Written communication

1. Written communication
Written communication involves the related process of writing and reading. Writing is
a complex process involving encoding a message into a series of graphic symbols
according to the conventions of language to form a text. This text can then be decoded
by a reader. In the same way as a speaker speaks to a listener or listeners, a writer
writes for a target reader or readers.
Whereas, the listener is often present in the act of communication, except in the case of
radio and television, the reader is usually not; this is the most likely reason for choosing
written communication over oral communication. It is therefore very important for the
message to be written in a clear way that the potential reader can decode the message
without any help from the writer.
Speaking is ephemeral, transitory once something has been said it can never be
changed, adjusted. This is also true for speech which is recorded, as it can never be put
back into the context in which it was originally spoken. In contrast, writers may write
various drafts of a text, re-reading and reforming the text before they achieve a finished
version.
The fact that the interlocutor is not present to show how well
the communication is being conveyed, and the impossibility of using paralinguistic or
extralinguistic elements in the text, such as gesture, intonation, etc., mean that it is the
language itself which carries the weight of transmitting the message. There is some use
of paralinguistic elements in written communication, for example, punctuation,
underlining, capitalisation, etc., but compared to what can be done in oral
communication their use is limited.

Written communication is used for various reasons, the primary one being physical
distance between the participants in the communication process. The reader may be
known to the writer, for example when someone writes a letter, or more usually
nowadays, an email to a friend or relative.
In other cases, the reader is not personally known to the writer, for example, a letter to
an institution or company. Writing is also used to communicate to a large audience, for
example through a newspaper or magazine.
It is evident that writing is a very complex activity, and one which needs to be learned
even in the native language. All children learn to speak naturally, but not all learn to
write fluently and well. Indeed, if children were not taught how to write, they would not
write at all.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE

Perhaps the main difference between written language and the majority of spoken
language is the lack of feedback caused by the fact that the interlocutor is not present.
This feedback is very important in oral communication as it gives the speaker valuable
information about how the message is or is not being transmitted. Therefore, the writer
must take care to express the message as clearly as possible, often repeating,
summarising and referring back to what has already been stated, in order to make the
message as clear as possible.
Davies and Widdowson have identified the following functions which are present in
written texts:

THE MODAL FUNCTION This function shows the attitude of the

writer to his message. This is often
achieved through the use of modal verbs.
THE METALINGUAL FUNCTION This function shows what the writer
intends his/her terms to mean.
THE CONTACT FUNCTION This function has the purpose of
maintaining contact and communication
with the reader by keeping the channel
open.

Among the differences between written and spoken language are:

 the grammar tends to be more complex and formal in written language
 there is more pre-modification and subordination, and certain structures such as
passives are much more common.
 sentences usually tend to be longer
 The vocabulary used in written language is more carefully selected and therefore
more precise.

2. Different types of written texts

Depending on the criteria used, there are different ways of classifying texts. A text can
be formal, informal, prepared, spontaneous, interactional, transactional, subjective,
objective, etc. The different functions of language may also be included in a classification
of texts. The following table shows a possible classification:

Another classification which has been proposed is based on the topic of the text and the
way that this is expressed in text form. There are generally considered to be five major
types: narrative, descriptive, directive, expository and argumentative. Each of these
types shows characteristic features, although it should be pointed out that very few
texts fall exclusively into one type; most will display characteristics of more than one
type.
2.1 Classification according to topic
 Narrative texts
Narrative texts deal with the representation of factual or conceptual events in time.
Their purpose may be to entertain and to hold the interest of the reader. They can
have the objective of teaching and informing.
Their basic characteristic is that of a sequence of events, often using dynamic verbs
and sequencing adverbials (then, next, soon after, etc.) to provide the structure for
the narrative. Narrative texts may be fictional or factual, or a combination of both.
Typical forms of narrative texts range from fairy stories, fables, and mysteries to
personal experiences recounted in a letter or email.
A typical structure will involve an initial setting, in which the reader is introduced to
the characters and the situation. This will be followed by a complication, where
intrigue and a sense of suspense are created. The final stage is a resolution, the
traditional happy ending.
 Descriptive texts
Descriptive texts are concerned with time and space and are often linked with
narrative texts. They can range from a simple sentence (It was sunny and warm) to a
complex and long-winded description. Often, a descriptive text or passage will set the
scene for a narrative passage – and as such may form an important part of the narrative.
A writer will also make use of descriptive passages or texts to create and introduce
characters in a narrative. Typically, descriptive language relies heavily on
adjectives and adverbs, often with comparisons, similes and metaphors. Sensory
terms are common, which help to create images and pictures in the minds of readers:
the sweet-smelling aroma of the early morning dew… The aim of the writer should be to
transport the reader into the scene. Descriptive
texts and passages are found primarily in literary texts: poems, novels, etc.
 Directive texts
Directive texts have a clearly transactional purpose; their aim is to tell the reader what
to do. The clearest and most short and clear examples of directive texts are signs, for
example road signs: give way, keep clear. Other examples can be found in stage
directions, instructions in an operating manual or handbook, and recipes.
A directive text can explain how something works, instruct how to carry out a particular
activity, or it may deal with human behaviour in general, for example a self-help book
which gives instructions and advice on how to be successful or live happily. The
language of a directive text tends to be clear and to the point. The goals are often stated
explicitly, perhaps in a heading, and there may be numbered lists of instructions. The
second person is commonly used, combined with verbs in the imperative voice: first,
stick the two ends together and then insert tab B into the slot. As a process is often
being described, it is common to find time sequencers, such as first and then in the
example above.
 Expository texts
Expository texts – the purpose is to characterise phenomena. They have the
aim of informing, describing, persuading and explaining. Common examples of
expository texts are essays, newspaper articles, journals, etc. Common features of
expository texts can be found in the techniques they use to explain or expose the
information they contain. This can be done through sequencing of ideas, comparison
and contrast, enumeration, cause and effect description and exemplification.
Expository texts, while often containing elements of subjectivity, will usually be
primarily objective.
 Argumentative texts
The purpose of an argumentative text is to influence the reader to some degree, by
stating a position and then attempting to justify it. Typical argumentative texts can be
found in letters of complaint, advertisements used to promote goods and services, and
discursive essays. The text will usually begin with a statement of a position, which is
then supported by evidence and arguments. The text will end with a conclusion,
summing up the arguments. In a discursive text, arguments may be presented both for
and against a point, with the conclusion coming down on one side or the other.
The language used is often the present tense, used to present abstract arguments,
although past and future tenses will be used to give evidence, examples or predictions.
The text should be well structured and the use of linkers and conjunctions to show the
thread of the argument and discussion is common. Repetition and rhetorical questions
are often used to give more weight to an argument.

2.2 Classification according to the situation

 Literary texts
This classification covers all texts where a main purpose of the text is aesthetic,
and the text seeks to portray a reality distinct from that of the real world. The definition
traditionally includes poetry, drama and prose fiction. However, the definition of a
literary text is not easy to pin down, and can be extended to other texts, for example
autobiographies or screenplays.

 Scientific texts
These texts are concerned with presenting empirical facts. Charles Bazerman (1988)
uses the term Incremental Encyclopedism to describe the fact that a piece of scientific
writing acts as a contribution to the work of the whole community of scientists.
The text will normally be clearly structured, with general
opening comments on the current state of research in the field, a statement of a
hypothesis, a description of an experiment used to collect empirical data, analysis of this
data, and a conclusion.
The language used is disinterested and objective, seeking as far as possible to present
the truth without attempting to persuade the reader. It may use technical and highly
specialised vocabulary and lexis, and nowadays it is common to find graphical elements
(graphs, charts, photographs, etc.).
 Didactic texts
Didactic texts differ from scientific texts in that they have the purpose of providing
established knowledge to non-specialised readers, rather than extending that
knowledge. Typically, they can be found in school textbooks, and they are primarily
informative and objective.
2.3 Classification according to purpose
Texts can also be classified simply according to their purpose. This classification has
four types: persuasive, informative, instructive and descriptive.
 Persuasive texts are related to directive texts, and a typical example is an
advertisement, where the clear intention is to influence the reader into changing
their behaviour. Informal letters or emails could also be examples of persuasive
texts, for example if a writer wants to persuade a friend to go on holiday with
him.
 Informative texts are primarily expository. They may give information about a
particular issue, for example in a newspaper report, or they may advise about
forthcoming events.
 An instructive text is similar to a directive text in that it gives instructions on
how to do something, for example, as mentioned above, a recipe or a set of
instruction for assembling a wardrobe.
 The final category, descriptive texts, is the same as that described above.

3. Structure and formal elements

The formal elements of written language compared to those of spoken language rely
much more heavily on linguistic elements rather than the paralinguistic elements
present in oral communication.
These can be broadly classified as graphological resources and rhetorical resources.
3.1 Graphological resources
They cover primarily orthography and punctuation but also include other devices as
headings, subtitles, footnotes, tables, illustrations, indexes, etc.

Headings and subtitles allow the writer to introduce sections and paragraphs, either
simply to alert the reader to the content of the following section, or as a mechanism for
creating interest to motivate the reader to continue reading. Footnotes can be used to
give explanations or clarifications of points made in the text, often when this
information is secondary to the primary message of the text, and therefore its inclusion
in the body of the text itself would possibly be distracting for the reader. Tables and
illustrations serve to highlight key information in a more visual form. These devices
are becoming more and more relevant given the ongoing developments in desktop
publishing and word processing technologies; nowadays, virtually anyone with a home
computer can produce a professional-looking text including tables and illustrations,
whereas in the past this would not have been possible. Indexes provide the reader with
a reference in which to consult key terms and ideas from the text, without having to
wade through the text itself in search of a specific term.

3.2 Rhetorical resources

The rhetorical resources of a texts are the devices, which the writer uses to bind the text
together and to create a coherent whole.
These devices can be separated into three types: logical, grammatical and lexical.
 Logical devices – words or phrases which indicate the logical relationship
between ideas and sentences. They allow the reader to follow the thread of ideas
which the writer is trying to express in a text. Some of the different types of
logical devices are the following:
 Addition: and, besides, in addition, furthermore.
 Contrast: but, however, whereas, on the other hand.
 Result: so, therefore, thus.
 Time: before, after, since, meanwhile.
 Comparison: compared with, likewise.
 Listing/ enumeration: first, second, third, finally.
 Reformulation: in other words.
 Exemplification: for example, for instance, such as.
 Summary: in brief, to sum up, in conclusion, etc.
 Grammatical devices – the use of grammatical structures and forms which give
cohesion to the text.
 Lexical devices – it is expected that a text should be lexically cohesive. A text
dealing with a given subject matter will necessarily contain words related to that
semantic field. Ideas are often repeated using synonyms or explanations, often in
appositions.
Apposition - in grammar, a situation in which two nouns or noun phrases are used
to refer to the same person or thing.