r/r,m
(d) Variation of normalized permeability
Figure 4.7 Variation of (a) horizontal permeability, (b) vertical permeability, (c)
permeability ratio, and (d) the normalized permeability, with radial distance
154
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
certain extent and then remains relatively constant whereas the Figure 4.7b shows that
the variation in vertical permeability with radial distance is less. This indicates that th
mandrel installation have more affects on the horizontal soil parameters than those of
vertical. The permeability ratio between horizontal and vertical is illustrated in Figure
4.7c, which shows a similar trend to the variation of horizontal permeability in Figure
4.7a. The variation of normalized permeability is plotted in Figure 4.7d. This clearly
demonstrates that close to the drain boundary (highly disturbed zone), the value of
normalized permeability ratio increases rapidly with radial distance, whereas further
note that the irrespective of the applied pressure, all curves are confined within a narro
band, clearly defining the extent of the smear zone. From this data, one may conclude
that the smear zone is at least 2.5 times the equivalent mandrel radius (rm), and the
normalized lateral permeability ratio within the smear zone varies from 1.0943 and
1.6437 (an average of 1.3429). Moreover, very close to the drain, the k\/kv ratio is
Various researchers (e.g. Taylor, 1948; Samarasinghe et al. 1982; Tavenas et al. 1983;
Babu et al. 1993) have discussed the effect of the void ratio on the coefficient of
permeability and concluded that it is dependent upon the void ratio and the water
content of soils. Therefore, it is logical to argue that installation of mandrel not only
affects the horizontal coefficient of permeability but also the water content. In this
research, an attempt is made to examine the extent of the smear zone from the variation
155
• , Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
of water content and the normalized water content reduction, i.e., (wmax-w)/wmax. For
this purpose, samples were collected at five different vertical levels and eight differen
radial locations.
The variation of water content and the normalized water content reduction with
4.8. The variation of water content (Figure 4.8a) shows a similar trend to the variation
shown in Figure 4.8b, which shows that all plots are confined within a narrow band,
The variation of the water content with depth and radial distance is shown in
Figure 4.9 for an applied pressure of 200 kPa. As expected, the water content decreases
towards the drain, and also the water content being greater towards the bottom of cell a
all radial points. Based on these curves the extent of smear zone can be estimated to be
at least 2.5 times the equivalent mandrel radius. This agrees well with the estimated
extent of smear zone based on fa/fa ratio (Figure 4.7c), fa/fan ratio (Figure 4.7d). These
results are also in good agreement with the CET predicted smear zone extent as
previously indicated in Figure 4.6. It confirmed that the extent of smear zone could be
156
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
_
s_
o
o
OJ
•*—
0.04-
0.02-
Figure 4.8 Variation of (a) water content and (b) normalized water content reduction,
157
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
70-
Smear zone
w
max = w s = 6 9 %
68-
66- cd
Figure 4.9 Variation of water content with depth and radial distance for an applied
undisturbed and smear zone values) and water content reduction is shown in Figure
4.10. This relationship is almost perfectly linear (R2 > 0.99), and the following
Ak 'Aw] (4.1)
=C
wo,
158
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
content of undisturbed zone; Aw. reduction in water content (Aw = wo-w). The
empirical coefficients C and n are 8.32 and 1.1, respectively, for the current test res
The above equation can be very useful in practice, because by measuring the water
content, the horizontal permeability may be estimated if the initial water content and
-0.4-
Linear fitted line (R2=0.993)
25kPa
50kPa
-0.6-
100 kPa
200 kPa
-0.8-
^
o
-1.0-
•1.2-
-1.4-
-2.2 -2.0 •1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2
Log (AW/WQ)
Figure 4.10 Correlation between the reduction of permeability and the water content
159
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
The surface settlement was monitored using the LVDT transducer placed on top of the
plate. The measured and predicted surface settlements are compared in Fig. 4.11a, an
found to agree (only the result of Test 1 is considered because the surface settleme
was almost the same in all the tests). The numerical predictions were carried out usi
the finite element code PLAXIS incorporating the modified Cam- clay parameters given
in Table 4.2. Hence, the length of the drain is small (about lm), the well resistanc
neglected in the analysis and the extent of smear is taken as 5 times the equivalent
radius («150 mm). The finite element mesh of the large-scale cell consisting of 15-
node triangular elements with 12-point Gauss integration is shown in Fig. 4.1 lb.
Time (days)
20 30 40 50 60
Surcharge pressure
increase
_
S -40
_
t_
cz_
-60 • Measured
— Predicted
-80
(a) (b)
Figure 4.11 (a) Comparison of surface settlement, and (b) F E mesh used in Plaxis
160
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
The measured and predicted excess pore water pressures (neglecting well resistance) of
Test 1 are compared in Fig. 4.12. The excess pore water pressure measured at
transducer T4 (185 mm from the centre and 0.5 m below the surface) was in good
agreement with the numerical predictions. While there was a very small deviation
between the predicted and measured excess pore pressure at transducer TI (95 mm from
the centre and 0.5 m below the surface) during Stage 1 loading, a good agreement was
pore water pressure compared to transducer T4, because, TI is closer to the boundary of
the drain.
I • Measured EPP at TI
m
i
i • Measured EPP at T4
-
O -i • I i - . , 1 T7T>T_ ..1 T1
rerdicted hrr at 1J
c_
>%
_. . j^erdicteci i__rr at 1 4
___ . __
_ 80- I •\
3 1
\
BO 1
\
u
__ \- ^. \
2 x?_ **_. • • \v
_« N» '•l-l V •
£«
O
P-i ^ *_.
„
§3 40-
-
^5%_ ^ * _ *
\?»*_
n i
u 1 1
1 ' "T
T 20 40 60
Time (days)
161
Chapter 4 Laboratory Testing and Analysis of Results
4.4 Summary
The effect of smear zone due to the installation of prefabricated vertical drains was
investigated in the laboratory, and compared with the analytical and numerical results.
From the laboratory measurements, the extent of smear zone was found to be 2.5 times
the equivalent mandrel radius. The calculated extent of smear zone was about 2.515
(average) times the mandrel radius using the cavity expansion theory proposed in
Chapter 3, which is very close to the value evaluated in the laboratory. The
experimental results also show the horizontal permeability in the smear zone varying
from 1.0943 to 1.6437, with an average of 1.3429 times smaller than the undisturbed
zone. The above findings are comparable with previous research reported in the
literature (Table 2.4). For example, Hansbo (1979), Indraratna and Redana (1998) Chai
and Miura (1999) proposed that the extent of smear zone is about 1.5 ~ 3, 2 ~ 3, and 2
~ 3 times the mandrel radius, respectively, which is close to the extent of smear zone
The measured excess pore water pressure and surface settlement were also
compared with predicted values using the PLAXIS software and found to be in good
agreement. The experimental results shown in this Chapter confirm that predicting the
permeability within the smear zone is found and this empirical expression is very usefu
in practical sense for estimating lateral smear zone permeability by measuring the wate
content. It is also noted that initial water content and initial horizontal permeabilit
should be known.
162
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
5.1 General
The Sunshine Coast is one of Australia's fastest growing regions but this continued
economic and population growth has increased the pressure on the region's main traffic
corridor, the Sunshine Motorway. Site investigation at the proposed development route
revealed that the subsoil consists of very soft, highly compressible, saturated marine
clays of high sensitivity, which presented difficulties developing the new alignment. In
order to study the foundation response upon loading, and evaluate the effectiveness of
Motorway (Figure 5.1), located in the Maroochy Shire, Queensland, Australia. This trial
Brisbane, Australia.
The subsoil conditions are relatively uniform throughout the site, consisting of
sensitive silty clay about 10-1 lm thick, overlying a layer of sand approximately 6m
thick. A thin soft clay layer underlies the sand and extends to a depth of 18m. Anothe
sand layer is encountered below 18m. The water content, Atterberg limits, bulk unit
weight, undrained shear strength and the compression index ratio of the top sensitive
silty clay with depth are given in Figure 5.2. The compression index ratio varies from
0.15 to 0.50, and the recompression ratio was found to be about 10 times smaller than
the compression index ratio (QDMR Report, No.R1765, June 1991). The over
consolidation ratio (OCR) of the soils varies from 1.0 to 1.6 (lightly overconsolidated
soil).
163
Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
Maroochydore
Study
Area
9 1 .64 2.62 3l
IO OLD ALIGNMENT
o - VANE SHEAR
® - UL) TRIAXIAL - 50mm Thin wolled sarnct.
^-LIQUID LIMIT
NEW ALIGNMENT
A OU TRIAXIAL - DH.I9 100mm P:s<_r< samples
0 DHI9 \VANE SHEAR
+• DH20J
164
Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
respectively. Sections A and B (each 35m in long) were the primary sections of the tria
embankment and they represented the zones of vertical drains (at lm intervals) and 'no
with vertical drains at 2m apart. The vertical drains (Nylex Flodrain) in Sections A an
Tensar SS2 geogrids were laid longitudinally on the natural ground surface,
platform 0.65m thick (500mm of 7mm screenings drainage layer plus 150mm of
Prefabricated vertical drains were installed from the working platform to a depth
lateral direction (Tensar ER200). Then the embankment was constructed in stages using
1 i n
• • • •
*-
165
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
Two berms, 5m in width on the instrumented side and 8m wide on the other side
as shown in Figure 5.4 were constructed to increase the stability of the embankment.
horizontal profile gauges, sondex settlement systems, strain gauges and earth pressure
embankment were predicted using a plane strain finite element analysis and then
The multi-drain plane strain analysis was carried out using the finite element code
PLAXIS (Version 8). In the analysis, the soil layers were divided into many elements.
The element types were selected to deal with the relevant geometrical and material non-
linearities. The soft soil model based on Modified Cam-clay theory was used to
166
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
replicate the clay layers, whereas the Mohr-Coulomb model was employed to analyse
the sand layers. The soil parameters used in the finite element analysis are given in
Table 5.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters used in the finite element analysis
Avera
Depth (m) Soil type M X K v eQ J- 3 S e Pc
(kN/W) (kPa)
2.5-5.0 Soft silty clay 1.20 0.480 0.048 0.30 3.10 13.7 31
16.0-18.0 Soft clay 1.08 0.240 0.024 0.3 1.70 16.1 120
The element types used in the finite element code PLAXIS are shown in Figure 5.5. A
choice can be made between 15-node triangular elements and 6-node triangular
elements. The 15-node element has 15 nodes and 12 Gaussian integration stress point,
167
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
whereas the 6-node element has 6 nodes and 3 Gaussian integration points. While the
powerful 15-node element provides an accurate calculation of stresses and failure loads,
the 6-node elements permit more rapid computation. In addition to the triangular
elements, which are generally used to model the soil, geogrid elements and interface
• nodes
x stress point
soil element
Figure 5.6 Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their
Figure 5.6 illustrates how interface elements are connected to soil elements.
When using 15-node soil elements the corresponding interface elements are defined by
five pairs of nodes whereas for 6-node soil elements the corresponding interface
168
Chapter 5 Case Study. Sunshine Motorway. Australia
elements have three. In the figure the interface elements are shown to have a finite
thickness but in reality they have zero thickness. Each interface is assigned a 'virtual
thickness' which is an imaginary dimension used to define its material properties which
are related to the adjacent soil properties. Also, interfaces may be used in a
impermeable screen.
The mechanical behaviour of soils may be modelled with various degrees of accuracy.
For example, Hook's law of linear, isotropic elasticity may be conceived as the simplest
modulus and Poisson's ratio), it is generally too 'crude' to capture essential soil
laws are available, and even though most advanced models require a relatively large
number of parameters the Mohr-Coulomb and the Soft-Soil models are often considered
The elastic-plastic Mohr-Coulomb model involves five input parameters, i.e. Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio for soil elasticity; friction angle and cohesion for soil
plasticity; and the dilation angle. This model is often recommended for
169
— —Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
This is a Modified Cam-Clay type model especially suitable for primary compression of
normally consolidated soils. The Soft-Soil model requires the following material
* X
constants: X - modified compression index = ;K - modified swelling index
l + e0
consolidation.
The extent of the smear zone with depth was predicted using the proposed cavity
modified Cam clay parameters given in Table 5.1. The predicted normalised pore water
pressure (_/av0) variation with radial distance for each soil layer is shown in Figure
The CET predicted extent of the smear zone (i.e., the distance from the centreline at
which w/avo^l) is illustrated in Figure 5.8, which shows that the smear zone decreases
from 6.6rw to 4.9rw («230-170mm) when the depth increases from 0 to 10.5m. In this
170
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
1.0-
Depth (m)
0.0-2.5
0.9- 2.5-5.0
o
5.0-10.5
s n0.8-
R—I
Range of smear zone
0.7-
0.6- n
I r i r n i r i 1 r T i r
0 4 8 12 16 20
rlr.
w
Figure 5.7 Normalised pore water pressure variation with radial distance
The finite element analyses were executed using the equivalent plane strain conversion
described in Chapter 3 (Section 3.2.5). The equivalent plane strain permeabilities are
given in Table 5.3. It is noted that the axisymmetric (in situ) permeabilities are identical
171
— Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
Depth Section B (10"10 m/s) Section A (10"10 m/s) Section C(l(f10 m/s)
The finite element mesh, which contained 15-node triangular elements, is shown in
Figure 5.9. The full width of embankment had to be modelled because the loading was
not symmetrical. The prefabricated vertical drains were modelled with zero thickness
drain elements. For these elements, the excess pore pressure along the boundary is zer
i.e., well resistance is neglected. The smear zone was modelled with the same soil
properties as the adjacent soil except for coefficient of permeability. The reinforce
in the embankment was modelled with geogrid elements and these were combined with
interface elements to replicate the interaction with the surrounding soil. The locatio
instruments were conveniently placed in the mesh in such a manner that the measuring
172
Chapter 5 Case Study. Sunshine Motorway. Australia
Only 20m depth of the foundation was considered due to the existence of the sand layer
(below the overlying soft clay layer), which was dense enough to neglect any associate
deformations. To minimize the boundary effect, lateral boundaries were placed 150m
(7.5 times the vertical dimension) from the centreline of the embankment and horizonta
Both the top (open boundary) and bottom (sand layer) surfaces of the subsoil foundatio
were assumed to be free draining and water table coincided with the ground surface.
173
Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
3.0-
Section A •
2.5-
Section B
Section C
& 2.(H
•4—»
_3
'53
X
~ 1.5-
1.0-
0.5-
0 20 40 60
Time (days)
The predicted and observed surface settlements under each section of embankment are
compared in Figure 5.11. The settlement gauges under Sections A, B, and C, namely,
SCA1, SCB3, (both under the centreline) and SCC5 (lm to the left of centreline) were
selected for the purpose of comparing the field data with the numerical results. Figure
5.11 shows that the predicted values are in good agreement with field data, and as
expected, the settlement rate increases as the drain spacing decreases. The settlement
responses of Sections A and C are comparable whereas the centreline settlement under
Section B (no drain) is only about 60% of the settlement of the other two sections. This
suggests that the installation of vertical drains significantly reduces the consolidatio
time (from years to days) and thereby reducing the subsequent post-construction
settlement. Generally, the settlement rate is sensitive to drain spacing but in this stu
174
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
the differences under Section A and C are small and therefore any benefits derived from
However, this could be negated by the smear effect caused by the vertical drain
installation.
0-*
200-
400-
_
£
? 60(H FieldData-SCAl
_/.
Field Data-SCB3
Field Data-SCC5
FEM-SCA1
800-
FEM-SCB3
FEM-SC5
1000-
0 20 40 60 80
Time (day)
The settlement contours at the end of construction and after 100 days for Sections
B and C are illustrated in Figures 5.12 and 5.13, respectively. These plots indicate
the settlements under Sections B and C can be negligible below a depth of 18m;
small heave is seen to occur at the toe of Section B but the amount of heave has beco
175
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway, Austral
la
-290 -260 -230 -200 -170 -140 -110 -80 -50 -20 10
(a) Settlement (mm)-Section B
_490 -440 -390 -340 -290 -240 -190 140 -90 -40 10
(b) Settlement (mm)-Scction C
-470 -422 -374 -326 -278 -230 -182 -134 -86 -38
(a) Settlement (mm)-Section B
i
-720 -646 -572 -498 -424 -350 -276 -202 -128 -54 20
(b) Settlement (mm)-Scction C
176
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
Even though the settlement contour patterns under both Sections B and C are
similar, the contour lines intensified within the vertical drain zone, i.e., the post-
Lateral deformation measured by the inclinometers installed at the middle of the main
batter and toe of the berm are compared with the numerical predictions in Figures 5.14
and 5.15. Inclinometers IA1 and IB3 were installed in the centre of the main batter of
Sections A and B, whereas inclinometers IA2, IB4, and IC5 were installed at the toe of
0-
•• o o^^ V
• • D \
4-
/• \ n o "*--,
ym
y __-
_ 8- y • ^ ^ ^
B _
Figure 5.14 Lateral displacement profile at the middle of the main batter
177
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
O Q
O D
DO
aqj
40 80 120 160
Lateral displacement ( m m )
Figure 5.14 illustrates the predicted and observed lateral displacement profiles at
inclinometer locations IA1 and IB3 after 56 days (at the end of construction) and at
days. The results indicate that the predicted lateral displacement below a depth of 3m
represents an acceptable match with the field data, whereas a noticeable discrepancy
found near the ground surface due to surface crust. It is also interesting to note th
178
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
The predicted and observed lateral displacement profiles after 56 and 100 days at
the toe of the embankment sections are plotted in Figure 5.15. Once again an acceptab
(Section A) reduced lateral displacement by about 46% but only by 22% at 2m spacing
(Section C).
Lateral displacement contours at the end of construction and after 100 days for
Section B and C are shown in Figures 5.16 and 5.17, respectively. These figures clear
show that lateral displacements are negligible beyond a distance 50m and 35m from the
height) beneath the berm and this location moves towards the toe of the main batter a
The predicted and observed variations of excess pore pressure at selected points benea
the embankment centreline and the middle of the berm are shown in Figures 5.18 and
5.19, respectively. The selected pneumatic piezometers PPA13, PPB31 and PPC43
were installed at a depth of 3.85m beneath the middle of the berm of embankment
PVA4, PVB22, and PVC39 were installed close to the centreline of the embankment at
a depth of 5.5m, 6.6m, and 6.75m under the embankment Sections A, B and C,
respectively.
179
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway, Australia
Figure 5.18 shows that all sections generated significant excess pore pressure
due to embankment loading and the predictions are in acceptable agreement with the
field data. As expected the induced excess pore pressure under Section B (no drain
significantly higher than the other sections while the excess pore pressure develo
under Sections A and C are comparable. Although the drain spacing of Section A (lm)
is smaller than Section C (2m), differences in the rate of dissipation is low beca
piezometer PPC43 is further away from the boundary of the influence zone whereas t
30-
Fielddata-PPA13
Field data-PPB31
Field data-PPC43
FEM-PPA13 \
\
.3 FEM-PPB31 \
\
FEM-PPC43
^ 20-\ U
=3
i/i
Ui
<u
u
p.
*_
o
&
Ui
Ui
10-
_
o
X
W
20 40 60 80 100
0
Time (day)
Figure 5.18 Excess pore pressure variation with time beneath the middle of the berm
181
.Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
60-
Field data-PVA4
Field data-PVB22
Field data-PVC39
03 FEM-PVA4
FEM-PVB22
_> 40- FEM-PVC39
Ui
Ui
0.
—
_
c_
0.
_H
O
OH
CW
20-
1/3
(D
o
40 60 80 100
Time (day)
Figure 5.19 Variation of excess pore pressure below the embankment centreline
The predicted and measured excess pore pressure variations at the embankment
centreline for each section are plotted in Figure 5.20. Again an acceptable match
between predictions and field data are found. Surprisingly, the generated excess pore
pressure under Section B, which has no drain, was lower than the other sections. This
could be the result of less amount of fill placement over the section B compared to the
other sections (since the centreline settlement of Section B < Section C < Section A,
amount of fill required to make the same reduced level at the embankment centreline at
the end of construction would be in the same order). The excess pore pressure
developed under Sections A and C (vertical drains are installed at lm and 2m spacing,
respectively) are comparable. It is also important to note that the rate of pore press
182
— Chapter 5 Case Studv: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
dissipation at piezometer locations PPA13 and PPC43 (beneath the berm, Figure 5.18)
is higher than that of piezometer locations PVA4 and PVC39 (beneath the embankment
centreline, Figure 5.19). This is because the piezometers PVA4 and PVC39 were placed
close to the drain influence zone boundary where the flow was constrained.
5.3 Summary
constructed with and without prefabricated vertical drains was analysed using 2D multi-
drain (plane strain) finite element analysis. The effect of smear associated with the
installation of PVD was considered but the effect of well resistance was neglected sinc
the discharge capacity of prefabricated vertical drains was large enough. The extent of
the smear zone was evaluated using the cavity expansion theory explained in Chapter 3
(Section 3.1). Predictions incorporating the proposed solutions, namely, the plane stra
matching and cavity expansion theory were made using the finite element code
PLAXIS. It shows that the inclusion of exact extent of the smear zone and the
application of the plane strain matching, improves the accuracy of the numerical
predictions.
The predicted centreline settlement, excess pore water pressure beneath the berm
and the centreline of the embankment section, and the lateral movements at the toe of
the embankment and middle of the main batter of each sections were compared with the
available observed data. Good agreement between the predicted and measured
settlements was found, whereas an acceptable matching was found between the
predicted and measured excess pore pressures. Even though lateral displacements were
183
Chapter 5 Case Study: Sunshine Motorway. Australia
The settlement response of the embankment sections indicated that the installation
of vertical drains significantly decreased the consolidation time, whereas the benefits
insignificant. Closer spacing invariably contributes to increased smear (the total exten
of smear zone under Section A was about 18.9m but only 9.7m under Section C).
The predicted and measured lateral movements showed that the installation of
vertical drains increased lateral movement under the middle of the main batter while
decreasing it at the toe of the embankment. These results also verified that maximum
lateral movement occurred at a depth of about 1.7 times the fill height. The pore
pressure dissipation rate under Sections A and C was comparable which proved that the
184
Chapter 6 Case Studv: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
(SUVARNABHUMI, THAILAND)
6.1 General
Construction of the Second Bangkok International Airport (SBIA) has been planned
since the 1960s to accommodate the rapid growth of air traffic at the Bangkok
International Airport at Don Muang (Thailand). The SBIA site is located at Nong Ngu
Hao (in Samutprakan Province), about 30 km east of capital city Bangkok (Figure 6.1).
This site is situated on a swampy land in a flat marine deltaic deposit with an average
elevation of less than one meter above mean sea level (MSL). In the past, most of this
area was covered by fishponds or agricultural land usage with several canals.
Site investigations at the SBIA showed that the subsoil conditions are relatively
uniform throughout the site, consisting of a weathered crust formed by cyclic wetting
process together with natural cementation with total thickness of 1 to 2m, overlying sof
Bangkok clay layer extending to about 8-1 lm below the surface, followed by medium
stiff to stiff clay to a depth of 20m or more. Groundwater level is at about 0.5m depth
from the surface. The major concern for the airport construction was the presence of the
8 to 11m thick soft Bangkok Clay which often has a natural water content more than
100 percent with low shear strength. The general properties and compressibility
parameters of the in-situ subsoil are summarized in Figures 6.2 and 6.3, respectively.
The compression index ratio varies from 0.18 to 0.53 and the recompression ratio was
found to be about 10 times smaller than the compression index ratio. The over
185
Chapter 6 Case Studv: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
SBIA SITE
HOENGSAO
LAEN CHABANG
EASTERN SEABOARD
DEVELOPMENT
Figure 6.2 General soil properties at S B I A site (modified after Sangamala, 1997)
186
Chapter 6 Case Studv: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
•
•|
, | ' | ' '• '| I '| •
• • •
2
• • • •
• • • •
4
• • • •
• • • •
Depth (m)
CO
• • • •
• • • •
CO
• • • •
• • • •
10
• • • •
• • • •
12
• • • •
< • • •
14
Figure 6.3 Compressibility parameters at SBIA site (adopted from Sangmala, 1997)
D u e to the underlying high compressibility and low strength soft Bangkok clay,
constructed using Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) with preloading. In this Thesis
vertical drain system with vacuum and surcharge preloading are analysed. The vertical
drains (Mebra MD-7007, 100mm x 3mm) were installed beneath TV1 and TV2 in a
triangular pattern at lm spacing to a depth of 15m and 12m, respectively. The total ba
area of each embankment is 40m x 40m and the cross sections of embankments with
inclinometers, and piezometers are shown in Figure 6.4. In embankment TV1, a hyper
net drainage system was used while perforated pipes were utilized in embankment TV2.
187
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
Geomembrane Liner ( L L D P E ) Q e o n e t ^
10m »w Geotextile
______ 4 5m >k 13m.
Vacuum Pump S3 S2 Fi_l\ SI ,2.2m
LBMS4 _____
10.3m
Bentonite
Inclinometer
-S
Legend
D
Surface settlement plate
0
Extensometer Vertical drains
• Electrical piezometer
* Stand-pipe piezometer l 1 — — I 1
@3m
(a) T V I (PVD's are installed at l m interval upto a depth of 15m)
Inclinometer
Figure 6.4 Cross section of embankments with key instrumentation at SBIA (modified
The drainage blanket, which serves as a working platform, was constructed with
sand (unit weight of 18 kN/m3) to a thickness of 0.3m for TVI and 0.8m for TV2. Bot
geomembrane liner on top of the drainage system. The borders of the geomembrane
liner were completely sealed off from the atmosphere by placing the liner borders
bottom of a trench, which was filled with a 0.30 m thick layer of sand-bentonite mi
188
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
The water collection system in each embankment was connected to a vacuum pump
3.0-
2.5-
TV1
TV2
_E_ 2.0-
'<3
X
•4—" 1.5-
c No PVD
__
1.0-
I 0.5- V a c u m m + Surcharge
V a c u m m o n l y * — | — • (unit weight offillis 18 kN/m 3 )
i—i—r—i—i—i—i—|—i—i—i—|—i—i—i—|—' i ' | ' r~
o.o- 160
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (Days)
A plane strain multi-drain analysis was carried out using the finite element code
HKS/ABAQUS (Version 6.3), incorporating the Modified Cam-clay theory. The Cam-
clay parameters for each soil layer are given in Table 6.1, which includes the slop
the critical state line (M), gradients of compression (X) and swelling (K) line on
v-lnp space, Poisson's ratio (v), the initial void ratio (co), the saturated unit w
189
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
Table 6.1 Modified Cam-clay parameters of SBIA site (Indraratna et al., 2005)
ys Average pc
Depth (m) M X K V e(0
3
kN/m
(kPa)
The types of elements used in the finite element code ABAQUS are illustrated in Figur
6.6. The basic element type is a 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure eleme
(CPE4P) consisting of 4 displacement and pore pressure nodes at the corners. A higher
nodes and 8 pore pressure nodes. The common element type used in the case history
analysis in this Chapter is the CPE8RP, which contains 8 displacement nodes and 4 por
pressure nodes. In finite element analysis the pore pressure shape function is usuall
one order less than the displacement shape function. The pore pressure shape function
linear in most of the elements shown in Figure 6.6 while the displacement shape
190
Chapter 6 Case Studv: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
<¥> O—<S>
6 o
® O—<£)
CPE6P CPE4P CPE8RP
^
Q -©-
O O
G> -i
-e
CINPE5R ASI3
(interface element)
C3D20RP
pore pressure node O displacement node
the thickness of PVD is relatively thin compared to its spacing, the interface element is
envisaged as the soil element having properties similar to the adjacent soil, except for
permeability. A 3-node interface element (ASI3) is shown in Figure 6.6 where there are
The extent of the smear zone with depth was predicted using the cavity expansion
theory as explained in Chapter 3 (Section 3.1), incorporating the Modified Cam clay
parameters given in Table 6.1. The predicted normalized pore water pressure (i.e., UIGV0)
variation with radial distance for each soil layers is shown in Figure 6.7. As expected, it
clearly shows that the induced pore pressure during mandrel installation is very high
close to the mandrel boundary but gradually decreases with radial distance. For better
191
Chapter 6 Case Studv: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
clarity, the predicted extent of the smear zone with depth is shown in Figure 6.8, which
indicates that the smear zone decreases form 6.30rw to 3.10rw when the depth varies
from 0 to 15m.
Depth (m)
0.0-2.0
2.0-8.5
8.5-10.5
- - - 10.5-13.0
— 13.0-15.0
Figure 6.7 Normalized pore water pressure variation with radial distance
The multi-drain plane strain numerical analysis was executed using two models:
Model 1- Assuming a constant extent of smear zone (i.e. rs=150mm, taken as 6 times
192
Chapter 6 Case Studv: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
In the analysis described here, axisymmetric to equivalent plane strain conversion was
3.2.5). The axisymmetric and equivalent plane strain permeabilities (calculated using
the Eqns. 3.74a and 3.74b) are given for both models in Table 6.2.
u—
"c.
ex _
Q
_ 9-
12-
i ^
i 1 1 i i
1 ' 1 1 •
() 2 3 4 5 . 7
's^w
Table 6.2 Axisymmetric and Plane Strain permeabilities for both embankments
193
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
The finite element mesh, which contained 8-node bi-quadratic displacement and bilinear
pore pressure elements, is shown in Figure 6.9. Due to the symmetrical nature of the
embankment, it was sufficient to model half width of embankment. For the area with
PVDs and smear zone, a finer mesh was employed so that each unit cell represented a
single drain with the smear zone on either side of the drain. The instrumentation poin
were placed in the mesh in such a manner that the measuring points coincided with the
mesh nodes. Only the top surface of the clay was assumed to be free draining because
the presence of the stiff clay layer at the bottom was considered to be impervious. The
embankment loading was simulated by applying incremental vertical loads to the upper
boundary whereas the vacuum pressure was modelled by applying negative pressure
along the surface and drain. The value of vacuum pressure was assumed to be constant
over the soil surface but varying linearly to zero along the length of drain.
194
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airnort. Thailand
160—r
Applied vacuum pressure
Measured surface vacumm pressure D t«
c_
_
_
(fl
u
-_
OH
_
O
E2
n 1 r
80 160
Time (Days)
(a) TVI
u
•~
P^
V
u
o
o
H
80
Time (Days)
(b)TV2
Figure 6.10 Measured total pore pressure and simulated vacuum pressure at surface
195
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
Figure 6.10 illustrates the measured pore pressure at various depths of the
embankment from electrical piezometers installed 0.5m away from the centreline. A
discrepancy between the measured and applied vacuum pressure is noted. The suction
head in the field could not be maintained because of possible air leaks. Therefore, in
numerical analysis, the magnitude of applied vacuum pressure at the surface with time
was adjusted based on the field measurements, which is also plotted in Figure 6.10.
The results of the multi-drain plane strain analysis (neglecting well resistance)
based on both models, together with the available field data, are shown in Figures 6.11
6.13. The predicted and measured settlements at various depths are illustrated in Figur
6.11. These plots show that the predictions based on Model 2 are much closer to the
field data than the predictions based on Model 1, i.e., the predictions based on the
changing smear zone with depth (estimated using cavity expansion analysis) are more
accurate than the results based on a constant extent of the smear zone. Even though the
total fill height and drain spacing are the same, and the length of drain under
embankment TVI is high, the rate of settlement under the embankment TV2 is greater
than TVI. In fact, the settlements under embankment TVI are about 22.52% smaller
than those of TV2. These differences could be attributed to the presence of geotextile
embankment TVI, as well as the different loading rate, and the variations in vacuum
pressure.
Comparisons between the predicted and measured excess pore water pressure 3m
below ground level for both embankments are shown in Figure 6.12. Once again, the
predicted excess pore pressures based on Model 2 agree well with the field data,
implying the correct assessment of the extent of the smear zone. It is important to not
that after about 100 days (end of embankment construction), the field measurements
196
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport Thailand
indicated an increase in pore water pressure, which further suggests that the constant
80
Time (Days)
Depth (m)
-40-
B
O
•*->
B
B
33 (b) T V 2
00 -80-
Symbols: Field data
Solid lines: Model 1
Dot lines: Model 2
•120-
0 40 80 120 160
Time (Days)
Figure 6.11 Settlement variation with depth for embankments (a) T V I and (b) T V 2
197
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport Thailand
30-
(a) T V I
Sa
_
Ui
Ui
<D
u
DH
_
S-l
O Field Data
PH
<z> Model 1
CO
_ Model 2
O
X -20-
W 0 40 80 120 160
Time (Days)
0.
S-i
_
_
_
1-
O
OH Field Data
<D
CJ Model 1
!><
Model 2
w
80 160
Time (Days)
Figure 6.12 Variation of excess pore water pressure at 3 m depth below ground level,
0.5m away from the centreline for embankments (a) TVI and (b) TV2
At the end of monitoring period (150 day) the lateral deformation measured by
the inclinometer installed at the toe of the embankments together with the predict
results are shown in Figure 6.13. Unlike settlement, the observed lateral displace
could not be matched well, but an acceptable agreement could be found below the
middle of the very soft clay layer using Model 2. But the field observations close
198
Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport, Thailand
ground surface do not support the significant 'inward' lateral movements as indicated
by the numerical predictions. These results confirm the difficulties associated with
(a) TVI
• Field Data
Model 1
Model 2
r
i 1 ' | | r |
50 100 150 200 250
Lateral Displacement ( m m )
• Field Data
Model 1
-- Model 2
40 80 160
Lateral Displacement ( m m )
Figure 6.13 Lateral displacement profiles (after 150days) through the toe of the
Previous studies on embankments constucted on soft clay have shown that the
displacement (Tavenas et al., 1979; Indraratna et al., 1997). The errors made in the
prediction of lateral movements can be numerous and are attributed to soil anisotropy
and the assumption of 2D plane strain. The embankment corner effects are not properly
modelled in 2D plane strain. The behaviour of the stiff crust just below the ground
surface cannot be modelled using conventional Cam-Clay properties but requires the
6.3 Summary
The performance of two test embankments stabilised with vertical drains subjected to
vacuum preloading was investigated using a plane strain (multi-drain) finite element
analysis. The effect of smear associated with PVD installation in conjunction with the
applied surcharge load and vacuum was considered. The predictions were made based
on two different models, namely, Model 1- assuming a constant extent of smear zone,
The predicted centreline settlement at different depths, excess pore water pressure
and lateral movement of the soil were compared with the available field data. Good
agreement between the predicted and measured settlements was found but the pore
pressures and lateral displacements were more difficult to match. Also, the settlement
analysis showed that the drainage efficiency of the embankment using perforated pipe
(TV2) is better compared to embankment using hypernet (TVI) drainage system. It was
200
— Chapter 6 Case Study: Second Bangkok International Airport. Thailand
demonstrated that the predictions based on Model 2 with the inclusion of time and depth
From the field studies, Choa (1989) also confirmed that the propagation of
vacuum pressure decreases substantially with depth due to various practical limitations,
improper sealing, and the nature of soil conditions (e.g. presence of fissures and macro-
pores). Hence, in this study, the assumption of diminishing vacuum pressure along the
than the vacuum assisted soft clay improvement, the use of a sufficient vacuum pressure
settlement, thereby compensating for the initial capital costs by enhanced speed of
201
— Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
IMPLICATIONS
7.1 General
today's civil engineering work. Due to increasing loads as well as the need to construct
in areas of soft and compressible soils necessitate the improvement of the soil
properties. The choice of the appropriate ground improvement technique has to be made
depending on the type of soil, the application of loads (loading rate) and the time
available for the improvement process. Evaluating the design and performance of each
numerical methods. Design charts or certain design methods based on well known
vertical drains. In general the embankments are constructed on variable ground with
design engineers.
For construction sites with a large number of PVDs, two-dimensional (2D) plane
efficiency. It is far less time consuming than a three dimensional (3D) multi-drain
analysis where each drain has its own axisymmetric (3-D) zone which substantially
affects mesh complexity and the corresponding convergence. In the analysis described
in this Chapter, axisymmetric to equivalent plane strain conversion was executed using
202
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
requirements, i.e., evaluation of initial stress, embankment slope, construction rate, the
spacing of vertical drains and the possibility to simulate the sequential construction
stages. In multi-stage construction a rest period is allowed after each stage of loading so
that excess pore water pressure in the foundation can dissipate. Such dissipation is
accompanied by consolidation and a gain in the soil strength. This increased shear
strength enables the embankment to be raised to a greater height during the next stage of
construction. In this Chapter, selected numerical studies have been carried out to
investigate the effect of the embankment slope, construction rate, drain spacing, extent
and parameters of the smear zone, stage loading, and the influence of surface crust on
In this section the effect of embankment slope and rate of embankment loading are
studied using the finite element code PLAXIS. The subsoil profile is assumed to consist
of 4 sub-layers. The Modified Cam-clay parameters and the soil properties are shown in
Table 7.1. The finite element mesh (15-node triangular element), which is used for this
analysis, is shown in the Figure 7.1 where only half the embankment (half base width is
adequate for the purpose of analysis because of the existence of a stiff clay layer
beneath this depth. The lateral boundary of the finite element is defined 100 m away
from the centreline of the embankment and the ground water table is assumed to be at
203
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
/'bulk =20 kN/m3; elastic parameters are £=105 kN/m2 and v = 0.3; and the strength
y Permeability (m/day)
Depth e0 X* K M v
(kN/m 3 ) fa fa
—U
^^\
\ / \ / \ \ \ \ \ Hj
yi\\
~7\/\ /
/
7\
1y
yi z \
l__--r-_A_/
A
Jl
—4
/ -\ - \__. • '
- \- -
t «• 1t T T T T T T T T T T T T r T
- T- t. .-H H fffffft! Iftftttftfttttttt tt
H T B-n
Figure 7.1 Finite element mesh (consists of 15-node elements) used in this analysis
204
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
The effect of embankment slope on foundation failure has been studied through plane
strain finite element analysis using the mesh shown in Figure 7.1. Three different slopes
(1:1, 2:1 and 3:1) are considered in the analysis and the influence of embankment
loading is simulated by a continuous loading of 0.1m per week until failure. Failure is
identified when the solution fails to converge and the displacement increases
continuously without further addition of load. It was noticed that excess pore pressure
The predicted centreline settlement and heave at the toe with embankment height and
the displacement contours when the fill height is 1.5 m are illustrated in Figures 7.2,
7.3, and 7.4, respectively. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show that settlement increases at a low
rate as the embankment height increases (up to about 1.75 m), after which there was a
significant and sudden change in the settlement rate is observed that was close to
failure. This clearly indicates that as expected a decrease in the embankment slope
would contribute to a greater height at failure and in this analysis the embankment
height at failure increases from 1.85 m to 2.25 m (increased by 21.6%), when the slope
The displacement contours are shown in Figure 7.4 when the embankment height is 1.5
m it is close to the failure embankment height. This indicates that when the
embankment is about to reach failure height, maximum displacement takes place near
the embankment toe. Once again, it proves that a decrease in embankment slope would
205
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
displacement. In this analysis when the slope decreases from 1:1 to 3:1 the maximum
0-
-200-
3 -400-
g Slope =1:1
3 -600H Slope = 2:1
ty_
-1000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Embankment Height (m)
1000-
800-
Slope=l:l
600- Slope = 2:1
Slope = 3:1
8 400H
X
200-
206
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
207
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
The lateral displacement contours for different embankment slope are shown in Figur
7.5 when the fill height is 1.5 m. This illuminates that the effect of embankment s
are more influential on lateral displacement than settlement. When the embankment
slope decreases from 1:1 to 3:1 the maximum lateral displacement decreases from
22.3%.
• _ _ _ _ _ — . ^ ^ — n i i i
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450
Lateral displacement ( m m )
208
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
Figure 7.6 shows the excess pore water pressure contours when the fill height is 1.5m,
which indicates there is no significant different in excess pore pressure with changes
the embankment slope. As a result the excess pore pressure measurement cannot be
displacements.
0 10 15 20 25
Excess pore water pressure (kPa)
0 10 15 20
Excess pore water pressure (kPa)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Excess pore water pressure (kPa)
Loading rates on foundation failure has been studied using the finite element mesh
shown in Figure 7.1. Embankment construction is simulated with three different loadi
rates (0.1, 0.2 and 0.25 meters per week), with an embankment side slope of 3:1.
Surface settlement at the embankment centreline and toe are depicted in Figures 7.7
7.8, respectively, which shows how failure height of embankment is influenced more b
the loading rate than the embankment slope. As expected, the slower construction rate
permits a greater embankment height at failure because this gradual rate allows more
dissipation of pore water pressure. When the loading rate increases from 0.1 to 0.25
meters per week the failure height of embankment decreases from 2.25 to 1.3 m.
0-
-200-
-400-
6
I -600-
&_
0.1 m/week
0.2 m/week
-800-
0.25 m/week
•1000-
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Embankment Height (m)
210
. Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
1000—i
800-
1 600-
200-
I i - | i 1 1 j
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Embankment Height (m)
Figure 7.9 shows the contour plot of total displacement, lateral displacement, and
excess pore water pressure for a loading rate of 0.2 meters per week when the fill heig
is 1.5 m. When the construction rate is 0.2 meters per week the maximum total and
lateral displacements are 1020 and 984.84 mm (Figure 7.9a and 7.9b), whereas these
values are reduced to 609.72 and 331.42 mm (Figure 7.4c and 7.5c) when the loading
rate is reduced to 0.1 meters per week. In other words, when the construction rate
increases from 0.1 to 0.2 meters per week the total and lateral displacements increase
67.29% and 197.16%, respectively. This result also confirms that, not only the rate of
construction influences the failure height of embankment, but also the failure could be
inclinometer.
When the embankment height is 1.5 m the maximum excess pore water pressure
for the construction loading of 0.1 and 0. 2 meters per week are 28.18 and 35.15 kPa,
211
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
respectively (Figure 7.6c and 7.9c). A s expected, the small construction rate results in
i a
smaller excess pore water pressure because the slower rate of construction allows th
0 105 210 315 420 525 630 735 840 945 1050
Total displacement ( m m )
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Lateral displacement ( m m )
Figure 7.9 Contour plots for a loading rate of 0.2 m/weck (the height and the slope of
212
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
high on very soft clays without any improvement to subsoil layers. However, higher
embankments are often needed and their rapid construction is often required given the
usual stringent deadlines. To achieve these goals, special construction measures such as
is often advantageous to install prefabricated vertical drains in the soft clay foundation
to decrease the length of drainage path and thereby speed up consolidation, as described
in details in Chapter 2.
The effect of vertical drains on embankment stability has been investigated via the
finite element code PLAXIS incorporating the 2-D plane strain solution proposed
earlier. An embankment slope of 3:1 is simulated at a construction rate of 0.2 meters per
week on a soft clay foundation improved with prefabricated vertical drains installed in a
square pattern. Since the dimensions of the prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs)
commonly in use today are quite small and the discharge capacities are big enough to
neglect well resistance, the PVDs are modelled using zero thickness drain elements to
avoid an unacceptable aspect ratio. In this section, five different analyses have been
iii. Effect of smear zone permeability for a given smear zone area
213
— . Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
different drain spacing. The converted equivalent plane strain permeability (/chp) of the
undisturbed zone is given in Table 7.2 as a function of drain spacing. The predicted
displacements are compared with the 'no drain condition'. Surface settlement at the
embankment centreline and the displacement at the embankment toe are shown in
Figures 7.10 and 7.11, respectively. Figure 7.10 shows h o w the installation of drains
significantly increases the settlement rate while displacement at the toe (Figure 7.11),
represents the effect of spacing on the potential failure height. Figure 7.11 demonstrates
that the failure height increases from 1.3 m (no drain) to more than 5 m w h e n vertical
faP (m/day)
Depth
5=1 m S=2 m
214
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Impl'
N o drains
Drains at 2.0 m spacing
-200- Drains at 1.0 m spacing
-400-
§
OJ
-600-
CO
-800-
•1000- -| i | i | i | i
Figure 7.10 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for different drain spacing
1000
800-
600-
_
i_L 4 0 0 -
N o drains
200- Drains at 2.0 m spacing
Drains at 1.0 m spacing
r
2 3
Embankment Height (m)
215
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
The lateral displacement contours for different drain spacing are plotted in Figure
7.12 when the embankment height is 1.5m. The maximum lateral displacement for 'no
drain' condition and for drains installed at 2 m and 1 m intervals, are 984.84, 417.
and 270.15 mm, respectively. This result proves that the installation of vertical dr
curtail the lateral displacement because the PVD's decrease the lateral yield due to
In the field, the vertical drains are installed using a steel mandrel. This process
216
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling a n d Desitm [mplir--,..-.-,.
mandrel. The resulting smear zone will have a reduced lateral permeability, which
affects the pore pressure dissipation rate. In this section the effect of the extent of
smear zone is studied by assuming a constant permeability ratio (kjk'h =2), and two
different areas of smear zone (rs/rw= 4 and 6). Tlie converted plane strain permeabiliti
are given in Table 7.3 as a function of the extent of the smear zone for a drain spaci
of 2m. The predicted settlement and displacements are compared with those of 'perfect
drain' condition. Figures 7.13 and 7.14 illustrate surface settlement at the embankment
Figure 7.13 shows that the degree of consolidation is affected by the extent of the
smear zone (i.e., the degree of consolidation decreases as the extent of the smear zon
increases). Displacement at the embankment toe for two different extent of the smear
zone is plotted in Figure 7.14. This indicates that the displacement increases with th
extent of the smear zone, thereby decreasing in the failure height of embankment. For
example, when the embankment height is 2m the displacement increases from 541.41 to
778.97 mm (an increased of about 44%), while the extent of smear zone ratio (rs/rw)
varies from 1 to 6.
khp (m/day)
Depth fav (m/day)
rs/rw=4 rs/rw=6
217
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
0-,
^^5r>-
\_-»
-04-
'V ^
v
B 0 8-
«_•
IB \^ --V
V_ T. r i •
Perfect drain
-1.2- With smear (rs=4rw)
With smear (rs=6rw)
f.
u 1 , | i | 1 '
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Fill Height (m)
Figure 7.13 Surface settlement at embankment centreline for two different smear zones
1.6-
1.2-
Perfect drain
With smear (rs=4rw)
8
CD 0.8- With smear (rs=6rw)
O
'E,
Ui
0.4-
0-| T
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.5
Fill Height (m)
Figure 7.14 Displacement at embankment toe for two different smear zone
218
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
In the previous section the effect of the extent of smear zone was studied and it wa
concluded that the extent of the smear zone would play a major role in the prediction
embankment behaviour. Here, an attempt is made to study the role of smear zone
(rs/rw is taken as 6). The converted plane strain permeabilities are shown in Table 7.
Figures 7.15 and 7.16 present the predicted surface settlement at the centreline
and displacement at the embankment toe for four different permeability ratios where a
expected a higher settlement is shown by the lower permeability ratio (Figure 7.15).
Also, Figure 7.15 shows there is no sudden change in the settlement rate when the
permeability ratio is small (2 or 3), but when it's high (5-10), the settlement rate
suddenly changed when the embankment height was about 2.5m high. This is a clear
indication that failure height is influenced by the permeability of the smear zone.
hP (m/day), when
Depth fap (m/day) -
kjkh=3 kjkh=5 kjkh=\0
219
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
0.0-r
1 2
Fill height (m)
ratios
0 0.5 1 1.5
Fill height (m)
220
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
Figure 7.16 shows the displacements at embankment toe for different permeability
ratios. It is observed from Figure 7.16 that irrespective of permeability ratios, the rate
displacement is almost the same at small embankment heights (less than 1 m). This
analysis reaffirms that the performance of an embankment is not only influenced by the
extent of the smear zone, but also by the accurate evaluation of the smear zone
permeability.
In those situations discussed above the embankment is likely to fail at smaller heights
because the strength of the foundation soil is not sufficient to withstand higher loads. I
this situation potential failure can be avoided by halting construction and allowing a
sufficiently period of time to dissipate the pore pressure. The corresponding increase in
shear strength contributes to an increased height of embankment during the next loading
stage.
strain analysis was conducted for a perfect drain (the spacing is assumed to be 2m) with
embankment centreline with time and fill height is plotted in Figure 7.18. This clearly
shows that the settlement rate is almost the same for all loading stages but in the case o
continuous loading the displacement rate suddenly increased when the fill height
221
.Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
5-1
4-
1"
_3 ^
_-
* 2 ^ Loading rate = 0.2 m/week
E
" Stage loading
1-
Continuous loading
0-
0 H
100 200 300
Time (days)
0.0-1
Figure 7.18 Surface settlement at embankment centreline with (a) time, (b) fill height
When the embankment height is 1.6 m the total and lateral displacements
illustrated in Figures 7.19 and 7.20, respectively. This shows that a 25 days resting
period after lm loading decreases the total and lateral displacements by about 15% a
222
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
Figure 7.20 Lateral displacement contours when the fill height is 1.6 m
223
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
To demonstrate the effect of the surface crust the above example has been re-analyse
by assuming that the top 2 m of the surface as weathered compacted clay. Because the
surface crust has a high overconsolidation ratio it can be modelled using the Mohr-
Coulomb model with the following elastic properties: Young's modulus, __.=25 MN/m
Figure 7.21, which shows that the surface crust plays the role of increasing the pot
0-i~^\\
^\""*--.
\
\^ !-.. with crust
-20- -20- \ *\
B - ^*s^
1T \. \with crust O
-40- ^v ;
o !_ \^^ 1^
<U> ^v Ns
r -40- fi
<D -60-
N.
\^
§ a<u \.
*^
oo without crust %
-
M -60- without crust\
\
-80-
<D -80-
00
\
-100— 1 1 • '
-100— i I i | i | i | <
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 1 2
Time (days) Fill height (m)
(a) (b)
example, shows the occurrence of maximum settlement beneath the side slope of the
embankment rather than at the centreline, and Figure 7.20 illustrates the occurrenc
224
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
m a x i m u m lateral displacement at a section through the middle of the side slope rather
strain are plotted in Figure 7.22 when the height is increased from 1.8 to 2.0 m.
_^^^H
^^^^^
1 _1^^^^
Figure 7.22 Increment contours when the embankment height increases from 1.8 to 2.0
m (a) vertical displacement, (b) lateral displacement, and (c) shear strain
225
— — — • Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
Figures 7.22a and 7.22b also indicate a discrepancy in the critical locations and as
expected, the lateral displacement and shear strain contours show a very similar patter
(Figure 7.22b and 7.22c). The above variations could be the result of shear-induced
displacements (Zhang, 1999). In the following section an attempt is made to explain the
displacements occur at, or close to the embankment centerline and at the toe of the
embankment, respectively. This is true for most soft soil foundations under highway
embankments (narrow) but this may differ for soil foundations beneath wide
embankments such as airport terminals. The settlement profiles (Figure 7.23), beneath
Muar test embankments in Malaysia, showed that the location of maximum settlement
occurred slightly away from the centerline and gradually moved towards the centerline
as the fill height increased (Indraratna et al., 1992). That is, the locations where the
maximum settlements occurred were 11.0m, 10.5m, 9.0m, and 5.5m corresponding to
the embankment height of 2m, 3m, 4m and 5m. This discrepancy could be the result of
The stress distributions beneath an embankment are closely related to the settlement
226
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
Ground
Level
a.
<D
>
o
c_
o
'-5 Measured surface settlement
> • Fill height,h=2 m
• Fill height,h=3 m
• Fill height,h=4 m
x Fill height,h=5 m
10 20 30 40
Distnace form centreline (m)
Figure 7.23 Measured settlement of Muar test embankment, Malaysia (after Indraratna
et al., 1992)
• x
227
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
The induced vertical stress (Arjv) and shear stress (Axxz) due to embankment loading at
point A (x, _.) can be derived based on the theory of elasticity, as follows (modifi
Gray, 1936):
A ynz( . (7.2)
Ka
angles are:
a2 = tan-l
az (7.3b)
2
z +(a + b-x\b-x)
bz (7.3c)
Px = tan *
z +x (b + x)
bz
and, Pi = tan-l (7.4d)
z -x (b-x\
Figure 7.25 illustrates the variation of the increment of vertical total stress and
This clearly indicates that shear stress is negligible in the central area but is mo
significant than the vertical stress under the side slope of the embankment, i.e., s
228
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
>
<
S-c
&
<D
IH
O a=2,b=18,h=2, z=6
a -- - - a=4, b=16, h=4, z=6
<u
O
a=6,b=14,h=3,z=6
_> a=8,b=12,h=4,z=6
13
cs — a=2,b=18,h=2,z=6
a=4,b=16,h=4,z=6 / \
N
X — a=6, b=14, h=3, z=6
< 20- - a=8,b=12,h=4,z=6 \
1 I "T
10 15
Distance from centreline (m)
Figure 7.26 shows the variation of shear stress with horizontal distance for two
embankments at different depths. These plots indicate that the largest shear stre
foundation induced by embankment loads occurs beneath the middle of the side slop
At these locations the distribution of shear stress with normalized depth are sho
229
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
Figure 7.27 for eight embankments, which certifies that the m a x i m u m shear stress
0 4 8
Distance from centreline, x (m)
Figure 7.26 Variation of shear stress with horizontal direction at different depths
230
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
M a x . Shear stress
(Average, z/h=1.7)
w=20m|
Critical section-
1
Solid lines for 1:1 slope
Dot lines for 2:1 slope
10 20 30
Shear stress, x x z (kPa)
Figure 7.27 Shear stress distribution with normalized depth under embankments
(Zhang, 1999) and clarified based on Figures 7.25-27, it is reasonable to argue that the
critical locations under embankments occur at a vertical section through the middle of
the side slope, and a horizontal section at a depth of 1.7 times the fill height. This is
good agreement with the numerical predictions (for example, see Figures 7.5, 7.9b, and
in Figure 7.28 when the embankment height increases from 1.8 to 2.0 m. This also
shows that the maximum lateral displacement occurred in the middle of side slope, 17m
231
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
6-
14 m from centreline
Q
9- 16 m from centreline
17 m from centreline
(middle of side slope)
18 m from centreline
12-
20 m from centreline
(embankment toe)
15-
The distance from the embankment centreline to the point where m a x i m u m settlement
*-rHl (7.4)
where, L is the distance from the embankment centreline within which the settlement
can be considered as 1-D (i.e., the region in which the shear stress is negligible).
232
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
7.4 Summary
The stability of a typical embankment constructed on soft clay was analysed using a
number of plane strain finite element models. The factors influencing the failure of
It was found that a steeper slope and greater construction rates reduce the failure
height. For very soft clays the critical height is about 2 m unless the foundation is
stabilized by vertical drains or other means but higher embankments are often needed
and moreover, their rapid construction is pertinent given the usual stringent deadlines.
In these instances use of vertical drains in soft clay is an economical and effective way
height is more sensitive on extent of smear zone and its permeability. Therefore, it is
Thesis.
The analysis with multi-staged construction shows those intermediate rest periods
dissipation prior to subsequent loading. Numerical predictions with the surface crust
233
Chapter 7 Numerical Modelling and Design Implications
show that it increases the embankment height by decreasing settlement. Finally, the
critical locations beneath the embankment have been explained using induced shear
stress. This analysis shows that the critical locations under the embankments occur at a
vertical section through the middle of the side slope, and at horizontal section at a dep
of about 1.7 times the fill height, for the range of properties considered in this study.
234
— Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
8.1 General
Although significant progress has been made in the past through analytical and
numerical modelling (Hird et al., 1992; Chai et al., 1995; Indraratna and Redana, 1997
among others), the available literature indicates that there has always been a
with vertical drains. This discrepancy is usually attributed to numerous factors such as
the uncertainty of soil properties, estimating the effect of smear, the inability of exist
to the plane strain (2-D) analysis of vertical drains. Some of these uncertainties and
difficulties are overcome through this doctoral research by studying the effect of smear
in more detail as well as the proper conversion of the axisymmetric to plane strain with
greater rigour.
The accuracy of the settlement estimation relies on the correct assessment of the
plotted with depth. In multi-stage construction, it is important to note that the first st
of loading might not exceed the natural preconsolidation pressure of the foundation soil.
Therefore, appropriate values for compression index (Cr and Cc or K and X) should be
selected which may represent a state of over-consolidation. The overall conclusions are
presented below in addition to the concluding remarks made earlier at the end of
individual chapters.
235
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
In this research a new method for evaluating the extent of the smear zone using cavity
vacuum pressure has been carried out incorporating the smear effects. Well resistance
has been ignored in this analysis because previous studies have shown that the effect of
well resistance could be ignored for most modern prefabricated vertical drains which do
The proposed solutions were incorporated into the finite element code PLAXIS
vertical drains. The predictions based on the proposed model were compared with the
available field data and an acceptable agreement was found. Finally, the proposed
model was used to predict the failure height of embankments under various conditions.
Specific conclusions, which can be drawn based on this study, are summarised below in
details.
1. Previous studies indicated that the effect of smear is a significant and unavoidable
problem caused by mandrel driven prefabricated vertical drains (PVD). The size and
permeability of the smear zone is often difficult to quantify and determine from
laboratory tests and thus far, there is no comprehensive or standard method for
proposed to estimate the extent of the smear zone and the predicted results were
236
—•— Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
verified via large-scale consolidometer testing. The extent of smear zone evaluated
from the large-scale laboratory studies (described in Section 8.22) is close to the
value that calculated using the proposed CET solution. This results show that the
CET solution could be used to estimate the extent of the smear zone.
2. Existing theories based on the Darcian linear flow law of a unit cell (Hansbo, 1981,
application. This combined vacuum and surcharge preloading technique follows the
principle of superposition, using the same equation for analysing the degree of
3. New plane strain lateral consolidation equations based on exponential flow were
formulated which are valid for both Darcian and non-Darcian flow. A matching
procedure for the proposed solution was explained, and the new parameters
introduced in this study were graphically presented for the convenience of practical
application.
installation) in the immediate vicinity of the mandrel, and reduced the horizontal
permeability and water content surrounding the drain. This induced pore pressure
was compared with the predicted value and a good agreement was found. The extent
of the smear zone based on the induced pore water pressure was about 2.4-2.6 times
237
— Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
the equivalent radius of the mandrel. This is comparable with previous research
reported in the literature. For example, Hansbo (1979), mdraratna and Redana
(1998) Chai and Miura (1999) proposed that the extent of smear zone is about 1.5 -
3, 2 ~ 3, and 2-3 times the mandrel radius, respectively, which is close to the
significantly decreases within the smear zone, whereas the variation in vertical
permeability (fa) with radial distance is generally negligible. The extent of the smear
zone was estimated based on the permeability anisotropy (fa/fa ratio) and
normalised permeability (fa/fau ratio). These results verified that smear zone was
about 5 times the equivalent drain radius while horizontal permeability (in the smear
zone) was smaller by 1.0943 to 1.6437 (an average of 1.3429) times that of the
undisturbed zone. Moreover, the fa/fa ratio converged towards unity close to the
found to be confined within a narrow band for all surcharge pressures, and based on
this result, the smear zone was estimated to be around 5 times the equivalent drain
radius. An empirical expression between the reduction of water content and the
change in horizontal permeability within the smear zone was found. This empirical
expression is useful in a practical sense for estimating the lateral smear zone
4. The excess pore water pressure and the surface settlement of the soil observed in th
large-scale consolidometer were compared with the predicted values. Given the
238
. Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
good agreement, one can conclude that the proposed analytical solutions can be used
between the available field data and numerical predictions of the few full-scale
embankments reported in this study. The effect of smear associated with PVD
installation was considered, while the effect of well resistance was neglected for
reasons explained earlier. Based on the proposed CET solution, the extent of the
smear zone was evaluated to be about 4-6 times the equivalent radius of the drain,
and also the smear zone size was found to vary with depth. There is no doubt that
the accurate prediction of the extent of the smear zone is also dependent upon the
a very good match between the predicted and measured settlements, whereas an
acceptable agreement was found between the predicted and measured excess pore
pressures. Even though lateral displacements were harder to match, still a reasonable
comparison was found below a depth of 3m. In addition, the following conclusions
smear effect because the total area of the smear zone is higher under a closer
239
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
spacing system (note that the area of the smear zone is proportional to
number of drains).
(ii) Vertical drains increase the lateral movement under the middle of the main
(m) Maximum lateral movement occurred at a depth approximately 1.7 times the
fill height.
(iv) Near the surface, the lateral displacements were harder to match due to the
does not obey the modified Cam-clay theory or the simplified Mohr-
Coulomb theory.
preloading were investigated using a plane strain finite element analysis. Predictions
were made based on two different models: (1) assuming a constant extent of smear,
and (2) varying the extent of the smear zone, with depth. It was demonstrated that
the predicted values based on Model 2 are in good agreement with the field data. In
addition, the following conclusions can be drawn from this case history analysis:
(i) The extent of the smear zone variation with the inclusion of time and depth
of predictions.
240
— — Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
(ii) The drainage efficiency of the perforated pipe is better than the hypernet.
1. The height of an embankment, which can be raised on soft clay without any stability
spacing, smear zone parameters, subsoil properties, and the method of construction
2. A steeper slope and faster construction rate would reduce failure height, but the
drains (PVD). Introduction of PVD for subsurface drainage can provide increased
stiffness of the soft clay and curtail lateral displacement substantially, thereby
minimizing the risk of shear failure. The drain spacing and propagation of smear
effect will influence the critical height of embankment. Even though the ultimate
settlement of the soil is not changed by the pattern of PVD, their spacing and length
can still influence the construction rate and final height of embankment.
3. The drain installation method should be carefully implemented to reduce the smear
effect as much as possible. The foundation response upon loading is more sensitive
to nominal changes in the permeability of the smear zone than its size.
241
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
6. Stress distribution beneath the embankment showed that the role of shear stress is
negligible in the central area but more significant under the side slope of the
maximum settlement is found to occur slightly away from the centerline, but
gradually moved towards the centerline as the fill height was increased. A similar
trend was also observed beneath the Muar test embankments in Malaysia (Indraratna
etal., 1992).
7. The critical locations beneath an embankment have also been explained on the basis
of induced shear stress. This analysis demonstrates that the critical locations under
the embankments occur in a vertical section through the middle of the side slope,
and at a horizontal section at a depth of about 1.7 times the fill height.
Based on the current study, further analytical, numerical, and experimental studies
associated with embankments stabilised with vertical drains are recommended. Such
242
. Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
code may be written so that it can be used for both Darcian and non-Darcian flow.
accurately, the use of complex constitutive models such as MIT-E3 (Whittle, 1991)
and Structured Cam Clay model (Liu et.al. 2002) incorporating the anisotropy
3. The drain-soil interface is often unsaturated, and therefore, the soil constitutive
models employed in this current study should be further extended to become more
realistic for unsaturated soils. For this purpose, a separate subroutine incorporating
moisture characteristic curves may be developed to directly link the laboratory data
data (when available). Therefore, if the field permeability values are not available, it
5. Controlled stress path testing of soft foundation soils is also preferred in order to
obtain the most accurate soil properties and to rationally quantify the role of the
243
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
6. The numerical model should also incorporate the role of both axial and lateral
where a continuous vertical drain 'wall' is assumed, the increased stiffiiess of this
drain 'wall' may become excessively higher than the soft clay (of same wall
thickness), hence the need for modelling the correct stiffness should be considered.
recommended to carry out a parametric study on the assumed plane strain model.
Various parameters such as construction rate, embankment slope, and drain spacing
etc. should be taken into account, and finally, a numerical scheme to estimate
8. Comprehensive design charts for a combined vertical and radial drainage system
with vacuum and surcharge pressure application can be developed based on non-
9. The author used an Excel spreadsheet formulation to evaluate the extent of the
smear zone and equivalent plane strain permeabilities, however, it is advisable that a
10. The accurate prediction of foundation response requires careful examination of soil
properties and the selection of an appropriate soil model, especially for the topmost
over consolidated (compacted) crust. The available soil models, such as the Mohr-
Coulomb and modified Cam-clay model are not appropriate for modelling the
244
Chapter 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
soil fabric and anisotropy. Therefore, it is recommended that the available soil
11. In many classical theories (e.g. Barron, 1948; Hansbo, 1981), the influence of the
zone with natural permeability and a smear zone with reduced permeability. In
addition, they assumed that the permeability within the smear zone is constant,
permeability varies with radial distance within the smear zone. Therefore, it is
recommended that the available axisymmetric and plane strain solutions are
modified to incorporate this permeability variation within the smear zone. A linear
245
• . Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thailand, 40 p.
pp. 159-164.
well resistance in the vertical drain method. Soils and Foundations, 17(4): pp.38-
Akagi, T. (1977). Effect of mandrel-driven sand drains on strength. Proc. 9th Int.
Akagi, T. (1981). Effect of Mandrel-driven sand drains on soft clay. Proc. 10th In
Almeida, M.S.S. and Ferreira, C.A.M. (1993). Field in situ and laboratory
American Society of Testing and Materials, (1993). Annual Book of ASTM Standards:
246
Asian Institute of Technology, (1995). The Full Scale Field Test of Prefabricated
Vertical Drains for The Second Bangkok International Airport (SBIA), Final Report
Atkinson, M.S. and Eldred, P.J.L. (1981). Consolidation of soil using vertical dr
Atkinson, J.H. and Potts, D.M., (1977). Subsidence above shallow circular tunnels
Babu, G.L.S., Pandian, N.S. and Nagaraj, T.S. (1993). A re-examination of the
Baligh, M.M. (1985). Strain path method, J. Geotech. Enggr. ASCE, Vol. Ill, No. 9,
pp. 1108-1136
effects of vertical drains on soft Bangkok clay. J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE, Vol. 117,
improvement of soft Bangkok clay with combined vacuum and reduced sand
embankment preloading. J. Geotech. Eng., Southeast Asian Geotch. Soc, Vol. 29,
Bergado, D.T. and Long, P.V. (1994). Numerical analysis of embankment on subsiding
ground improved by vertical drains and granular piles. Proc. 13th ICSMFE, New
247
Bergado, D.T., Manivannan, R. and Balasubramaniam, A. S. (1996). Proposed Criteria
Geomembrances, 14 :481-505.
12:pp.l55-164.
Bo, M. W., Chu, J. and Choa, V. (1999). Factors affecting the assessment of degree
Singapore, 481-486.
Bo, M.W., Chu, J., Low, B.K. and Choa, V. (2003). Soil improvement; prefabricated
Bangkok clay. Proc. 8th European Conf. Soil Mech and Foundation Enggr., Helsinki,
Britto, A.M. and Gunn, M.J. (1987). Critical State Soil Mechanics via Finite Eleme
Burland, J.B. (1965). The yielding and dilation of clay. Geotechnique 15(2): 211-21
Carillo, N. (1942). Simple Two and Three Dimensional Cases in The Theory of
Consolidation of Soils. J. Math, and Phys, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 1-5.
pp. 46-53.
Carter, J.P., Randolph, M.F. and Wroth, C.P. (1979). Some Aspects of the Performan
248
— —. Bibliography
Chai, J.C. and Miura, N. (1999). Investigation of factors affecting vertical drain
Chai, J. C, Miura, N., Sakajo, S. and Bergado, D. (1995). Behavior of vertical drai
Chai, J.C, Shen, S.L., Miura, N. and Bergado, D.T. (2001). Simple method of modelli
Chang, M.F., Tech, C.I. and Cao, L.F. (1999). Critical state strength parameters o
saturate clays from the modified Cam clay model. Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 36, pp. 8
890.
Cheung, Y. K., Lee, P. K. K. and Xie, K. H. (1991). Some remarks on two and three
Geotechnics, Elsevier Sci. Publishers Ltd, England (GB), Vol. 12, pp. 73-87.
Chu, J., Yan, W. and Yang, H. (2000). Soil improvement by the vacuum preloading
method for an oil storage station, Geotechnique, Vol. 50, No. 6, pp 625-632
Choa, V. (1989). Drains and vacuum preloading pilot test, Proc. 12th Inter. Conf. o
Christopher, B.R. and Holtz, R.D. (1985). Geotextile Engineering Manual. U.S. Fede
249
— Bibliography
Biot and Terzaghi, Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics, Vol.
de Jager, W.F.J, and Oostveen, J.P. (1990). Systematic quality control of vertical
th
den Hoedt, G.D. (1981). Laboratory testing vertical drains. Proceedings. 10th Intern
Du, J. and Zhang, L. (2001). Simplified procedure for estimating ground settlement
clay. In Consolidation of soil. Testing and evaluation, ASTM STP 892, pp.354-377.
250
• . Bibliography
Hansbo, S. (1987). Design aspects of vertical drains and lime column installation.
Hansbo, S. (2001). Consolidation equation valid for both Darcian and non-Darcian
Hird, CC, Pyrah, I.C. and Russell, D. (1992). Finite element modelling of vertical
drains beneath embankments on soft ground. Geotechnique, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 499-
511.
Hird, CC, Pyrah, I.C, Russell, D. and Cinicioglu, F. (1995). Modeling the effect of
251
— Bibliography
Hird, CC. and Moseley, V.J. (2000). Model study of seepage in smear zones around
Holtz, R.D. and Holm, G. (1973). Excavation and sampling around some sand drains
bent prefabricated vertical drains. Proc. 12th ICSMFE, Rio De Janeiro, Vol. 3. pp
1657-1660.
vertical drains: design and performance, C1R1A ground engineering report: ground
embankment stabilized with vertical drains on soft clay. J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE,
252
• Bibliography
settlement and lateral deformation of soft clay foundation beneath two full-scale
practice, Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Ground Improvement Tech. Malaysia, pp 47-62
with central drain facility. Australian Geomechanics, Vol 29, pp. 103-105.
associated with vertical drains. J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE, 123(5): pp. 474-478
Indraratna, B. and Redana, I W. (1999). Closure: Plane strain modeling of smear eff
associated with vertical drains. J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE, Vol. 123, No. 5, pp. 474-
478.
253
Bibliography
smear and well resistance installed in soft clay, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 37
132-145.
Jaky, J. (1944). The coefficient of earth pressure at rest. Journal for Society of
Int. Conf. Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., Stockholm, Vol. 1, pp 345-451.
speeding up consolidation. Proc. 8th European Conf. Soil Mech. And Found. Eng.,
subsoil. Proc. 11th Inte. Conf. on SMFE, Rio de Janeiro, Vol2, pp.1377-1380
Kremer, R., de Jager, W., Maagdenberg, A., Meyvogel, I. and Oostveen, J. (1982).
254
Kremer, R., Oostveen, J., Van Weele, A.F., de Jager, W . and Meyvogel, I. (1983). The
Lau, K.W.K. and Cowland, J.W. (2000). Geosynthetically enhanced embankments for
Lawrence, C.A. and Koerner, R.M. (1988). Flow behaviour of kinked strip drains. Pr
Lin, D.G., Kim, H.K. and Balasubramaniam, A.S. (2000). Numerical modelling of
Liu, M.D., and Carter, J.P. (2002). A structured Cam Clay Model. Research Report, N
Liu, M.D., and Carter, J.P. (2002). A structured Cam Clay Model. Can. Geotech. J. 3
1313-1332
Lo, KY. and Stermac, A.G. (1965). Failure of an embankment founded on varved
255
. Bibliography
Long, R.P. and Covo, A. (1994). Equivalent diameter of vertical drains with an obl
cross section. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, Vol. 120, No. 9, pp. 1625-1630.
Madhav, M., Park, Y.M. and Miura, N. (1993). Modelling and study of smear zone
around band shaped drains. Soils and Foundations, Vol.33, N0.4, pp.135-147.
Magnan, J.P. and Deroy, J.M. (1980). The graphic analysis of observed settlements
45-52.
Mayne, P.W. and Kulhawy, F.H. (1982). K0 - OCR relationship in soils. Journal of
interrelationship. J. Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, Vol. 103, No. GT5, pp. 417-430.
Mesri, G. and Lo, D.O.K. (1991). Field performance of prefabricated vertical drain
Miller, R.J. and Low, P.F. (1963). Threshold gradient for water flow in clay syste
Illinois, 19.p.
Onoue, A. (1988). Consolidation by vertical drains taking well resistance and smea
into consideration. J. Soils and Foundations, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 165-174.
256
—
• Bibliography
Onoue, A., Ting, N.H., Germaine, J.T. and Whitman, R.V., (1991). Permeability of
disturbed zone around vertical drains. Proc. ASCE Geotech. Enggr. Congress,
Porter, O.J. (1936). Studies of fill construction over mudflats including a descri
Poulos, H.G. and Davis, E.H. (1974). Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics.
Pradhan, T.B.S., Imai, G., Murata, T., Kamon, M. and Suwa, S. (1993). Experiment
257
Bibliography
Ratnayake, A.M.P. (1991). Performance of test embankments with and without vertic
Bangkok, Thailand.
Raymond, G.P. and Wahls, H.E. (1976). Estimation 1-D consolidation, including
Rixner, J.J., Kraemer, S.R. and Smith, A.D. (1986). Prefabricated Vertical Drains,
Roscoe, K.H. and Burland, J.B. (1968). On the generalized stress strain behavior
Samarasinghe, A.M., Huang, Y.H. and Drenevich, V.P. (1982). Permeability and
258
' • . Bibliography
theories, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Proc. ASCE, Vol. 9
Schofield, A.N. and Wroth, CP. (1968). Critical State Soil Mechanics. McGraw Hil
London, 310 p.
reclaimed land: a case study, Can. Geotech. J., Vol 35, pp. 740-749.
Shogaki, T., Moro, H., Masaharu, M., Kaneko, M., Kogure, K. and Sudho, T. (1995).
Stamatopoulos, A.C. and Kotzias, P.C (1985). Soil Improvement by Preloading. Joh
Willey,p.261.
Stermac, A.G., Lo, K.Y. and Barsvary, A. (1967). The performance of an embankment
variable loading. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., London, Vol.
pp. 444-448.
259
Tavenas, F., Jean, P., Leblond, P. and Leroueil, S. (1983a). The permeability of natura
Tavenas, F., Jean, P., Leblond, P. and Leroueil, S. (1983). The permeability of na
soft clays, Part II: Permeability characteristics. Can., Geotech., J., Vol. 20,
660.
Taylor, D.W. (1948). Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics. Johm Wiley and Sons Inc., Ne
York, p.700.
Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R.B. (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. 2nd e
Ting, N.H., Onoue, A., Germaine, J.T., Whitman, R.V. and Ladd, CC (1990). Effects
Van Zanten, R. (1986). The guarantee of the quality of vertical drainage systems.
Whittle, A.J. and Kawadas, M.J. (1994). Formulation ofMIT-E3 constitutive model f
Xiao, D. (2001). Consolidation of soft clay using vertical drains. PhD thesis, Na
260
________________________ Bibliography
Wells with Finite Permeability. Japan Soc. Soil Mech. and Found. Eng. Vol. 14, No
2, pp. 35-46.
Zeng, G.X. and Xie, K.H. 1989. New development of the vertical drain theories.
Zeng, G.X., Xie, K.H. and Shi, Z.Y. (1987). Consolidation analysis of sand drained
261
Appendix 1 R - O C R Relationship
To properly account for the effect of initial stress condition, one needs to differentiate
between the overconsolidation ratio defined in terms of either the vertical effective
stress or the mean effective stress. The isotropic overconsolidation ratio, R, is defined a
the ratio of maximum stress on yield locus pc0 and the in situ mean effective stress p0.
That is,
R=^f- (Al)
Po
condition as the ratio of the vertical preconsolidation stress crvmax and the in situ
0CR=^vnmX_ (A2)
CT
vO
The in situ mean effective stress is usually related with the in situ effective vertical
stress as:
Kulhawy, 1982)
262
^O^OncOCR8^
(A4)
I
soil and can be estimated from the well known expression (Jaky, 1944):
W h e n <7v0 reacheso-vmax, the maximum past mean effective stress p'm becomes
1, .,
Pm -^V 1 + 2A-0nc)_rvmax (A6)
a
m = (l-^0nc)°"vmax = s i n ^ <*vmax (A7)
Substituting Eqns. (A6) and (A7) into the M C C equation, the p'c0 can be found as
where, M: slope of critical state line, can be related with effective friction angle as:
., 6sind . / 3M
M = or sin^ = 6 + M (A9)
3-sin^
Substituting Eqns. (A3) and (A8) into Eqn. (Al) and rearranging with Eqns. (A2), (A4),
263
Appendix 1 R - O C R Relationship
Figure A l shows the relationship between the isotropic overconsolidation ratio and the
shows that assuming R to be equal to OCR may produce errors up to a 20%, and there is
<<
_.
a
o
"_J
—i
"3
00
C
o
0
.3
>
Mo
1.4-
o
.—.
OH
o
o
Ui
Figure A l Variation of the isotropic and conventional overconsolidation ratio with slope
264