Leadership

University of the West of Scotland

London Campus

Doctorate in Business Administration (DBA)

Course: Leadership and Professional Development

Assignment Title: Critical Evaluation of Main Leadership

Theories

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Abstract

This report provides the brief overview of three different leadership theories: Trait Theory,
Behavioural Theory and Contingency Theory. In the first section, there is brief introduction of
leadership. Different scholars, authors and theorist concept about leadership has been
discussed.
As the main section of this report, three different leadership theories has been approached. The
brief introduction, its leadership styles and approaches has been evaluated of each leadership
theory. Its adopted leadership model, implication and criticism has been discussed thoroughly
in the report. The view of scholars has been thoroughly assessed and critically evaluated with
referencing in the main body.

In the later section of the report, detailed overview of Transformational Leadership has been
provided. In this part, author has chosen Transformational Leadership theory to critically
analyse
Leadership concept and highlighted the main theories, its importance and implication in recent
years. The report is concluded in the last section.

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Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 4

1.0 Definition of Leadership ........................................................................................... 4

2.0 Leadership Theories ................................................................................................. 5

2.1 Trait Theory .............................................................................................................. 5

2.1.1 Trait-Leadership Model ..................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Criticism of Trait Leadership ............................................................................. 7
2.1.3 Implication of trait leadership ............................................................................ 7

2.2 Behavioural Theory .................................................................................................. 7

2.2.1 Behavioural Leadership Model .......................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Criticism of Behavioural Theory ..................................................................... 10

2.3 Contingency or Situational Theory ........................................................................ 10

2.3.1 Fielder’s Contingency Model .......................................................................... 11
2.3.2 Criticism of the Contingency Model ............................................................... 13

3.0 Critical analysis of Transformational Leadership .................................................. 13

3.1 Rationale for choosing and reflecting of Transformational Leadership ............. 13
3.2 Transformational Leadership components ......................................................... 14

3.3 Steps to develop transformational leadership skills ............................................... 15

3.4 Criticism of transformational leadership ................................................................ 16

3.5 Future of Transformational Leadership .................................................................. 17

4.0 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 17

References .................................................................................................................... 18

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Introduction

Leadership is defined as the pursuit that involves organising or leading a group of people
whether in an organisation or country and follows according to their will. Leadership involves
different set ups from leading the groups by establishing clear vision and motive, providing
clear information, knowledge and balancing the conflicts of different views in order to address
the interest of all members. Leadership can be reflected in various parts of lives even from
personal-family to politics, religion, corporate organisations, government services, sports,
military’s that has been the integral part of societies since the human civilization. From ancient
civilization to modern era the trend or methodology might has been changed but the overall
leadership concept is clear that different people have different perception about leader and their
leadership styles that they are influenced from.

1.0 Definition of Leadership

Different authors, scholars or even leaders could not describe leadership with concise
definition. Bass & Stogdill (1990) has defined leadership as the art of leading people to do right
things with their consistent vision aiming to involve everyone for the common objective. John
Gardner (1990) agrees with the fact that leaders inspire people, step outside for change or share
the common objectives held by their leader.
However the concept of leadership varies upon different types of leaders and where it is act
upon. Religious leaders like Pope Francis, Dalai Lama, Gautam Buddha has distinct way of
leading people wheresas political leaders or corporate business leaders has other ways to lead
their people.
One of the great leader Martin Luther King inspired his followers making them believe that
only truth and unconditional love is the ultimate reality of world that will permanently triumph
over evil and lies (Garrow, 2015).
However, revolutionist Napoleon Bonaparte- a fearless militant with brilliant military
strategies who once ruled the Europe was a tyrant. Nonetheless, with his extraordinary
leadership style to lead the soldiers in the battle and won the war, he is considered as one of
the great leader who shone upon the world (Jean-Paul, 2016). It can be evaluated that different
personnel have their unique way to lead people and establish the leadership quality to
accomplish the mission with the common view of their followers.

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In addition, Northouse (2014) has defined leadership as the aspect to inspire and influence
groups, access their skills, traits and focus on building relationship and businesses (Adrienne,
et al., 2015). Authors argue whether “Leaders are Born or Made”. Gentry (2012) believes that
born leaders are more likely to identify right people rather than developing the right ones,
however made leaders are more likely to focus on the right opportunities for people to develop
them into leaders (Deal, et al., 2012).
In the course of time, there has been a transformation in leadership styles and it has greater
influence, improvement and advancement through different leadership theories.

2.0 Leadership Theories

Over number of times, authors and professionals developing different models and approaches
with main ideas of leadership under different stages and circumstances have proposed
leadership theories. Leadership theories are mainly categorized into; Trait Theory, Behaviour
Theory and Contingency Theory (Northouse, 2013).
Below main leadership theories have been described.

2.1 Trait Theory

Trait theory of leadership is focused on the characteristics of leaders. It is used to predict the
effectiveness of leadership that are later compared to leaders and access their likelihood of
being success or failure. That is why; most of the leaders agree that they hold definite qualities
that are exploited in the period in their life. They help to increase the organisational
productivity or lead the people with their certain objective (Bass & Stogdill, 1990). According
to Scouller (2011), trait approach of leadership attempts to identify physiological appearance,
demography, socio-economic background, presonality, self-confidence, achivements,
intelligence, social and other charactersticts that leads to emenrgence of leadership qualities.
Trait leader’s effectiveness states the amount of inspiration and the influence to individuals,
groups or followers to acquire their common objective. However, scholars have argued the fact
that leadership cannot be developed or emulate. It is unique to certain individuals who possess
leadership qualities by born. Over the years, scholars criticize the fact that whether the “leaders
are born or made (Stephenson, 2004).” Various research has shown that successful leaders are

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different from other individuals as they have certain traits and core personality to succeed. By
understanding the qualities and personal traits great leaders help organisations or followers to
lead even in unconditional situations with the help of their characterized individual differences
(Nichols & Cottrell, 2014).

2.1.1 Trait-Leadership Model

Zaccaro, et al., (2004) has created a model in order to understand the leadership traits and its
influence on leader effectiveness and performance. First framework is that leadership qualities
emerges from combined influence of numerous traits. Zaccaro argued that by integrating social
capability, cognitive ability and dispositional tendencies, these each set of traits influence each
other. While the other framework elaborates that leader traits vary in their proximal influence
that carries definite distal attributes for the development of proximal individual features
(Zacccaro, 2007).

Figure1: Traits of leader based on Zaccaro model (2004).

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2.1.2 Criticism of Trait Leadership

Scholars have criticized trait leadership in many ways. Generally, people are convinced that
traits do not change over short period. Traits of leaders do not necessarily change in different
situations, as it stays same. Many researchers believe that trait leadership approach is too
simplistic (Northouse, 2015). It is mainly focused on the effectiveness of leaders how they are
observed by their followers. The effectiveness of leaders is unexplored as it is only predicted
through the personality of individual. Alan Bryman (2013) has eplained that, trait leadership
has low clarifying personal traits and low prediction power over their job performance. It does
not help organisations to select effective leaders who will perform the job well to achieve
organisational goals. Moreover, the predictable nature of leader’s behaviour is less effective
and their traits do not necessarily effective and consistent in all situations and cases
(McCleskey & Allen, 2014)

2.1.3 Implication of trait leadership

In the recent times, evidence supports that human resource organisations adapt various
strategies in order to identify emerging leaders. Such departments use personality and
behavioural traits as their main selection tool so they will be aware of individual’s traits that
they might access in the future (Western, 2013). However, those departments must be aware
of personal traits while predicting the leader’s effectiveness that is applicable to the
organisation and achieving clear objectives of company. HR departments can implement trait
leadership strategies during different leadership development programs. Humphrey, et al.,
(2011), discovered that persons who are industriousness, thoughtfulness, and extraversion are
effective for leadership positions. Moreover, personality traits should be considered as a
selection tools. It is important in organisations or in any countries to select leaders based on
personality or intelligence depending upon the nature of job and level of individual’s ability.

2.2 Behavioural Theory

Behavioural theory of leadership based on the specific behaviour of leaders. The behaviour of
leaders helps to predict whether they can be influential leaders or not which later determines

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their leadership success or failure. According to Derue et al., (2011) the criticism of trait
leadership theroy has led to behavioural theory of leadership. It can be stated that leadership
qualities are not inherited, however it can be learned. Ohio State University and university of
Michigan had researched about behavioural theory of leadership. katz & Kahn (1978), Likert
(1961) was developed to study Leader’s Behaviour Description through questionnaires. With
the rigorous research, scholars has recognised four styles of leadership behaviour:
Concerned Tasks Oriented
Concerned for People empowerement and development
Directive Leadership and
Participative Leadership (Storey, 2004).

2.2.1 Behavioural Leadership Model

In 1964 Blake and Mouton developed the managerial grid and identified five basic theories of
managerial grid that represents behavioural leadership theory. It is mainly based upon
concerened tasks and people. It delivers a roadmap to conduct successful leadership in
organisation Rudani (2013).
Concern for people: This is the level where leaders consider their team members about their
needs, interest, personal development areas while completing the job.

Concern for Results: Leaders who emphasizes of organisational objectives, goals and
efficiency are only concern about accomplishing the task. They do not care about the personal
interest, needs of the employees.

The Blake and Mouton (1964) managerial grid is expressed from 1-9 range representing 1 as
minimal concern whereas 9 as maximal concern.

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Figure 2: Blake and Mouton (1964) managerial grid

As mentioned above, no single leadership is best fit for all situations; the managerial grid best
represents the degree of leader’s task centeredness and their personal emphasis with the help
of five different leadership style (Egner, 2009).
Impoverished Management: This type of managerial model is ineffective most of the time.
With low interest in satisfying employees, they have low interest in executing the result as well.
They are less motivated, disorganised.

Produce-or-Perish Management: The behaviour of this type of manager is kind of autocratic.

They are more concerned with results rather than need, support and expectation of employees.
Low team morale leads to dissatisfaction and underperforming of employees.

Middle of the road management: The managers tries to balance the focus on people and
result. Although, this strategy is not that effective. Continual compromise and fail to inspire
people for higher performances are the weak link of these managers.

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Country club management: The style of these managers are highly concerned for peoples.
They assume that as long as the employees are happy they will work for the company and
achieve the objectives in time.

Team management: According to Blake Mouton model, team management is highly effective
leadership style as it reflects the passion of leader about work who is highly concerned with
people and equally concerned for results. These type of mangers prioritize team work, involve
team members for organisational purpose. They create trust and respect between employees
(Blake & Mouton, 1994).

Behaviour theory encourages the fact that the leadership traits come through continious
development and learning experience in professional career or personal life. It can be argued
that 2Leaders are made and do not necessarily born with leadership traits.”

2.2.2 Criticism of Behavioural Theory

It is mainly concerned over the idea that leadership qualities are developed throughout the life
experience and learning. Bolden, et al., (2003) agrees that individuals grown up around
influential people shows more credibility of being a leader. Learning and practices of behaviour
does not always mean they execute the theory properly. The behaviour for one situation may
be challenging for another task. Bryman (2013), has also criticized the managerial grid as it
emphasis on managing organisations not leaders. The empirical studies of model produce
different results about the effectiveness of managerial grid. It disputes that the grid should have
more information on variables about management and change including leadership programs
before producing definite conclusions.

2.3 Contingency or Situational Theory

As mentioned above, no single theories or leadership is the best way in every situation.
Successful leaders adopt different leadership styles depend on situations, objectives and their
followers. It concludes that leaders have more cognitive ability in order to adapt and implement
different leadership styles depending on the situation (Gill, 2012). Storey (2004), states
cognitive theories consist of Fiedler’s Contignency Model (1967), Yukl (2002), Tannenbaum

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and Schmidt (1957). These theories evaluate the two factors model of behavioural theory that
divides leader into concerned with tasks and motivated groups or followers. It suggests that
leaders are placed in those situations that they are comfortable of their leadership styles.
Contingency theorists examine that potent leadership is liable on various independent factors
of an individual leader. Theorists predict that potent leaders who have personal traits and
behaviour should match the need of the situation in order to manage chaos or unconditional
situations. Fielder’s contingency model provides the in-depth interaction of leadership and
situational conditions.

2.3.1 Fielder’s Contingency Model

Fred Fielder created fielder Contingency Model in 1960s by studying leader’s personality and
characteristics. The model addresses that leader’s effectiveness is relied on the leadership style
and situation (Fielder, 1967). It emphasizes on leader’s personality, ability to lead, task
involved, and management and if the leader can execute the objectives with control over their
followers.

Understanding and identifying the leadership style is main step while implementing this model.
Fielder has explained as is measured with the scale that he developed. He looked at two
different factors.
1. Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale (LPC)
2. Situational Favourableness

Least Preferred Co-worker Scale:

Leaders who are task concerned view LPC quite negatively as the result score is usually low.
Fielder described them as low LPC leaders who are very effective in completing tasks. They
are very responsive, quick, organised, prioritise tasks and complete the project. Here,
relationship building is of low priority. Meanwhile, leaders who are relationship oriented view
LPC positively and give higher score. Fielder described them as high LPC leader. These types
of leader focus on personal relation and connection, avoiding conflict, managing chaos and are
considered as better decision makers (Fielder, 1967).

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Figure 3: Fiedler’s LPC Scale (1967)

Situational Favourableness:
The situational favourableness depends on three factors:
 Leader-member relation: It describes the relation between leader and team, level of
trust, belief and confidence that the team has in a leader. Leader who is more trusted
has definitely more influence towards the group in different situations and tackle them
whereas the leader who is not trusted tends to have more difficulties.

 Task structure: It defines the nature of task the leader is doing: whether, it is clear or
vague, structured or unstructured or the level of knowledge that the leader has in order
to complete the given task. Leader having less knowledge about the task is viewed as
unfavourable leadership situation.

 Leader’s positional power: It is the power of a leader to lead or direct the group, give
them reward or punishment depend on the nature of task assigned. The more power the
leaders have, the more favourable situation for leaders and vice-versa (Miller, 2015).

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2.3.2 Criticism of the Contingency Model

Scholars criticize the model is being too rigid. There is the lack of flexibility. However, Fielder
believes that leadership styles are fixed. The effective way to handle different situations is to
change leader as flexible leaders bring more chaos and unstable situation in the organisation
(Bastian & Wald, 2012). For example, the leader with low LPC is in charge of an organisation,
they tend to have weak relationship with group and weak position. According to Fielder, the
best way is to replace the leader with high LPC, instead asking leader to use another leadership
style (Mindtools, 2016). Mitchell, et al., (1970) has said that, even in best situation the LPC
scale has only 50% reliable variance. It means, LPC is not a reliable tool to measure leadership
capability. It brings confusion, unpleasant environment in work place.

3.0 Critical analysis of Transformational Leadership

3.1 Rationale for choosing and reflecting of Transformational Leadership

The author chooses transformational leadership for critical analysis by reflecting different
theories, models, and examples in this part. From this part, the author wants to explain the
overall concept, importance and its implication of leadership studies. To create a better
relationship, trusts, change, motivate and inspire people, transformational leadership would be
the best mechanism for any organisations or groups.

The idea of transformational leadership came around 1970s. It was first introduced by James
Downton. Avolio & Yammarino (2013) has defined transformational leadership as a approach
where leaders inspire their followers for change through motivation, their perception and
common objectives to pursue their common goals. According to Bass & Riggio (2006),
transformational leadership includes various aspects.

 Motivating the followers and bring positive attitude and development.

 Raise awareness, uplift their confidence and moral standards
 Highlight priorities and focus on definite objective.
 Create ethical environment through sharing values.

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 Coaching, mentoring to followers.

 Freedom of speech and choice for followers.

Transformational leaders hold positive attitude towards their expectation and believe they can
do best. At the same time, they inspire, empower and exceed ordinary level of performance to
high end. Transformational leaders put their passion and energy what they think is ideal for the
overall benefit of the organisation or nation. They only care for positive change and succeed
(Burns, 1978).

3.2 Transformational Leadership components

Transformational leadership are best described with these 4 components below. They are
referred as 4I’s

Idealized influence: The leader act as a role model or ideal person for followers to lead them.
They are admired by followers no matter what the end result will be. Leaders show high moral
behaviour, gain trust, respect, and proud of the team.

Inspirational motivation: They have the ability to motivate and push their followers for
glory. They never stop inspiring them. Combined idealized influence and inspirational
motivation are the first two forms of transformational leader’s personality. Leaders always
challenge followers for higher expectation, motivate them for higher standard. Similarly,
followers should also need to have strong sense of desire, purpose to drive the team forward.
Communication plays an important role to share ideas, bring optimism in the group, make them
believe in their abilities and make them ready for next challenge (Northouse, 2015).

Individualized Consideration: Leaders show genuine desire for the needs, feelings,
relationship and personal attention of followers. These elements help to bring out best
determination of followers. The leader provides support, communicate, respect and celebrate
individual contribution. Each follower is considered as a part of team and motivate them for
self-development.

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Intellectual Stimulation: Transformational leaders challenges themselves for any work or

situations. They even challenge their followers to be more creative, dynamic and innovative.
However, sometimes transformational leaders are regarded as more “soft” although they
always give and expect high level of performance. They encourage and develop followers to
work and think independently. For these leaders, learning is a very essential value whereas
unfavourable condition and environment are taken as opportunities to learn and grow. The
response to the queries are exceptional due to deep thinking and better execution of their tasks
(Storey, 2004).

3.3 Steps to develop transformational leadership skills

1. Create an inspirational vision:

People need an appealing vision and objectives to follow the lead. The leader must
create an inspiring vision, so people could agree and communicate about the vision.
The vision should target the team or organisational purpose by understanding values,
capabilities and available resources. Deep research should be carried out in order to
understand internal and external environment and analysing its future impacts.

2. Motivate people to deliver vision:

With the appealing vision, the mission of the leader should be vibrant. With the clear
objective, the leader should inspire the followers why and where you (leader) are going
to lead them. This helps people to evaluate and decide upon the vision. People will
analyse and welcome the positive impact however they can be critical sometimes. The
main objective here is to link vision with people’s objectives and goals so that they can
see the clear path ahead about the necessary change that is going to happen.
Transformational leaders know that encouraging and motivating people is an important
step to deliver the best outcome.

3. Manage distribution of vision:

A vision is of no use unless it becomes reality. Many leaders develop vision however;
they do not put effort to make vision reality. Give full effort, energy and commitment

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so the people will join for desirable outcome. Communication and distribution of
responsibility is very important among the team to connect and bring more people in
the group. Transformational leaders take every single chance as an opportunity to climb
to next stage by convincing more and more people.

4. Build trust and strong relationship with people:

The leader always should keep in mind that people are the main assets in order to turn
your vision into reality. As a leader, you have to focus and pay attention to every little
thing in terms of achieving goal. Trust and relationship with people is an underlining
factor for long term success for the leaders. It is important to build constant relationship,
gain trust, help individuals and support them to grow. Being honest to everyone is the
best way to build trust among people.

3.4 Criticism of transformational leadership

The integrity of transformational leadership has always been a talking point for libertarians as
well as organisational consultants. The main criticism of transformational leadership has higher
potential of abusing power (Griffin, 2002). Normally leaders motivate people through strong
emotional aspects regardless the effects on followers. Necessarily, it always does not have
positive outcome for followers as expected. Some of the leaders have neuroticism tendency in
order to influence followers. Knippenberg, et al., (2013), evaluated transformational leaders
are manipulative and thrive under power. Moreover, followers have different tendencies of
thinking and unnecessary bonding with leader. However, due to the trust and distribution of
power to the team it avoids dictatorship. Yukl, (1981) has described in his book that
transformational leadership is the dark side of charismatic leadership.
Study shows that transformational leadership focuses on the institutional or managerial change.
It contributes for the improvement or organisational culture, effectiveness. To survive in the
market, transformational leaders are appointed in organisations (Bryman, 2013). According to
Burn (1978) sometimes leaders misuse power and followers for personal higher needs.
Although, looking at the great transformational leaders like Mandela, Thatcher, Gandhi, Steve
Jobs, Bill Gates they thrive by breaking the social barriers with their definitive motive of
change and leading people for glory. It has also been said that transformational leadership is

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hard to teach and train due to its complex argument over handling the followers (Tourish,
2013).
In some context, when transformational leaders accomplish the certain mission there is a
chance of change in their transformational leadership ideology. Leaders can be exploited over
naïve supporters. For example, in 1920s Adolf Hitler pull out Germany from economic
turbulence however due to the naivety of his followers they supported him blindly. As a result,
he exploited power and created chaotic environment that led to the war.

3.5 Future of Transformational Leadership

So, the emerging question is what next after transformational leadership? Well, Sanders, et al.,
(2003), have proposed a leadership theory called “Transcendental Leadership”. This model
proposes threes levels of leadership. The structural form can be accomplished with the fusion
of transactional, transformational and transcendental leadership. It suggests that in future,
leaders develop leadership styles through spirituality, consciousness and moral characters.
Scholars argue over the organisational necessity and recognition with different level of
leadership. However, new theory is yet to be tested empirically and intent to bring coherent
weave and better understanding of leadership.

4.0 Conclusion

In the report, different leadership theories have been proposed. The discussed leadership
theories provide the brief reflection of the leadership perspectives and styles that has been
adopted by great leaders, organisations, enterprises and nations. Many theorists and scholars
view has been key element for the literature part of this report. They have different opinions
for the leadership theories, its impact, benefit and criticism at the same time. Some of the
scholars believe in the traits of leaders which cannot be changed. Even the behaviour of the
leaders remains unchanged through years. Depending upon the situation and nature of business,
the report is able to create valid opinion, support and defend where necessary. From the trait
theory of leadership, it is concluded that leaders are either task oriented or relationship oriented.
Task oriented leaders are not good in relationship with peoples and relationship oriented
leaders are less likely to complete task in given time.

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Proceeding to behavioural leadership theory, scholars and theorists believes behavioural

leadership comes through learning and experience. Blake and Mouton behavioural leadership
model tries to explain that the behaviour of leader’s changes when it comes to different level
of management. The bar diagram elaborates the ratio of concern to people and leader’s concern
for results show the overall expectation of behavioural leaders.
Continuing to contingency or situational theory of leadership, it is widely adopted leadership
style by different leaders in recent years. Basically, no single leadership is suitable for all
situations. Contingency theorists believe that different leadership styles are adopted in different
situations. Theorists predict that potent leaders who have personal traits and behaviour should
match the need of the situation in order to manage chaos or unconditional situations. Fielder’s
contingency model provides in-depth interaction of leadership and situational conditions.

Furthermore, in the report the author has provided the detailed overview of transformational
leadership. Author believes that transformational leadership style is effective for overall
development of organisation. Transformational leaders inspire, empower and exceed ordinary
level of performance to high end. Transformational leaders put their passion and energy what
they think is ideal for the overall benefit of the organisation or nation. However, there are
limitations of each leadership styles. Still research need to be done thoroughly for the
implications of each leadership theories and their adopted leadership styles.

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