Professional Documents
Culture Documents
شيت مختبر الاجهزة الكهروميكانيكة PDF
شيت مختبر الاجهزة الكهروميكانيكة PDF
1. Theory:
The operational amplifier or simply op amp is the most versatile electronic
amplifier. It derives it name from the fact that it is capable of performing
many mathematical operations such as addition, multiplication,
differentiation, integration, analog-to-digital conversion or vice versa. It can
also be used as a comparator and electronic filter. It is also the basic block
in analog computer design. Its symbol is shown in Figure (1).
As shown above the op amp has two inputs but only one output. For this
reason it is referred to as differential input, single ended output amplifier.
Figure (1) shows the internal construction of a typical op amp. This figure
also shows terminals VCC and VEE. These are the voltage sources required
to power up the op amp. Typically Vcc is +15 volts and VEE is −15 volts.
These terminals are not shown in op amp circuits since they just provide
power, and do not reveal any other useful information for the op amp’s
circuit analysis.
Figure (2)
Procedure (1):
Connect the circuit as is shown in the figure (4) and turn the power on.
1- Adjust the input A voltage to +3V and that of the input B at +2V and
observe the output
Voltage resultant Insert the value in the table (1).
2- Repeat the procedure with the input B put at +4V and insert the output
voltage in the Table (1).
3- Repeat the procedure for other input voltages.
Table (1)
Procedure (2):
1- Connect the circuit as in the figure (5).
2- Adjust the 1K conductive plastic potentiometers in their central position,
and the othe two to the minimum so that their output voltages are
approximately zero.
3- Turn the power on and adjust the potentiometers so that the output voltage
increases observe that the variation of any of the inputs affects the output
voltage.
4- Determine this maximum output voltage. It will be slightly bigger than 10 V
so measure the value using the digital voltmeter.
5- Repeat the procedure for the other positions indicated in the table (2) and for
positions of your choice to verify that the value of the output voltage is the
algebraic sum of the values in the input voltages.
Figure (5)
1. Theory:
Table (2)
Fig (2)
1.3 Voltage to Frequency (V/F) Converter:
Fig (3)
Procedure:
1- Connect the circuit in the figure (5) and adjust the 100K potentiometer to
zero voltage.
2- Observe the output voltage of the converter and insert the value in the
table (2).
3- The load resistance is 150 and, therefore, the output of current, in
amperes, can be calculated dividing the output voltage by 150 Insert the
value of current in mA (1000 x A), in the column of current of the table (2).
4- Repeat the procedure for input voltages of + 1.0V, +1.0V, +2V and insert
the results in the table (2)
Fig (5)
1. Theory:
The trainer DL 2312HG has two LM35: one is mounted inside the box to
sense the temperature when the heater is hot. A second LM35 unit is
mounted outside the box, indicating practically the ambient temperature that
we obtain in terminal REF. The output in the terminal "O/P" in the figure 5.8
indicates the temperature inside
Procedure:
1- Connect the voltmeter to the circuit as is shown in the figure (2).
2- Switch the power (ON) and observe the output voltage, representing this
The temperature in OC
(V * 100 = OC)
3- Now connect the +12V voltage in the input terminal of the filament and
write the reading of the voltage in every minute until the value is stabilized.
Insert the values in the table (1).
Figure (2)
Experiment No. (4)
1. Theory:
1.1 Pneumatics Systems:
The term "pneuma" is derived from the ancient Greek; it means breath or
wind and also the soul in philosophy. The true and worldwide introduction
of pneumatics industry, however, commenced only when the need for
automation and rationalization of operational sequences continued to
increase. Today, it is not possible to imagine modern factories being without
compressed air. For this reason, compressed air devices are installed in the
most diverse branches of Industry.
1.3 Controlling:
The controlling part in pneumatic system can divided into two types:
1- Mechanical controlling.
2- Electrical controlling.
next expression.
Fig (1)
2. Parts of pneumatic system machines:
2.1 Mechanical Part:
a. Splitters:
Fig (2)
Distribution block with 6 connection outlets, suitable for centralizing the air
drawings
b. Doubie acting cylinder:
Simple stem double acting cylinder with magnetic piston for end of stroke
driving of externally mounted reed relays..
Fig (3)
c. Filter:
Element of sinterized bronze for air filtering, with manual relief of the
condensate
Fig (4)
d. Regulator:
Automatic valve used for adjusting the air admission in the user plant,
keeping the pressure constant to the preset value.
Fig (5)
Fig (6)
The pressure connection is closed due to the effect of the reset spring
when the control connection 12 isn't under signals.
The utilization connection 2 is connected to the supply connection 1
when the control connection 12 is under signal.
The electric control signal is connected to the solenoid that, by
exploiting the coercitive magnetic force, moves the shutter so that the
way is opened.
The control signal is held as long as the solenoid is kept under voltage.
f. Single - Shot Distributor:
5. Way, 2.position valve for controlling the direction of an air flow. With
pneumatic control and spring operated reset, suitable for controlling double
acting actuators and other pneumatic elements.
Fig (7)
The utilization connection 4 is connected to the supply connection 1,
due to the effect of the reset spring, when the control connection 12 isn't
under signal.
The utilization connection 2 is connected to the supply connection 1
when the control connection 12 is under signal.
The driving operates on the small piston which moves the distributor
slide valve.
This is held in this position as long as the signal is present.
g. Distribution Biestable:
5-way, 2-position valve for controlling the direction of an air flow.With
pneumatic control and reset, suitable for controlling double acting actuators
and other pneumatic elements ,this type of distributor keep the flow path of
air constant and fixed even the action is disappear ,and it will change the
flow path to another one when the electric action on the other side of
solenoid is working, and so for this state the path flow will stay at its
position even the action removed .
Fig (8)
2.2 Electrical Parts:
a. Mushroom - Head Pushbutton
Emergency pushbutton with 1 NO and 1 NC contacts
Fig (9)
b. Digital Pushbutton:
Control pushbutton with 1 NO and 1 NC contacts
Fig (10)
c. Lamp:
Signaling lamp
d. Electro valve:
Terminals of the driving coil for the electro valve mounted on DL 8171
board.
Fig (11)
3. Experimental study:
As shown in figure bellow, it is presents the pneumatic system
connections, the figure in the lift hand presents the mechanical connections
and the other hand presents the electrical connections.
Fig (12)
A-First connects all tubing and secure before switching on the compressed
air.
B- Switch off the air and voltage supply before connecting the circuit.
Fig (13)
In the figure above before operate the electric circuit, open the two sours of
pressure you will say that the piston will push forward to the right hand ,now
connect the electric power on the current will excite the coil valve as shown
above and it will caused the piston will be back to the left hand ,now try to
change the two sours pressure and see what will happen.
.
Discussion:
1. As shown in figure bellow and for the same position of piston at first ,
complete the connection between pneumatic circuit and electric control to
show the motion of piston and description the piston motion according to
electrical control conect .
1. Theory:
The relay is the element used in electromagnetic circuits for "processing" the
information's from pushbuttons, limit switches, etc. It is made up of an
electromagnet with a moving element and a set of electric contacts.
When the coil of the electromagnet is being excited, the moving element
causes the contact switching The relay coil in the circuit is the result of a
control line (or equation), while the contacts are the elements conditioning a
control line, as shown in fig. (1).
Fig (1)
The contacts are normally switched, i.e. a single contact is used either for the
NO or the NC (*) function. The functions are inverted when the relay is
being excited. The terminals identifying the switching contact are three,
because there is a common Therefore, both the functions can be used only
when they concern the same input
Signal that will be connected to the common of the contacts in the diagrams,
the two functions are normally represented as separated. The contacts can.
Be identified through the same reference letter of the relay (X - Y - Z, etc.),
but written in small letters (x - y - z, etc.). Under the coil symbol, the
functions of the contacts used and
The relevant positions in the diagram must be written.
(*): NO: Normally open
NC: Normally close
NOTES:
1) Normally, the relays used are unstable.
2) The stable kind relays are rarely used because: costly, bulky, little
functional.
3) The memorization of a signal can be also realized with an unstable relay
through a "self-holding circuit".
Self-holding circuit:
The self-holding circuit is a memory circuit whose function is to give
continuity to the effect of A signal after its disappearance, as shown in fig
(2).
It is made up of:
- An unstable NO switch on pushbutton S1.
- An unstable NC switch off pushbutton S2.
- A NO contact of the relay.
NOT:
The switch off pushbutton (always with NC contact) can be connected
indifferent ways; the important thing is that its opening causes the de-
excitation of the relay controlling it. The operation of a self-holding circuit is
the following:
When the pushbutton S1 is operated for a short time, the coil of the relay X
is excited.
The contact x closes and holds the relay excited even after the pushbutton is
released.
For the effect to be interrupted it is necessary to operate the pushbutton S2.
2. Experimental Procedure:
Exercise (1): Which shown how connect parts of the electropneumatic
apparatus by using self holding circuit.
Fig (3)
As shown in figure bellow, it is show the acting of the relay on the sequence
work of the coil valves B1 and B2. As shown in fig (4).
Fig (4)
When the pushbutton S1 is operated, the contacts of the relay X perform an equal and an
opposite action.
Exercise (3): Which showed the effect of sensors control on the sequence work of the
coil valves.
End of piston
Fig (5)
When end of piston as shown in fig (5) (which it magnetic) in the position of
the sensor a0 the magnetic field will close the sensor circuit, and the current
will operate the coil valve B1 caused the end of piston moving to position of
sensor a1, and then the coil valve B2 will operate by the current of the close
loop of the sensor a1 causing the piston return to its first position.
Discussions:
1-Build the electrical control cycle that gives a continues motion of the
Dobel.Acting.Cylinder from side to another by one press on the push button
and stop the continues cycle by another one press on another push button.
1. Theory:
1.1 System under control
This subsystem comprises the following main elements as shown in fig. (1) A, b
Fig (1) a- presents the block diagram of the system b- Process tank
a-The pump
Under a given supply voltage the pump creates flow of water which also
depends on pressure in the system. The real component has a maximum
pressure switch that interrupt the power supply in case of output pressure
rise over 2 bar. The switch has a hysteresis that allows the restart of the
pump when the pressure decrease below 1.6 bar.
b-The process tank
In the process tank some amount of water may be stored which exerts
hydrostatic pressure on the bottom. The process tank is also equipped with
an air valve which can be used to control air pressure inside. The output
pressure of the tank is the sum of hydrostatic pressure and air pressure. The
temperature of water inside the process tank may be controlled by the use of
a heater. To influence pressure in the system also the valves may be used.
c-The container
The container is used to store water for the system and there is atmospheric
pressure at its output. The water temperature, at startup, is assumed to be at
27°C; at runtime, it is calculated with the energy balance equations,
according to the inlet water (coming from process thank) and the output
quantity, forced by the pump.
1.2 Controller
The controller part is equipped with a PID and On/Off controllers which can
be used to control temperature, pressure and level of water in the tank, and
the flow through the pump. The parameters may be also controlled manually
as shown fig (2).
1.4 procedures:
1-connecte through leads bushes nr. 9, 10, 11&12 of pressure sensor
pressure to bushes nr. 9, 10, 11, &12 of the relevant interface as shown in fig
(4)
Fig (4) Connecting pressure sensor.
2-connect bush nr 19 of the linear driver to bush nr.19 & bush nr.20 to bush
nr.20 as shown in fig (5).
Fig (6)
* Resent documentation:
a- set 1:
b- Set 2:
9.3 Upper
limit level
cm
c- Set 3:
d- Set 4:
1.5 Discussion:
Theory:
1-1Counter-electromotive force:
In the d.c. motor the rotor winding, called armature winding, can move
within a fixed magnetic field called excitation field. When to the rotor
winding an external voltage is connected, within the rotor mechanical forces
are generated as a result of the well-known electromagnetic induction law.
These forces put the motor in rotation. During the rotation, the conductors of
the armature winding cut the force lines of the excitation field. In them a
counter-electromotive force (in the following abbreviated with FCEM) is
therefore generated, which oppose itself to the input armature voltage.
When no mechanical torque is being applied and the friction can be assumed
to be neglect able, the motor speed increases until the FCEM becomes equal
to the input voltage V. At this point the system is in balance condition, the
speed is kept constant and no current absorption occurs, being V = E.
Therefore, in the absence of electric and mechanical losses the motor would
continue to rotate at constant speed without absorbing electric power. In fact,
the absorbed electric power is given by Pe = V*I and it follows therefore that
I=0. The FCEM is due to the variations of the internal magnetic field caused
by the rotation.
At a parity of speed, the induced electromotive forces assume the same value
E even when the motor is being used as a voltage generator in the operation
as dynamo (which is always possible with d.c motors). The proportionality
relationship existing between E and the speed, expressed as rounds per
minute N, is the following:
E = KФ N
Where E = f.c.e.m.
N = rounds per minute
Ф= magnetic flux
K = constant on the motor
KФ N*I = C*N
It is interesting to note that the proportionality constant 1/K is just the above
mentioned N/E ratio (rounds per minute/Volt).
I = 1/KФ * C
E=KФN
From the E = KФ N equation it can be clearly seen that there are two ways
for varying the speed (N) of the d.c. motor.
The first way is to vary the magnetic flux of the inductor field ( ) by varying
its excitation.
The second way is to vary E, or better the armature voltage to which E is
related by the relation:
V = Ri * I + E
The motor used in our regulation system model is a permanent magnet
motor, of the kind commonly used in small automation systems. The
parameter is therefore constant and the speed variation is performed by
operating on the
armature voltage.
Let's assume that the motor is supplied with a voltage V and that the motor
can be seen to rotate in no-load condition at a speed corresponding to N.
In these conditions, when the torque due to frictions is neglect able, we'll
have a very small current absorption, i.e. I ≈ 0, therefore the FCEM will be
EO≈ 0. If at this point we break the shaft by exerting a mechanical force C,
the current I will be seen to increase and the FCEM will be given by:
E = V – Ri * I
If we wish to compensate the decrease of speed, we must operate to correct
the input voltage V, so to keep E = EO.
Therefore, we must add to the supply voltage V a term V = Ri * I which is
on its turn proportional to I. When the internal resistance of the motor is
known, it is sufficient to use a circuit able to measure the current I and to
correct the driving voltage by automatically adding the term ΔV to it.
The result will be a negative resistance driving system, whose output voltage
increases when current is absorbed figure (2).
Fig (3)
In the PLL-based digital system, the speed is detected through a transducer
(often electro-optical) which generates a pulse train whose frequency is
proportional to the speed. These pulses are then synchronized with a
reference frequency, using as error signal either the frequency or phase
difference between the two signals figure(4).
Fig (4)
The frequency difference is measured to allow the motor to keep up the pace
with the reference frequency. Afterwards the fine regulation is triggered,
which acts on the phase.
For this purpose special phase-frequency detecting digital circuits have been
industrially manufactured (for instance: MC4044).
With both methods high accuracies can be reached. It is also possible to
realize an analog control system by using a digital speed transducer. In fact,
it is sufficient to realize a frequency-voltage conversion of the transducer
signal figure (5).
Fig (5)
3-1 Design of closed – loop controllers:
The performances of a feedback control system can be expressed in terms of
static precision and dynamic response. With static precision the percent
displacement is meant of the value reached by the controlled quantity from
the set value, when the transient to steady-state condition of the system is
over. The dynamic response is the transient followed by the system to reach
the steady-state condition and can be expressed in terms of either step
response or frequency response. The static precision only depends on the
loop gain A as shown in figure (6):
Fig (6)
Therefore:
Therefore, the static error E is as smaller as greater is the loop gain A.
To limit the value of the gain, the problem of dynamic stability intervenes.
In fact, due to the existing delays, when the gain is arbitrarily increased, the
system could become self-oscillating, or it could reach the steady-state
condition too slowly in time with a damped oscillatory response.
The characterization of the system from the dynamic point of view is based
on the knowledge of the transfer functions, which can be expressed through
the formalism of the Laplace transform as G(s) and H(s) as shown in
figure(7):
In our specific case, G(s) is the product of the amplification A, the transfer
function of the loop filter and the transfer function of the motor; instead, the
H(s) is the transfer function of the speed measurement system.
Fig (7)
( )
( )
( )
We obtain:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
Knowing the poles and the zeros of G(s) and H(s) it is possible to calculate
how the poles of the closed-loop transfer function F(s) vary when the gain A
increases. The position of these poles in the complex plane determines the
stability and the characteristics of the system dynamic response. We remind
that the system is stable when all the poles of the F(s) have a negative real
part. Moreover, we recall that the dynamic response is specially affected by
the dominating poles, i.e. by the poles whose real part is the closest to the
zero. Considering the case of only 2 dominating poles, either exponential
figure (8) or damped oscillatory figure (9) responses can be obtained to a
step input, when the poles are real or complex conjugate with negative real
part, respectively.
In the case of complex conjugate poles, the damping:
Fig
(8)
Fi
g
(9)
The more ζ is close to 1, i.e. is close to the zero, the less is the overshoot.
ωn is called natural pulsation and is related to the band and the speed of
response of the system. The greater is ωn, the quicker is the system.
In general, the optimum control should be featured by:
ωn very high (high speed of response)
ζ close to 1 (very damped overshoot)
A very high (high static precision)
T1 = (R8 + R9) • C1
T2 = R9 • C1
Fig (11)
The transfer function of the motor has actually a rather complex formulation,
which keeps into account the electric, mechanical and load-related features.
The proposed simplification is to consider the transfer function as having a
single pole, which will be that due to the mechanical inertia of both the rotor
and the load. The transfer function of the speed meter has a single pole that
physically corresponds to the delay Introduced by the filter R12, C3 in the
case of the encoder and by R22, C8 in the case of tachometer dynamo in the
figure ( ).
With the above assumptions, it follows that:
( )
( )
The poles of F(s) are related to the poles and the zeros of G(s) H(s) and the
qualitative behavior, with increasing A, is given by the following graph on
the complex plane, where also the pole and the zero of the loop filter have
been shown in the figure (12):
Fig (12)
The poles of the system remain in the left half-plane (negative Re), therefore
the system is stable for any gain value, at least until the effect of the poles at
higher frequencies intervenes, that we don't have considered here. To
prevent too large overshoots in the step response, it is anyway necessary to
limit the gain value (complex conjugate poles with high imaginary part).
Procedure:
Part A:
The purpose of this part is to make the student familiar with the DL
2155RGM educational system, especially with the speed regulation circuit.
Take note of the remarks contained in the "Introduction to tests" paragraph.
Connect the power supplies to the board, as shown (3 cables for + 12 V, 0, -
12 V, two cables for the 12V a.c or d.c supply, + 12 V, 0) .
Connect the motor to the terminals labeled B and C of the regulator circuit
(see figure 7) .
A just to the minimum both the potentiometer of the speed reference and that
of the loop gain.
Switch the power supply unit on. Gradually increase the reference observing
the corresponding variations of the motor's running condition.
Holding the reference fixed in intermediate position, gradually increase the
loop gain to the point where the system self-oscillates. Repeat the test with
different reference values.
Switch the power supply off. Connect an oscilloscope or a frequency meter
between the terminal P of the controller (see figure 9) and ground. (Warning,
the frequency meter may require a capacitor in series to the input for locking
the d.c. signal).
Switch the power supply unit on again. Measure the speed of the motor for
different reference values. Remind that the frequency meter reading (or the
frequency displayed by the oscilloscope) must be divided by 5 to obtain the
value of the motor's speed in rounds per second. In fact, the disk of the
encoder which generates the measured pulses has 5 holes.
1. Theory:
1 .1 Position Regulator
Fig (1)
The reference signal Vset for the required angular displacement
(adjustable in the approximate range 0V to 10V for angles between 0° and
360°) is obtained from a voltage divider, while the position transducer P1 is
driven by the motion of the geared dc motor M in order to convert the
position variation into a variation of voltage Vf. The summing node is
composed of an op-amp in inverting algebraic adder configuration and
supplies the error signal Ve, which is used to control the rotating direction of
the geared motor by suitably driving the power device: the latter must be of
bidirectional kind (positive and negative half-wave controlled converter. For
greater details see the manual DL 2316A, at the sections concerning the
phase control half-wave rectifiers).When the preset signal Vset is equal to the
feedback signal Vf, the error signal Ve is zero and the geared motor doesn’t
output any torque. When the preset signal V set is not equal to the feedback
signal Vf, the error signal
Ve = (Vset – Vf )
Drives the power device so that:
a clockwise rotation cw occurs when Ve > 0 (control on the positive half-
wave)
a counter clockwise rotation ccw occurs when V e < 0 (control on the
negative half-wave).
The realized control system is of over damped kind, because as the error
signal decreases, the energy supplied to the geared motor is reduced, to
prevent the overshoot of the balance position that could give rise to an error
voltage with a sign opposite to the previous one, resulting in oscillations
around the steady state condition.
Fig (2)
1.1.3 Position Transducer
The potentiometer is a position transducer, being able to detect angular
rotation of the slide through a resistance variation and, therefore, a voltage
variation. When R is the total resistance of the potentiometer and Rx is
the resistance relative to rotation angle, it follows that resulting in
oscillations around the steady state condition
Vo = (Rx /R) VREF = k
1.1.6 Procedures:
1. Connect the circuit as show the fig (3).
2. Set the value of the required angular position through the ―POSITION
SET‖ potentiometer P2, whose equivalent voltage values can be adjusted in
the approximate range 0.1 V to 9.9 V.?
3. Check that the motor shaft reaches the value of the set angle, in the
required rotating direction. The test point at the output of the inverter
(terminal VR2) allows the rotating angle variations to be followed, which
are equivalent to a 0 V voltage for 0° and to about 10 V for 360°. The 0°-
360° zone is naturally critical owing to the sudden change of the polarity of
the error signal.
4. Change (p-s) values according values show below after P1 value become
stable value.
Table (1): Clockwise
P-S Vset Vf Ve
angle
45o
90o
135o
180o
225o
270o
315o
1. 2 Speed Control
The separate excitation dc motor is the best suited kind of motor for driving
operations in automatic controls where, as a rule, a constant rotating speed is
required when the load is varied .The first automatic control of the separate
excitation dc motor was realized by the Ward-Leonard set: the supply
voltage of the dc motor was provided by a dc generator driven by an
asynchronous motor. Therefore, any speed variation could be controlled by
varying the excitation of the dc generator, resulting in a variation of the
supply voltage of the dc motor. The current driving system, on the contrary,
is purely electronic, therefore less bulky and expensive: the dc generator and
the asynchronous motor have been replaced with static switches.
1.2.1 Separate Excitation DC Motor
The dc motor is composed of an armature winding arranged on the rotor and
by an excitation field on the stator (in this case a permanent magnet has been
used, therefore no field adjustment is possible).
Fig (3)
E = kn n
Va = E + Ra Ia
When the voltage drop RaIa is initially neglected against the back-e.m.f. E,
it follows that
Va = E
Fig (4)
Tm = k Ia
fig(5)
The reference signal Vset for the required speed (adjustable in the range 0 to
1.2.4 Procedures:
1. Connect the circuit as show the fig (3).
2. By reducing the value of the control voltage Vc the motor M is started,
which drives the generator G operating at no-load condition. The values of
the voltage are measured both at the output of the frequency/voltage
converter (terminal VR2), which is proportional to the rotating speed with
constant Kn = -1 mV/min-1, and across the terminals of generator G, for
different values of the control voltage Vc (Remind that the max rotating
speed is set at 10,000 min-1, corresponding to a voltage VR2 = -10V).
3. When a speed value is set with the generator at no-load condition, if the
LOAD resistor is connected to the generator it can be seen that as the load is
increased (P2 = 100% means minimum load resistance), the motor slows
down.
Open loop
Kn=-1mv/min-1
No load at load
F/V F/V
Vset speed Vset speed
converter converter
25%
40%
45%
50%
fig(7)
1.2.6 Procedures:
1. Motor at no-load (generator G not connected to the LOAD resistor). By
operating The ―SPEED SET‖ potentiometer P1, check that the motor speed
varies accordingly to the set value.
2. Motor on load (generator G connected to the LOAD resistor).
Set a value of the rotating speed through the ―SPEED SET‖ potentiometer
P1 and check the effect of variations of the LOAD (potentiometer P2, where
100% corresponds to the minimum load resistance).
Close loop
Kn=-1mv/min-1
No load at load
F/V F/V
Vset speed Vset Speed
converter converter
25%
40%
45%
50%
1. Theory:
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical
pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper
motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses
are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several
direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the
applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation.
The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of
the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of
input pulses applied, figure (1)show the relation between pulses and steps.
one pulse equal one step pulse count equal pulse steps
A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, electric motor that can
divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can
be controlled precisely without any feedback mechanism, as long as the
motor is carefully sized to the application.
The two most commonly used types of stepper motors are the permanent
magnet and the hybrid types. If a designer is not sure which type will best fit
his applications requirements he should first evaluate the PM type as it is
normally several times less expensive. If not then the hybrid motor may be
the right choice.
Fig (3) Cross-section of a variable Fig (4) Principle of a PM or tin-can
Reluctance (VR) motor stepper motor
A pole can be defined as one of the regions in a magnetized body where the
magnetic flux density is concentrated. Both the rotor and the stator of a step
motor have poles. Figure (4) contains a simplified picture of a two-phase
stepper motor having 2 poles (or 1 pole pairs) for each phase on the stator,
and 2 poles (one pole Pair)
on the rotor In reality several more poles are added to both the rotor and
stator structure in order to increase the number of steps per revolution of the
motor, or in other words to provide a smaller basic (full step) stepping angle.
The permanent magnet stepper motor contains an equal number of rotor and
stator pole
Pairs Typically the PM motor have 12 pole pairs. The stator has 12 pole
pairs per phase. The hybrid type stepper motor has a rotor with teeth. The
rotor is split into two parts, separated by a permanent magnet-making half of
the teeth south poles and half north poles. The number of pole pairs is equal
to the number of teeth on one of the rotor halves. The stator of a hybrid
motor also has teeth to build up a higher number of equivalent poles (smaller
pole pitch, number of equivalent poles = 360/teeth pitch) compared to the
main poles, on which the winding coils are wound. Usually 4 main poles are
used for 3.6 hybrids and 8 for 1.8- and 0.9-degree types. It is the relationship
between the number of rotor poles and the equivalent stator poles, and the
number the number of phases that determines the full-step angle of a stepper
motor.
For the following discussions please refer to the figure (6). In Wave Drive
only one winding is energized at any given time. The stator is energized
according to the sequence A → B → ̅ → ̅ and the rotor steps from
position 8 → 2 → 4 → 6. For unipolar and bipolar wound motors with the
same winding parameters this excitation mode would result in the same
mechanical position. The disadvantage of this drive mode is that in the
unipolar wound motor you are only using 25% and in the bipolar motor only
50% of the total motor winding at any given time. This means that you are
not getting the maximum torque output from the motor In Full Step Drive
you are energizing two phases at any given time.
The stator is energized according to the sequence AB → ̅B → ̅ ̅ → A ̅
and the rotor steps from position 1 → 3 → 5 → 7. Full step mode results in
the same angular movement as 1 phase on drive but the mechanical position
is offset by one half of a full step. The torque output of the unipolar wound
motor is lower than the bipolar motor (for motors with the same winding
parameters) since the unipolar motor uses only 50% of the available winding
while the bipolar motor uses the entire winding. Half Step Drive combines
both wave and full step (1&2 phases on) rive modes. Every second step only
one phase is energized and during the other steps one phase on each stator.
The stator is energized according to the sequence AB → B → ̅B → ̅ →
̅ ̅ → ̅ → A ̅ → A and the rotor steps from position 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 5
→ 6 → 7 → 8.
These results in angular movements that are half of those in 1- or 2-phases-
on drive modes. Half stepping can reduce a phenomena referred to as
resonance which can be experienced in 1- or 2-phases-on drive modes.
1.7 Procurers:
Part 1: a) Functional checking of the ROTATION CONTROL section
and the STEP PULSES section:
1- Supply the board with the 110V - 220V mains supply and switch on by
means of the suitable switch. In the ROTATION CONTROL section, shown
in figure(7), it is possible to select by means of a button the rotation
direction of the step motor.
Fig(7) Rotation Control
6. Check that the values that have been measured at the previous outputs
conform to the values that are listed in the following Table (2):
8. Check that the values that have been measured at the previous outputs
conform to the values that are listed in the following Table (3):
Table (3): The logic value of the outputs A, B, C, D (Full Mode)
A B C D
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
8. Check that the values that have been measured at the previous outputs
conform to the values that are listed in the following Table (4):
The encoder circuit receives at its input two pulses: one pulse every time the
step motor makes an angular displacement (STEP SENSOR) and another
pulse out of phase by half period (ROT SENSOR) that is used to identify the
direction of rotation of the disc.
Fig (14)