HVDC TRANSMISSION:

High voltage direct current (HVDC) power systems use D.C. for transmission of bulk power over long
distances. For long-distance power transmission, HVDC lines are less expensive, and losses are less as compared to
AC transmission. It interconnects the networks that have different frequencies and characteristics.

In AC transmission, alternating waves of voltage and current travels in the line which change its direction
every millisecond; due to which losses occur in the form of heat. Unlike AC lines, the voltage and current waves don’t
change their direction in DC. HVDC lines increase the efficiency of transmission lines due to which power is rapidly
transferred.

HVDC transmission system work:

In generating substation, AC power is generated which can be converted into DC by using a rectifier. In
HVDC substation or converter substation rectifiers and inverters are placed at both the ends of a line. The rectifier
terminal changes the AC to DC, while the inverter terminal converts DC to AC.
The DC is flowing with the overhead lines and at the user end again DC is converted into AC by using
inverters, which are placed in converter substation. The power remains the same at the sending and receiving ends of
the line. DC is transmitted over long distances because it decreases the losses and improves the efficiency.

A system having more than two converter stations and one transmission line is called a ‘two terminal DC system’ or a
‘point-to-point system’. Similarly, if substation has more than two converter stations and interconnecting DC terminal
lines, it is called multi-terminal DC substation.

Economic Distance For HVDC transmission lines

DC lines are cheaper than the AC lines, but the cost of DC terminal equipment is very high as compared to
AC terminal cables (shown in the graph below). Thus, the initial cost is high in HVDC transmission system, and it is
low in the AC system.
The point where two curves meet is called the breakeven distance. Above the breakeven distance, the HVDC
system becomes cheaper. Breakeven distance changes from 500 to 900 km in overhead transmission lines.
 Advantages of HVDC transmissions

 A lesser number of conductors and insulators are required thereby reducing the cost of the overall system.
 It requires less phase to phase and ground to ground clearance.
 Their towers are less costly and cheaper.
 Lesser corona loss is less as compared to HVAC transmission lines of similar power.
 Power loss is reduced with DC because fewer numbers of lines are required for power transmission.
 The HVDC system uses earth return. If any fault occurs in one pole, the other pole with ‘earth returns’ behaves
like an independent circuit. This results in a more flexible system.
 The HVDC has the asynchronous connection between two AC stations connected through an HVDC link; i.e.,
the transmission of power is independent of sending frequencies to receiving end frequencies. Hence, it
interconnects two substations with different frequencies.
 Due to the absence of frequency in the HVDC line, losses like skin effect and proximity effect does not occur in
the system.
 It does not generate or absorb any reactive power. So, there is no need for reactive power compensation.
 The very accurate and lossless power flows through DC link.

Disadvantages of HVDC transmission

 Converter substations are placed at both the sending and the receiving end of the transmission lines, which result
in increasing the cost.
 Inverter and rectifier terminals generate harmonics which can be reduced by using active filters which are also
very expensive.
 If a fault occurs in the AC substation, it may result in a power failure for the HVDC substation placed near to it
 Inverter used in Converter substations have limited overload capacity.
 Circuit breakers are used in HVDC for circuit breaking, which is also very expensive.
 It does not have transformers for changing the voltage levels.
 Heat loss occurs in converter substation, which has to be reduced by using the active cooling system.
 HVDC link itself is also very complicated
Application of HVDC Transmission:
 Undersea and underground cables
 AC network interconnections
 Interconnecting Asynchronous system

For connecting two networks or system, various types of HVDC links are used. HVDC links are classified into three
types. These links are explained below;

Monopolar link:

Modern MONOPOLAR system for pure overhead lines carry typically 1500 MW. If under ground or under water
cables are used, the typical value is 600 MW. It has a single conductor of negative polarity and uses earth or sea for
the return path of current. Sometimes the metallic return is also used if the resistivity is high. In the Monopolar link,
two converters are placed at the end of each pole. Earthing of poles is done by earth electrodes placed about 15 to 55
km away from the respective terminal stations. But this link has several disadvantages because it uses earth as a return
path. The monopolar link is not much in use nowadays.

Bipolar link:

3200 MW at Voltage from -600 kV to + 600 kV.

Double converters of same voltage rating are used in each terminal. The converter junctions are grounded.
The Bipolar link has two conductors one is positive, and the other one is negative to the earth. The link has converter
station at each end.
The midpoints of the converter stations are earthed through electrodes. The voltage of the earthed electrodes is just
half the voltage of the conductor used for transmission the HVDC.
The most significant advantage of the bipolar link is that if any of their links stop operating, the link is converted into
Monopolar mode because of the ground return system. The half of the system continues supplies the power. Such
types of links are commonly used in the HVDC systems.
Homopolar link:
Homopolar lines have two or more conductors having the same polarity usually negative polarity are used due to less
corona loss and radio interference. A homopolar link has two conductors having same polarity usually negative
polarity and always operates with earth or metallic return. In the homopolar link, poles are operated in parallel, which
reduces the insulation cost.
If a fault develops on one conductors the converter equipment can be reconnected so that the healthy conductor can
supply more than half the rated power. such a reconnection is very complicated in bipolar scheme so Homopolar
scheme preferable provided continuous ground return.
Ground is always used as return path if a fault develops on one conductor, the converter equipment reconnected to a
healthy conductor.

BACK TO BACK LINK:

High voltage AC is used to transmit the electrical power for reducing the power transmission losses and because of the
flexibility of AC System. In a transmission system different Grids are interconnected but some time it may happen that
one or more Grid or Power System may not be in synchronization with other grid or Systems. To overcome these
things a HVDC Back To Back System is used.
In an HVDC Back to Back / HVDC Link configuration two independent neighboring systems with different and
incompatible electrical parameters like Frequency / Voltage / Short-Circuit Power Level etc. are connected via a DC
link. The basic principle of operation of an HVDC linking system is based on the conversion of AC to DC and vice-
versa by means of Rectifier and Inverter

Process involved in this System is simple theoretically. But in practice it is very much complex as it involves high
voltages power semiconductor devices. Power from two or more neighboring system is first converted in DC with the
help of power rectifier system and summed up. After summing, the resulted power is again converted in AC with the
help of power inverter and supplied to different Grids. Thus a HVDC interconnection phase is involved in linking of
different power systems to obtain a stable power system with uniform parameters.

HVDC link is much more beneficent than the frequency converter as frequency matching of two or more
asynchronous systems is very much difficult than conversion and inversion ,this situation can be better understood by
knowing that allowable variation in frequency in power system is +/- 1 HZ otherwise it may result in system collapse.

It is called back to back system because in electronics and power electronics if two bipolar components are
connected in series with opposite polarity then this pair is known as back to back system. Here also rectifier
and inverter are identical and connected in series operating on High Voltage DC so this is known as HVDC
back to back System.
Advantage of HVDC Back to Back System:

 Power can be upgraded to desired frequency.

 Two asynchronous systems can be joined successfully without loss of stability.

 Stability of the system is increased as well as power flow can be maintained within the optimal limits.

 More active power can be added where the AC system already is at the limit of its short-circuit capability

GROUND RETURN:
Ground return is the return path for an electrical circuit made by connections to ground at each end.
Ground return involves using the ground as a return conductor, which allows a single wire to be used to carry
current between two points.
Most dc transmission lines use a return path through the ground or seawater or both, either continuously or for
short times of emergency. For brevity, such return paths are called ground returns even if the sea constitutes all or part
of the path.

The ground path has a very low resistance and correspondingly low power loss in comparison with a metallic
line conductor of economical size and equal length if the ground electrodes are properly designed. The resistance is
low because direct current in the earth in a steady state, unlike transient or alternating current, does not follow closely
the route of the metallic conductor but spreads over a very large cross-sectional area in both depth and width.

The resistance of this path is essentially independent of the length of the line and may be regarded merely as
the sum of the resistances associated with each electrode unless the electrodes are near one another-which certainly
would not be true in long distance transmission. These resistances can be made low.

An electrode line is used in some high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) power transmission systems which use
the ground or sea as the return path for electric current. Many long-distance HVDC systems use sea or ground return
for the DC neutral current since this is considerably cheaper than providing a dedicated metallic return conductor on
an overhead wire or cable.

The connection into the ground requires a specially designed ground electrode (or earth electrode). The electrode is
usually located several tens of kilometers from the converter station in order to avoid possible problems
or corrosion in the converter station grounding system. The electrode line connects the converter station to the
grounding electrode. The electrode line can be implemented, depending upon the situation of the electrode (onshore or
in the sea), as ground cables, as overhead line, or as a combination of ground cable and overhead line.

Bipolar systems

HVDC electrodes are used in most bipolar HVDC transmission systems as a means to improve the reliability
of the entire system. In the event that one of the poles in the bipolar system is faulted, the current path will switch to
ground return, thus allowing the system to continue operating at reduced capacity and reducing the possibility that a
pole fault will cause a bipolar outage. Usually these ground return paths are only used for very short durations until the
faulted pole can be returned to service. The ground current in such schemes can flow in either direction, and the
electrodes have to be designed to be reversible, operating either as an anode or cathode

HVDC electrodes are also used in some monopolar HVDC systems, for example the Italy–Corsica–
Sardinia scheme.[3] In such systems the electrode line permanently carries the same current as the high-voltage
conductor; however since the ground current is then only unidirectional, one of the electrodes (the cathode) can be of
simpler design since corrosion is not a problem for cathode electrodes.

Problems associated with use of ground as the return Conductor:

Light Activated SCR (LASCR):
Photothyristors have the same basic structure as conventional thyristors and function in
similar modes, except that they are triggered by light instead of gate current.
The advantage of light triggering is that the device is now insensitive to electrical
signals, which can cause faulty operation in electrically noisy environments.
Photothyristors are nothing but light-activated thyristors.
Two common photothyristors include the Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(LASCR) and the light-activated triac.
 A Light Activated SCR (LASCR) acts like a switch that changes states whenever it
is exposed to a pulse of light. Even when the light is removed, the Light Activated
SCR (LASCR) remains ON until the anode and cathode polarities are reversed or
the power is removed.
 A light-active TRIAC is similar to a Light Activated SCR but is designed to handle
AC currents.
Light Activated SCR [LASCR]:
 The Light Activated SCR (LASCR) is also known as Light Triggered Thyristor(LTT).
 It may be triggered with a light source or with a gate signal. Sometimes a
combination of both light source and gate signal is used to trigger an SCR.
 For this, the gate is biased with voltage or current slightly less than that required to
turn it on, now a beam of light directed at the inner p-layer junction turns on the
SCR.
 The light intensity required to turn-on the SCR depends upon the voltage bias given
to the gate. Higher the voltage(current) bias, lower the light intensity required.
 These devices are available up to the rating of 6kV and 3.5kA, with on-state voltage
drop of about 2V and with light-triggering requirements of 5mW.