Integration of Weigh-in-Motion Technologies
in Road Infrastructure Management
IN THIS FEATURE, INTRODUCTION
Weigh-in-motion (WIM) systems
CURRENT WEIGH-IN- allow for the unobtrusive and continuous
collection of vehicle weight information,
MOTION (WIM) ranging from precise individual weight
measurements for each (heavy) vehicle to
TECHNOLOGIES ARE aggregate vehicle weight profiles for road
sections. Similarly, applications range
REVIEWED AND THEIR from data collection for the determination
and scheduling of maintenance activities
COST AND ACCURACY ARE to weight-related toll-fare pricing strate-
gies and overweight vehicle detection (and
COMPARED. THE OVERALL possibly diversion to alternate routes).
Like other free-flow technologies,
ANALYSIS OF WIM WIM offers increased highway efficiency
and can be integrated with onboard and
SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS roadside systems to provide advisory infor-
mation to vehicle operators and drivers.1
ALLOWED FOR THE During the last few decades, WIM
technologies were used for weight control
SYNTHESIS OF A of heavy goods vehicles in the framework
of customs and other pricing proce-
FRAMEWORK FOR THE dures.2,3 Today, WIM systems are used
increasingly around the world for a range
INTEGRATION OF WIM of tasks, including but not limited to the
protection and management of highways
TECHNOLOGY WITHIN and other infrastructure investments.
WIM installations can be found in the
INFORMATION SYSTEMS United States (including Kentucky, Michi-
gan and Idaho), Europe (in Zurich and
FOR THE EFFICIENT tunnels in several alpine routes in Switzer-
land; Namur, Belgium; near Trappes,
MANAGEMENT OF ROAD France; and Lulea, Sweden) and other
parts of the world.4
INFRASTRUCTURE. A number of competitive technologies
have been introduced and are being devel-
oped for various WIM applications. Each
of these technologies has different charac-
teristics, advantages
BY GEORGE YANNIS AND CONSTANTINOS ANTONIOU and disadvantages. No
single technology has
emerged as a winner because each appli-
cation has different requirements for vari-
ous factors, including cost and measuring
accuracy.
Technologies developed for WIM sys-
tems include strain-based scales (bending
plate technologies) and embedded pave-
ITE JOURNAL / JANUARY 2005
ment-mounted sensors (piezoelectric
sensors and capacitive mats). These tech-
nologies generally are characterized by
inversely proportional cost and accuracy
characteristics. This usually is the decisive
parameter for their applicability.
For example, strain-based scales offer a
low-cost solution with relatively inexpen-
sive installation and intermediate perfor-
mance; deep-pit, load-cell based WIM
technologies provide a very accurate and
easily maintainable WIM system at a sub-
stantially higher equipment and installa-
tion cost. Optical fibers adopted as a WIM
sensor technology offer accurate measure-
ment capabilities at a reasonable cost.5,6
Ease of installation and maintenance
and endurance of extreme weather condi-
tions also are important factors in the
selection of VMS technologies.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this feature is to
explore the potential applications of avail-
able WIM sensor technologies with respect
to their technological characteristics. A
framework for their integration into the
efficient management of road infrastruc-
ture is proposed, focusing on design, data
requirements, decision support functional-
ity and functional characteristics.
Based on a literature review of the suc-
cessful exploitation of WIM technologies
in road management, the main sensor
technologies are presented. The struc-
ture, characteristics and potential oppor-
tunities and benefits of the integration of
WIM applications in appropriate road
management information systems are
discussed.
WIM SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
Several types of WIM systems employ
different technologies. Generally, the per-
formance of each technology is different
depending on a number of factors, includ-
ing application, environment, cost and
accuracy. Applications may include cost-
39
Figure 1. Quartz-piezoelectric sensor.
Source: Golden River Traffic, accessible via www.goldenriver.
com/GRNewPdfs/M671web.pdf.
effective road pavement design, planning
and maintenance; research; predicting lev-
els of pollution in tunnels based on actual
vehicle weights; axle load monitoring and
screening; and enforcement.7
Because weighed vehicles are moving,
WIM sensors measure dynamic loads. The
static load—the actual load that needs to
be measured—subsequently is estimated
using the measured dynamic load and
appropriate calibration parameters.8 The
basic sensor technologies are piezoelectric
systems, capacitive mats, bending plates,
load cells and fiber optics.
This survey of existing WIM tech-
nologies is by no means complete. The
authors are aware of other technologies
and approaches (including, for example,
the use of bridges as scales to weigh heavy
vehicles in motion rather than using
pavement embedded sensors).9–13 Fur-
thermore, much interest is targeted at
multiple sensor WIM—the combination
of different WIM sensors in a single site.
The principle is to reduce measure-
ment errors by combining independent
measurements from multiple sensors.
Dolcemascolo and Jacob developed
methods based on simple averaging of
measurements; Sainte-Marie, Argoul,
Jacob and Dolcemascolo used signal
reconstruction and Kalman Filtering
techniques; Cebon and Stergioulas,
Cebon and Macleod used Maximum
Likelihood Estimation.14–17 Such tech-
nologies are not discussed in this feature.
Piezoelectric Systems
Piezoelectric WIM systems use quartz-
piezoelectric sensors to detect changes in
voltage caused by pressure exerted on the
sensor by an axle. This information is
used to measure the axle’s weight (see Fig-
ure 1). As a vehicle passes over a piezoelec-
tric sensor, the system records the
electrical charge created by the sensor and
40
Figure 2. Bending plate detail.
Source: International Road Dynamics, accessible via www2.irdinc.com/irdwebapp/system/info/datacol_cvo/bp.asp.
calculates the dynamic load. The static
load is estimated from the measured
dynamic load with the application of a set
of calibration parameters.18
Piezoelectric WIM systems consist of
one or more sensors placed perpendicu-
lar to the direction of the vehicle in the
traffic lane. Sensors can be installed per-
manently in a roadway (saw-cut) or tem-
porarily on the road surface with road
tape or epoxy. Piezoelectric WIM sys-
tems provide vehicle classification data
for statistical studies; speed measure-
ments for enforcement; red-light viola-
tor camera systems; vehicle weight
studies; pre-screening; and road damage
assessment. Quartz sensors have been
found to be suitable in harsh weather
conditions.19
Capacitive Mats
Capacitive mats typically consist of
two inductive loops and one capacitive
weight sensor per lane to cover a maxi-
mum of four traffic lanes. In a portable
setup, the inductive stick-on loops and
the capacitive weight sensor are placed on
top of the road pavement for temporary
use, usually up to 30 days. In a perma-
nent setup, the sensors are placed in
stainless steel pans, flush-mounted with
the pavement. The mat is installed per-
pendicular to the direction of the vehicle
in the traffic lane.
Bending Plates
Bending plate WIM systems use plates
with sensors mounted to the underside
(see Figure 2). As a vehicle passes over a
bending plate, the system records the
strain measured by the strain gauge and
calculates the dynamic load. Bending plate
systems are used regularly for pre-sorting
systems on weigh station ramps, data col-
lection and industrial and military weigh-
ing. Bending plate scales can be portable
or installed permanently with some minor
excavation into the road structure.
Load Cells
Load cell WIM systems use a single
load cell with two scales to detect an axle
and weigh the right and left sides of the
axle simultaneously (see Figure 3). Load
cells are transducers for the measurement
of force or weight, usually based on a
strain gauge bridge or vibrating wire sen-
sor. As a vehicle passes over the load cell,
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Figure 3. Load cell site.
Source: International Road Dynamics.
the system records the weights measured
by each scale and adds them together to
obtain the axle weight. The load cell is
placed in the travel lane perpendicular to
the direction of traffic.
A properly installed and calibrated
single load cell WIM system can provide
gross vehicle weights within 6 percent of
the actual vehicle weight for 95 percent
of measured trucks.20 Load cell scales are
used regularly for WIM pre-sorting sys-
tems on the mainline at weigh stations,
data collection systems and industrial
and military weighing. Load cell scales
require permanent installation with some
minor excavation into the road structure
or may be used in portable applications.
Optical WIM
In addition to other uses, fiber optics
can act as a WIM sensor technology. A
fiber optic sensor is made of two metal
strips welded around an optical fiber (see
Figure 4). The sensor principle uses
induced photo-elastic properties in glass
fiber under a vertical compressive force.
This induces separation in two propagat-
ing modes: a faster vertical mode and a
slower horizontal mode. The pressure
transferred to the optical fiber creates a
phase shift between both polarization
modes, which is directly related to the
load on the fiber.21
Optical WIM, as WIM with the use
of fiber optic cables often is identified,
can provide good measurement accuracy
at a reasonable cost.22 Furthermore, opti-
cal fiber based systems can operate with-
out a significant loss of accuracy under
diverse conditions (such as speeds from
10 to 120 kilometers per hour and
extreme weather conditions) and do not
require electric supply. Installation can be
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Figure 4. Fiber optic/optical WIM detail.
Source: Caussignac, J-M., S. Larcher and J.C. Rougier.
“Weigh-In-Motion Using Optical Fibre Technology.
Proceedings of the Second European Conference in Weigh-
in-Motion of Road Vehicles. O’Brien, E.J. and B. Jacob
(eds.). Lisbon, Portugal, September 1998.
cost effective and often is less intrusive
than that of other WIM technologies.
Optical fiber’s immunity to electro-
magnetic interference makes it suitable
for installation in places where other
WIM technologies might be adversely
affected (such as close to rail tracks and
power stations).
Finally, coupled with real-time data
processing, optical WIM can provide a
wealth of information, including
dynamic effects (such as tire pressure,
acceleration and speed). Field tests indi-
cated good behavior in a two-year test
with heavy traffic.23
9,000
(1998 U.S. dollars per year)
8,000
Annual life cycle cost
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Figure 5. Comparison of most common WIM sensor technologies (cost vs. accuracy).
Source: Bushman, R. and A.J. Pratt. “Weigh-In-Motion Technology—Economics and Performance.” Presented at the North
American Travel Monitoring Exhibition and Conference, Charlotte, NC, USA, 1998.
Comparison
A key issue in every WIM installation
is the selection of the appropriate sensor
technology, which usually is defined by a
trade-off between cost and accuracy.
Bushman and Pratt analyzed three basic
types of WIM sensor technology (piezo-
electric, bending plate and single load
cell) in terms of accuracy and cost.24
When properly installed and cali-
brated, a piezoelectric WIM system
should be expected to provide gross vehi-
cle weights within 15 percent of the
actual vehicle weight for 95 percent of
trucks measured. The error margin for
bending plate sensors (assuming proper
installation and calibration) falls to 10
percent of the actual vehicle weight for
95 percent of trucks; for single load cells,
the error margin is only 6 percent.
In addition to repair and mainte-
nance as necessary, the sensors generally
are replaced after a period of time that
differs by technology and has a direct
impact on installation cost. Piezoelec-
tric sensors generally are replaced after
4 years, bending plates after 6 years and
the more expensive single load cells
after 12 years.
The initial installation cost per lane of
WIM sensors differs significantly by sen-
sor technology. The indicative costs in
Figure 5 include equipment, installation
and installation supervision. 25 The
annual life cycle cost was calculated from
all the costs associated with WIM installa-
41
tion over a 12-year cycle, using the net
present value of each cost (for year 1998).
The information presented supports
the intuition that cost and accuracy are
inversely proportional properties for the
most common WIM sensor technologies.
On several occasions, the selection of
a sensor technology is obvious. For exam-
ple, for an installation aimed at obtaining
aggregate annual statistical data on the
heavy vehicles that pass through a high-
way section, the most likely sensor tech-
nology would be piezoelectric. The low
cost makes this solution attractive and
the relative loss in accuracy is not likely
to impact data use significantly.
On the other hand, if a WIM instal-
lation is intended to provide input for a
tolling scheme in which vehicles are
charged according to their weight, it is
likely that the extra accuracy offered by
single load cell solutions would offset
the additional cost associated with such
sensors.
Nevertheless, selection of the appro-
priate sensor technology for a WIM
installation is a complex task and is not
dependent only on these two parameters.
The system designer should evaluate any
special circumstances associated with the
installation, such as extreme environ-
mental conditions, expected traffic load
and traffic composition. Some sensors are
more tolerant to extreme cold or heat.
For example, sensor equipment requiring
less maintenance could be used for a road
segment with heavy traffic, where fre-
quent traffic obstruction could create sig-
nificant traffic delays.
WIM SYSTEMS INTEGRATION IN ROAD
INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT
An Integrated Approach
In most cases, current applications of
WIM systems focus on specific functions
related to road infrastructure manage-
ment, such as traffic demand manage-
ment, road safety improvements and
environmental protection. Sometimes,
however, by-product functions—derived
from the fact that weight count data are
available—also are served, such as infra-
structure maintenance management and
design of alternative pricing systems.
Data collected through WIM systems
can be used for both real-time and off-
42
line functions, integrated through appro-
priate information systems.
Real-Time Functions
Information collected in WIM stations
can be useful for the dynamic management
of road traffic. When the collected informa-
tion concerns all types of vehicles, complete
traffic demand management systems are
possible. When the information concerns
only goods vehicles, schemes focusing on
truck-only traffic can be implemented
(such as weekend traffic bans).
The collected information is transmit-
ted automatically to local processing cen-
ters and elaborated with specially
developed algorithms. Real-time infor-
mation is disseminated to the drivers of
the various vehicle categories through
available information channels (such as
variable message signs, messages to
onboard computers and radio messages).
Additionally, special processing of
data collected in WIM stations can sup-
port several control procedures estab-
lished for traffic facilitation, safety
improvements and the protection of the
environment. WIM data can be trans-
lated through special algorithms to auto-
matic alarms concerning illegal
circulation of overloaded trucks and inci-
dent detection (for extraordinary conges-
tion, accidents, special events, etc.).
These alarms can, for example, automati-
cally activate pre-established procedures
and warn concerned authorities to make
necessary interventions.
Off-Line Functions
Systematic analysis of data collected
over longer periods of time can reveal
underlying trends in the evolution and
composition of traffic, facilitate forecast-
ing of future conditions and support
decision-making. Traffic composition has
a direct impact on pavement deteriora-
tion and can be used as a proxy for the
state of the pavement and the need for
(preventive and corrective) maintenance.
Accurate forecasting of traffic composi-
tion and traffic levels can support mainte-
nance decisions. Lower-than-expected
traffic flows can lead to postponing main-
tenance activities (resulting in saved main-
tenance funds or reallocation of available
resources to other activities); higher-than-
expected flows can signal the need for pre-
ventive maintenance before pavement
deterioration exceeds acceptable levels
(and costly reconstruction is required).
Decisions on major capital invest-
ments also can be supported by collected
traffic composition data. Finally, pricing
policies (aimed at steering heavy traffic
away from sensitive arteries to alternate
routes) can be based on traffic composi-
tion forecasts.
Information Flow
Raw information collected at field
WIM sensors is transferred via the com-
munication infrastructure to local infor-
mation hubs, where a first level of real-time
processing takes place. A first level of filter-
ing, validating and aggregating the col-
lected data can be performed to limit
information traffic in the communication
network and ensure that only relevant and
accurate information is transferred.
The processed information then can
be transferred back to field information
devices (such as variable message signs
and highway advisory radio) for dissemi-
nation and to centralized information sys-
tems for further processing.
Real-time information can be dissem-
inated from the central information sys-
tem to end users through other
information channels (such as in-vehicle
devices, wireless end-user devices, or
WAP-enabled cell phones).26 Informa-
tion from WIM sensors also can be com-
bined with real-time or off-line
information obtained from other sources
(such as weather conditions, road surface
conditions, or historical traffic data).
CONCLUSION
Today, sensor technology proposes
several types of WIM systems, which
have been tested for their efficiency, accu-
racy and cost-effectiveness. Piezoelectric
systems, capacitive mats, bending plates,
load cells and optical WIM technologies
are used for a number of applications
comprising traffic data collection, weigh
station enforcement, bridge and toll con-
trol systems, truck safety advisory sys-
tems and environmental systems.
Current information technology
applications allow for fast and efficient
communication networks; real-time pro-
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cessing of large amounts of data by pow-
erful computer systems; and reliable con-
trol procedures with the use of advanced
system architectures and software, which
make the exploitation of WIM technol-
ogy easier.27
In this way, vehicle weight manage-
ment progressively becomes an impor-
tant component of the overall road
management system, better responding
to the diverse needs of road users and
other actors. The proven usefulness of
weight management will progressively
make the use of WIM stations trivial
because their fixed and operational costs
are steadily decreasing.
The availability of real-time informa-
tion collected at WIM stations can be
beneficial not only for road users but also
for the overall management of efficiency,
safety and environmental protection on
the road network. Synergies between
information systems should be estab-
lished and fit into the overall electronic
management of the road infrastructure.
Today, further research for the devel-
opment of more accurate WIM systems
at lower cost is considered necessary to
cope with the increasingly demanding
environment of road users’ needs.
Research for the design of user-oriented
information systems can boost the use-
fulness of integrating WIM systems in
the overall road infrastructure manage-
ment and progressively lead to a signifi-
cant reduction of the cost of these
technologies. ■
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GEORGE YANNIS
is a lecturer in the
Department of Trans-
portation Planning and
Engineering at the
School of Civil Engi-
neering at the National
Technical University of
Athens. During the last 17 years, he has partici-
pated in more than 100 research projects and has
published more than 75 scientific papers and
studies in Greece and abroad. He has been chair-
man of the Hellenic ITE.
CONSTANTINOS
ANTONIOU
is a Ph.D. candidate at
the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology
(MIT). He obtained a
degree in civil engineer-
ing in 1995 from the
National Technical University of Athens and an
M.S. in transportation in 1997 from MIT. He
has more than 7 years of experience in demand
modeling, traffic simulation and intelligent trans-
portation systems projects.
43