purposes.

Concentrations of ionized components of

other elements such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and
iron (Fe) and numerous minor elements are of immense
biological importance but are usually minor contributors
to total salinity.
soft waters refers to waters of low salinity, which are
usually derived from drainage of acidic igneous rocks
(Hutchinson, 1957). Hard waters contain large
concentrations of alkaline earths, usually derived from
the drainage of calcareous deposits.
The salinity of fresh waters is best expressed as the
sum of the ionic composition of the major cations and
anions in mass or milliequivalents per liter. The quantity
total solids, an estimation of inorganic materials dissolved
in water by evaporation to dryness (1050 C), is less
satisfactory. Combustion of the residue at 5500 C yields
the nonvolatile solids per unit mass or volume, as C02 from
organic carbon is lost. However, MgC03 and some alkalis
and chlorides, which are true nonvolatile solids at normal
temperatures, will also release C02 at 5500C and cause a
considerable underestimate of the nonvolatile solids.

ll. SALINITY DISTRIBUTION IN WORLD SURFACE

WATERS AND CONTROL MECHANISMS

The salinity of the surface waters of the world is

highly variable and depends upon ionic influences of
drainage and exchange from the surrounding land,
atmospheric sources derived from the rock—soil,
ocean, and human activity, and equilibrium and
exchange with sediments within the water body. The
global mean salinity of river water is 120 mg liter-I
(Table 10-1; Livingstone, 1963; Walling and Webb,
1986), a value somewhat lower than Clarke's (1924)
average but based on better data that compensate for the
large