Functions Agniswar Chakraborty

The Number System

Natural numbers: The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 ... are called natural numbers; their set is denoted by N. Thus
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5...}.
Integers: The numbers ....- 3, - 2, -1 , 0, 1, 2, 3.... are called integers and the set is denoted by I or Z.
Thus I (or Z) = {….-3 , -2 , - 1 , 0, 1, 2, 3...}.
Different Sets of Integers:
(1) Set of positive integers denoted by I+ and consisting of {1, 2, 3,….} {=N}.
(2) Set of negative integers, denoted by I- and consisting of {….- 3, - 2, - 1}.
(3) Set of non-negative integers {0, 1, 2, ...}, called as set of whole numbers.
(4) Set of non-positive integers {………- 3, - 2, - 1, 0}.
Rational numbers: All numbers of the form p/q where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0, are called rational
numbers and their set is denoted by Q.
Thus, Q = {p/ q; p, q ∈ I and q ≠ 0 and HCF of p, q is 1}
Irrational number: Those numbers which cannot be expressed in p/q form are called irrational
numbers and their set is denoted by Q c (i.e. complementary set of Q).For example, √2, 1+√3, e, π etc.
Real number: The complete set of rational and irrational numbers is the set of real numbers and is
denoted by R. Thus R = Q ∪ Q c .
It may be noted that N ⊆ I ⊆ Q ⊆ R. The real numbers can also be expressed in terms of position
of a point on the real line. The real line is the number line wherein the position of a point relative to the
origin (i.e. 0 ) represents a unique real number and v i ce v ers a.

-∞ ∞
… … . -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 ………..

Intervals:
Intervals are basically subsets of R. If there are two numbers a, b ∈ R such that a < b, we can define
four types of intervals as follows
1 . Op en In t erv al : (a, b ) = { x : a < x < b } i . e. , end points are not included.
2 . C l o s ed In t erv al : [a, b ] ={ x : a ≤ x ≤ b } i . e. , end points are also included. The interval
is defined only when both a and b are finite.
3 . S em i -o p en In t erv al : (a, b ] = { x : a < x ≤ b }
4 . S em i -cl o s ed In t erv a l : [ a, b ) = { x : a ≤ x < b }
The infinite intervals are defined as follows:
(1 ) (a, ∞) = {x : x >a}
(2 ) [ a, ∞) = {x : x ≥ a}
(3 ) (-∞, b ) ={ x : x <b }
(4 ) (-∞, b ] = { x : x ≤ b }

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Inequalities
(1) a < b ⇒ either a< b or a = b
(2) a <b and b< c ⇒ a < c
(3) a < b ⇒ a + c < b + c ∀ c ∈ R
(4) a < b ⇒ -a > - b i.e., inequality sign reverses, if both sides are multiplied by a negative number.
(5) a < b and c < d ⇒ a + c <b + d and a-d < b-c
(6) a < b and ma < mb if m > 0 and ma > mb if m<0
(7) 0< a< b ⇒ ar < br if r>0 and ar>br if r < 0
 1
(8)  a +  ≥ 2 ∀ a > 0 and equality holds for a = 1
 a
 1
(9)  a +  ≤ −2 ∀ a< 0 and the equality holds for a = -1.
 a

Functions
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then a function ‘f ’from set A to set B is a rule or method or
correspondence which associates elements of set A to elements of set B such that
a) All elements of set A are associated to elements in set B.
b) An element of set A is associated to a unique element in set B.
In other words, a function ‘f ’ from a set A to a set B associates each element of set A to a unique
element of set B. Terms such as "map" (or "mapping"), "correspondence" are used as synonyms for the
"function". If f is a function from a set A to set B, then we write f : A → B which is read as f is a function
from A to B or f maps A to B.
If an element a ∈ A is associated to an element b∈B, then ‘b’ is called the f-image of ‘a’ or image of ‘a’
under ‘f’ or the value of the function f at a'. Also, a is called the pre-image of b under the function f. We
write it as b = f (a).
Domain, Co-domain and Range
Let f : A → B is a function. Then, the set A is known as the domain of f and the set B is known as the
co-domain of f. The set of all f-images of elements of A is known as the range of f or image set of A under
f and is denoted by f (A).
Thus, f (A) = {f (x): x ∈ A} = Range of f. Clearly, f (A) ⊆ B.
For example, Let A = {- 2, -1, 0, 1, 2} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Consider a rule f (x) = x2 .Then,
f (- 2) = 4, f (-1) = (-1)2 =1, f (0) =0 2 =0, f ( 1 ) = 1 2 =l and f ( 2 ) = 2 2 = 4.
Clearly, each element of A is associated to a unique element of B. So, f : A → B given by f (x) = x2 is
a function. Clearly, domain ( f ) = A = {- 2, -1, 0, 1, 2} and range (f) = {0, 1, 4}.
Description of a Function
Let f: A → B be a function such that its domain A consists of a finite number of elements. Then, f (x)
can be described by listing the values which it attains at different points of its domain. For example, if A =
{-1, 1, 2, 3} and B is the set of real numbers, then a function f: A → B can be described as f (-1) =3,
f(1)=0, f( 2 ) = 3 / 2 an d f(3 ) =0 . In case, A is an infinite set, then f cannot be described by listing the
images at points in its domain. In such cases, functions are generally described by a formula. For example,
f:Z →Z given by f (x) = x2 +1 or, f: R→R given by f ( x ) = e x etc.

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Equal Functions: Two functions f and g are said to be equal, iff (if and only if)
(1) the domain of f = domain of g,
(2) the co-domain of f = the co-domain of g, and
(3) f(x) = g(x) for every x belonging to their common domain.
If two functions f and g are equal then we write f = g. For example, Let A = {1, 2}, B = {3 6} and f:
A → B given by f (x ) = x2 + 2 and g: A→ B given by g(x) = 3x .We observe that f and g have the
same domain and co-domain. Also, f (1) = 3 = g(1) and f (2) = 6 = g(2). Hence f = g.
Number of Functions: Let A and B be two finite sets having m and n elements respectively. Then,
each elements of set A corresponds to an element of B. So, the total number of functions from set A to set B
is equal to the number of ways of doing m jobs where each job can be done in n ways. The total number of
such ways is
n×n×n.... ×n=n m (m-times)
Hence, the total number of functions from A to B is nm i.e., [O (B)] O (A)
For example, the total number of functions from a set
A = {a, b, c, d} to a set B = {1, 2, 3} is 34 = 81.
The total number of relations from a set A having m elements to a set n having n elements is 2mn.So,
×
the number of relations from A to B which are not functions, is 2mn - nm i.e., 2O(A ) O(B) -[O(B)] O ( A ) .
Function as a Relation
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A relation f from A to B i.e., a subset of A× B, is called a
function (or a mapping or a map) from A to B, if
1. For each a ∈ A there exists b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f,
2. (a, b) ∈ f and (a, c) ∈ f ⇒ b = c.
Thus, a non-void subset f of A× B is a function from A to B, if each element of A appears in
some ordered pair in f and no two ordered pairs in f have the same first elements. If (a, b) ∈ f,
then b is called the image of a under f.
Kinds of Functions
If f : A → B is a function, then f associates all elements of set A to elements in set B such that an
element of set A is associated to a unique element of set B. Following these two conditions we
may associate different elements of set A to different elements of set B or more than one
elements of set A may be associated to the same element of set B. Similarly, there may be some
elements in B that may have their pre-images in A. Corresponding to each of these possibilities
we define a type of a function as given below:
One-One Function (Injection): A function f:A → B is said to be a one-one function or an
injection if different elements of A have different images in B. Thus, f: A → B is one-one
a ≠ b ⇒ f (a) ≠ f(b) for all a, b ∈ A
or f (a) = f(b) ⇒ a=b for all a, b ∈ A. In an injective function every
element in B has at most one pre-image in A.

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Let, f: A → B and g: X → Y be two functions represented by the following diagrams

Clearly f: A → B is a one-one function. But g: X → Y is not one-one because two distinct elements
x 1 and x3 have the same image under function g.
Number of One-One Functions: If A and B are finite sets having m and n elements respectively,
then Number of one-one functions from A to B is the number of arrangements of n items by
taking m at a time i.e., nP m. Thus, Number of one-one functions from A to B
n
= Pm ; If n ≥ m
= 0 ; If n<m.
Example: Let f: R→R be defined as f (x) = x 2+ 4 x + 7 / x2 + x + 1 .Determine whether f (x) is one-one
or many-one.
Solution: For the given function f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) gives
x 1 2 + 4 x 1 + 7 / x12 + x 1 + 1 = x 22+ 4 x 2 + 7 / x22 + x 2 + 1
⇒ ( x 1 -x 2)(2x 1+2x 2 +1+ x 1x 2)= 0
Hence one of the solution of (2x 1+2x 2 +1+x 1x 2) is x 1 =0 and x 2 = -1/2.So f (0) =f (-1/2)
= 7 .f is not one-one.
Onto Function (Surjection): A function f: A → B is said to be an onto function or surjection, if
every element of B is the f-image of some element of A i.e., if f (A) = B, or range of f is equal to
the co-domain of f. Thus, f: A → B is a surjection iff for each b ∈ B, there exist a ∈ A such that
f ( a ) = b . I n a n o n t o f u n c t i o n every element in B has at least one pre-image in A.
Number of Onto Functions : If A and B are two sets having m and n number respectively such
n
n!
that 1 ≤ n ≤ m, then the no of onto function from A to B is given by ∑ (−1) n − r rm
r =1 r !( n − r ) !

Into Function: A function f: A → B is an into function, if there exists an element in B having no

pre-image in A. In this case f (A) ⊆ B.
Example: Let f: N→Z be a function defined as f(x) = x -1 0 0 0 . Determine whether f(x) is into or
onto.
Solution: Let f ( x ) = y ⇒ x -1000 = y ⇒ x = y + 1 0 0 0 = g ( y )
Here g(y) is defined for each y∈ Z, but g(y) N for y ≤ -1 0 00 . Hence, f ( x ) i s into function.

Let f: A → B and g: X → Y be two functions represented by the following diagrams:

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Clearly, b2 and b5 are two elements in B which do not have their pre-images in A. So, f: A → B is an into
function. function g every element in Y has its pre-image in X. So, g: X → Y is an onto function.
Let A ={ -1 ,1 ,2 , -2} , B={ 1 ,4 } an d f: A → B be a function defined by f (x) = x2 . Then f is onto,
because f(A)={f(-1), f(1), f(2), f(-2)}={1, 4}=B.
A function f: N→N defined by f (x) = 2x is not an onto function, because f ( N ) = {2, 4, 6 . . .} ≠ N
(Co-domain).
Bijection (One-One and Onto Function): A function f: A → B is a bijection if it is one-one as well as
onto. In other words, a function f: A → B is a bijection iff
(1) it is one-one i.e., f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x = y for all x, y ∈ A
(2) it is onto i.e. for all y ∈ B, there exists x ε A such that f(x)=y
Let f: A → B be a function represented by the following diagram:

Clearly, f is a bijection since it is both injective as well as surjective.

Number of Bijections: If A and B are finite sets and f: A → B is a bijection, then A and B have the same
number of elements. If A has n elements, then the number of bijections from A to B is the total number of
arrangements of n items taken all at a time i.e., n!. For a bijection every element in B has exact one pre-
image in A.
Identity Function: Let A be a non-empty set. A function f: A → A is said to be an identity function on
set A if f associates every element of set A to the element itself.
Thus, f: A → A is an identity function iff f (x) = x, for all x ∈ A.
The identity function on a set A is generally denoted by IA. It is evident from the definition that IA is a
bijection on A.
Constant Function: A function f: A → B is said to be a constant function if every element of A has the
same image under function f i.e., f (x) = c for all x ∈ A, where c ∈ B .It should be noted that the range
of a constant function contains only one element. Moreover, a constant function may be one-one or many-
one, onto or into.
Composition of Two functions: Let f: A → B and g: C → D be two mappings such that f(A) is the
subset of C. Let x∈A. Then f m aps x to an elem ent y in f(A) ⊂ B and since y ∈
f(A ) ⊂ C, g maps y int o an el ement z in D. We can con ceiv e a mappin g h: A → D said to
be composite (or product) of f and g. It is denoted by gof. gof: A→D is defined only if f(A) is a
subset of domain of g.

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 h(x)= (gof)(x)=g(f(x)), for all x ∈ A.

Theorem Associated to Composition of Mapping:

1. Let f: A → B, g: B→ C, h: C → D be three mappings. Then ho(gof)= (hog)of.
2. Let f: A → B, g: B→ C both are injective composite mapping is also injective.
Note: Converse is not true i.e. gof may be injective but it is not necessary that g is injective. For
example, let f: R→R be defined by f(x) = ex . x ∈ R and g: R→R is defined by g(x) = x 2 .Here
gof: R→R is defined by gof(x) = e2x . x ∈ R . Which is an injectiv e fu nction but g is n ot.
3. Let f: A → B, g: B → C both are surjective composite mapping is also surjective.
Note: Converse is not true i.e. gof may be surjective but it is not necessary that f is surjective.For
example, let f: Z→Z be defined by f(x) = 2x. x ∈ Z and g: Z→Z is defined by g(x) = [x/2]. [x]
denotes the greatest integer function ≤ x .Here gof: Z→Z is defined by gof(x) = x. x∈ Z . Which
is a su rjective fun cti on (as it is an id enti t y fun ction) but g is not.
3. Let f: A → B, g: B→ C both are bijective composite mapping is also bijective.
Note: Converse is not true i.e. gof may be bijective but f can be injective and g can be surjective.
Inverse of a function:
Let A and B be two sets and let f: A → B be a function. If we follow a rule in which elements of B
are associated to their pre-images, then we find that under such a rule there may be some
elements in B which are not associated to elements in A. Thus happens when f is not an onto map.
Also, if it is a many-one function then under the said rule an element in B may be associated to
more than one element in A. Therefore, an element in B will be associated to a unique element in
A if f is an injective map

It follows from the above discussion that, if f: A → B is a bijection, we can define a new
function from B to A which associates each element y ∈ B to its pre-image f -1 (y) ∈ A. Such a
function is known as the inverse of function f and is denoted by f-1.
Definition: Let f: A → B be a mapping. f is said to be invertible if there exist g: B→ A such that
gof = IA and fog = IB . Then g is said to be an inverse of f.
Properties of Inverse function:
1. If f: A → B be an invertible mapping then its inverse is unique.
2. A mapping f: A → B is invertible iff f is bijection.
3. Let f:A → B be a bijective mapping. Then the mapping f-1 : B→ A is also a bijection and
(f -1 ) -1 = f.

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 4. Let f:A → B, g:B → C both are bijective mappings. Then the mapping gof:A → C is
invertible and (gof) -1 = f-1 og -1 .
Example: Let f: R→R be defined by f(x) =3x +1, x∈ R. Show that f is invertible and find f -1 .
As f is injective and surjective so it is bijective and therefore f is invertible. Each y in the co-
domain set of f has a unique pre=image (y-1)/3. f-1 : R→R is defined by f-1 (y) = (y-1)/3, y∈ R; or
equivalently by f -1 (x) =(x-1)/3, x∈ R.
Some Standard Real Functions
Constant Function: Let k be a fixed real number. Then a function f(x) given by f(x) = k for all x ∈
R is called a constant function. Sometimes we also call it the constant function k.

Identity Function: The function defined by f(x) = x for all x∈ R, is called the identity function

Modulus Function: The function defined by

x; when x ≥ 0
f(x) = I x I =
-x; when x< 0
is called the modulus function.

Properties of Modulus Function:

The modulus function has the following properties:
(1) For any real number x, we have √x2 = I x I .
(2) If a, b are positive real numbers, then
x2 ≤ a2 ⇔ I x I ≤ a ⇔ - a ≤ x ≤ a

x2<a2 ⇔ I xI <a ⇔ -a<x<a

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 x 2 ≥a2 ⇔ I x I ≥ a ⇔ x ≤ - a or x ≥ a

x2> a2 ⇔ I x I > a ⇔ x < - a or x > a

a2 ≤x2 ≤ b2 ⇔ a ≤ I x I ≤ b ⇔ x∈ [-b, -a] ∪ [a, b]

a2 <x2 <b2 ⇔ a<I xI <b ⇔ x∈ (-b, -a) ∪ (a, b)

(3) I x + y I = I x I + I y I ⇔ (x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0) or (x < 0 and y < 0)

(4) I x - y I = I x I - I y I ⇔ (x ≥ 0 and I x I ≥ I y I ) or, (x ≤ 0, y ≤ 0 and I x I ≥ I y I )
(5) I x ± y I ≤ I x I+ I y I
(6) I x ± y I ≥ II x I- IyII

Greatest Integer Function: For any real number x, we denote by [x], the greatest integer less than or
equal to x.
For example: [2.45] = 2, [- 2.1] = - 3, [1.75] = 1, [0.32] = 0 etc.
The function f defined by f (x) = [x] for all x ∈ R, is called the greatest integer function. Clearly, the
domain of the greatest integer function is the set R of all real numbers and the range is the set of all
integers as it attains only integral values. The graph of the greatest integer function is shown in the
figure given below:

In general, if n is an integer and x is any number satisfying n ≤ x < n + 1, then [x] = n

Also, if {x} denotes the fractional part of x, then [x] = x - {x) or x = [x] + {x}.

Properties of Greatest Integer Function: If n is an integer and x is any real number between n and
n + 1, then the greatest integer function has the following properties:
(1) [- n] = -[n]
(2) [x + n] =[x] + n
(3) [-x] = -[x]-1
(4) [x] ≥ n ⇔ x ≥ n, where n ∈ I
(5) [x] ≤ n ⇔ x < n + l , n ∈ I
(6) [x] > n ⇔ x > n + l , n ∈ I
(7) [x]<n ⇔ x ≥ n + l , n ∈ I
(8) [x + y] =[x] +[y+ x- [x]] for all x, y ∈ R

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Signum Function: The function defined by

is called the signum function.

The domain of the signum function is R and the range is the set {- 1, 0, 1). The graph of this function is

Reciprocal Function: The function that associates each non-zero real number x to its reciprocal l/x is
called the reciprocal function.

Logarithmic Function: If 'a' is a positive real number, then the function that associates every positive
real number to logex i.e., f (x) = logex is called the logarithmic function.

Exponential Function: if a is a positive real number then the function which associates every real
number x to ax i.e., f (x) = ax is called the exponential function.

Sine Function: The function that associates to each real number x to sin x is called the sine function.
In trigonometric functions x is the radian measure of the angle.

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Cosine Function: The function that associates to each real number x to cos x is called the cosine
function.

Tangent Function: The function that associates a real number x to tan x is called the tangent function.

Cosecant Function: The function that associates a real number x to cosec x is called the cosecant
function.

Secant Function: The function that associates a real number x to sec x is called the secant function.

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Cotangent Function: The function that associates a real number x to cot x is called the cotangent
function.

Polynomial Function: A function of the form f (x) = c0 + c1x+ c2 x2 + c3 x3 +………. + cn xn , where

c1,c2, c3,………., cn real numbers, c0 ≠ 0 and n ∈ N, is called a polynomial function.
Rational Function: A function of the form f (x) = p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and
q(x) ≠ 0, is called a rational function. The domain of a rational function p(x)/q(x) is the set of all real
numbers except points where q(x) ≠ 0.
Periodic Functions
A function f (x) is said to be a periodic function, if there exists a positive real number T such
that
f( x + T ) = f (x) for all x∈ R .
We know that sin (x + 2 π ) = sin (x + 4 π ) =.... = sin x and, cos (x + 2 π ) = cos (x + 4 π ) =....=
cos x for all x ∈ R. Therefore, sin x and cos x are periodic functions.
Period : If f(x) is a periodic function, then the smallest positive real number T is called the period
or fundamental period of function f(x), if f(x + T) = f(x) for all x ∈ R.
Some Useful Results on Periodic Functions
(1) If f (x) is a periodic function with period T and a, b ∈ R such that a ≠ 0, then af(x)+b is
periodic with period T.
(2) If f(x) is a periodic function with period T and a, b ∈ R such that a ≠ 0, then f (ax + b) is
periodic with period T / IaI .
Let f(x) and g(x) be two periodic functions such that. Period of f(x) is m/n, where m,n are
natural nos. and co-prime to each other and period of f(x) is r/s, where r,s are also natural nos
and co-prime to each other.
Then, (f + g)(x) is periodic with period T given by T = LCM of (m,r)/HCF of (n,s). Provided
that there does not exist a positive number k < T for which f (k + x) = g(x) and g(k + x) = f (x),
else k w i l l be the period of (f + g)(x).
The above result is also true for functions f/g, f - g and fg.

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Some Important Points to Remember
(1) sin n x, cos n x, secn x, cosecn x are periodic functions with period 2 π and π in according as nis
odd or even.
(2) tan n x, cot n x are periodic functions with period π whether n is even or odd.
(3) I sin x I , I cos x I, I tan x I , I cot x I, I sec x I, I cosec x I are periodic with period π .
(4) I sin x I + I cos x I, I tan x I +I cot x I, I sec x I+ I cosec x I are periodic with period
π /2.
(5) sin -1 (sin x), c o s -1 (cos x), cosec -1 (cosec x), sec-1 (sec x) are periodic with period 2 π
whereas tan - '(tan x) and cot - '(cot x) are periodic with period π .
Example: Find the period of the following function
i) f(x) = sin x + {x} ii) f(x) = tanx/3 + sin2x iii) f(x) = nx + n- [nx + n] + tan( π x/2).
⇒ i) Period of sin x is 2 π and that of {x} is 1. But the L.C.M of and 1 does not exist so f(x) is
not periodic.
ii) Here f(x) =tan x/3 + sin 2x, period of tan x/3 is 3 π and sin 2x has a period of π , so
period of f(x) is 3 π .
iii) For n∈ N , we find that nx + n- [nx + n] = nx - [nx] is a periodic function with 1/n(as
x-[x] is a periodic function with period 1) & tan( π x/2) is a periodic function with
2,.Now L.C.M of 2 and 1 is 2 and H.C.F of n and 1 is 1. So period of f(x) is 2.

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