Nitric Acid Project Final PDF

Production of Nitric Acid for Fertilizer
Applications
Prepared by:
Mamdouh Al-anazi
Mohammed Al-Ajlan
Sultan Al-Sebeai
Hussni Mandeeli
Supervised by:
Dr. Farag Abd El-Salam
Dr. Malik Al-Ahmad
Prof. Tariq Al-Fariss
Submitted in partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor

ofScience in chemical Engineering in the college of Engineering
Riyadh
1434 – 1435 H
2013 – 2014 G
Table of Contents
Contents Page
Acknowledgement 4
Summery 5
Problem Statement 6
Objectives 6
Scope of Work 6
Chapter 1: Introduction 7
1.1 Backgrounds and History 8
1.2 The Nitric Acid Production Processes 9
1.2.1 The single Pressure Process 9
1.2.2 The Dual Pressure Process 11
1.2.3 The Process Selection 13
1.2.4 The Process Selection Conclusion 13
1.3 Main Uses of Nitric Acid 13
1.4 Physical Properties 14
1.5 Chemical Properties 15
1.6 Safety Properties 15
1.7 Market Survey 16
1.7.1 Economic Outlook 16
1.8 Preliminary Hazard Analysis 18
1.8.1 Summary of Previous Plant Accident 18
1.8.2 Inherent Safety Aspects 20
1.8.3 Local Safety and Environmental Regulations 22
1.9 Site Feasibility Study 22
1.9.1 Selection Criteria 22
1.9.2 Potential Site location 24
Chapter 2: Material Balance 25
2.1 Process Description 27
2.1.1 Process Flow Sheet 28
2.1.2 Justification of Equipment Selection 29
2.2 Overall Material Balance 30
2.3 Reactor Material Balance 31
2.4 Oxidation Material Balance 32
2.5 Absorber Material Balance 33
Chapter 3: Energy Balance 34
3.1 Vaporizer Energy Balance 35
3.2 Compressor Energy Balance 36
3.3 Superheater Energy Balance 37
3.4 Mixer Energy Balance 38
2
3.5 Reactor Energy Balance 39
3.6 1st Cooler Energy Balance 40
3.7 Oxidation Energy Balance 41
3.8 2nd Cooler Energy Balance 42
3.9 Absorber Energy Balance 43
Chapter 4: Design and Sizing Equipment 44
4.1 Sizing of Pump 45
4.2 Design of Vaporizer 46
4.3 Sizing of Compressor 56
4.4 Design of Superheater 57
4.5 Sizing of Mixer 67
4.6 Design of Reactor 68
4.7 Design of 1st Cooler 71
4.8 Design of Oxidation 82
4.9 Design of 2nd Cooler 83
4.10 Design of Absorber 93
4.11 Design of Nitric Acid Tank 101
Chapter 5: Control Loop 105
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 Control of Vaporizer 109
5.3 Control of Reactor 110
5.4 Control of Absorber 111
Chapter 6: Economic Analysis 112
6.1 Estimation of Capital Investment Items Based on 113
Delivered Equipment
6.2 Equipment Cost (at 2011) 114
6.3 Total Production Cost (TPC) 115
Chapter 7: Process Integration 117
Chapter 8: Safety and Loss Prevention 120
8.1 Plant Layout 122
8.2 Safety of Materials 123
8.3 Hazard and Operability Studies 126
Chapter 9: Waste Treatment 133
Conclusion 140
Reference 142
Appendices A: Material Safety Data 143
Appendices B: Physical Properties Data 152
Appendices C: Detailed Material Balance Calculation 162
Appendices D: Detailed Energy Balance Calculation 167
Appendices E: Equipment Design References 181
Appendices F: Computer Simulation by CHEMCAD 186
Acknowledgement
First, thanks are to Allah who helped us throughout this work. Then, it is our
pleasure to thank those people who helped us in the completion of this project. Also,
we would like to express our deep gratitude and apprec ation to our dear supervisors:
Dr.Farag Abd El-Salam, Prof. Tariq Al-Fariss and Dr. Malik Al-Ahmad for their
support, advise, valuable scientific knowledge and patience throughout this project.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to the department of chemical
engineering at the College of Engineering, King Saud University, for giving us this
opportunity to carry out this project and we are grateful to our colleagues at King
Saud University for their inspiration, help and encouragement without which we
would not have been able to complete this project too. Last but not least we thank our
dear families and relatives for their assistance and encouragement.
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Summary
The results of the design project for the commercial production of nitric acid are
presented. The project has been performed in two stages. The first part covers a
literature review on various processes for nitric acid production, selection of the suit
table processes, materials and energy balance calculations as well as the feasibility of
the project. The second part presents the detailed equipment designs. From the
investigation into project feasibility, it is proposed to construct a plant that will
deliver 100000 tons per year of 60%(wt.) Nitric acid. This capacity is based on 8000
hours of operation per year, i.e. 330 days. It is envisaged that this nitric acid
production facility will be centered within a larger chemical complex to be located in
the eastern region of Saudi Arabia. Other plants on this site will include an ammonia
plant and an ammonium nitrate plant. Approximately 70% of the product acid will be
consumed in situ for the production of ammonium nitrate Fertilizer. The remaining
acid will be available to exploit the neighboring export market. The process chosen
for the nitric acid plant is the "single-pressure process" based on the technology
developed by C & I Girdler. The most important use is undoubtedly in the production
of ammonium nitrate for the fertilizer and explosives industries, which accounts for
approximately 65% of the world production of nitric acid. So we made all our
production to be used in the fertilizer.
Problem Statement
It is required to design a suitable process for the production of 100,000-ton/year of

nitric acid from ammonia (60% concentration).
Objectives
The objectives of this design project include the following:

 To integrate chemical engineering knowledge in a detailed design of chemical
plants.
 To design a nitric acid plant which is economically attractive, safe to workers and
society and reduce harm to the environment?
 To develop oneself in the applications of all the elements of knowledge and skills
that have been accumulated throughout the undergraduate program for solving
design related problems for typical process industrial plant.
 To develop the skills for working as a team and to nurture leadership qualities.
Scope of work
This project is subjected to the designing phase of the process plant. All researches
and literatures used for this project falls under the scope of the chemical
compositions, current productions of nitric acid, preliminary hazards analysis, process
design configurations and selections, and configuration of plant equipment (i.e.
reactor, separation system, heat integration, etc.). The designing phase is then
executed using manual engineering calculations .The project is aimed at achieving the
objective of the plant design process.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
The initial design problem is to determine whether: ‘it is both economically and
technically feasible to establish a facility to produce nitric acid in the world’. This is a
diverse and complex undertaking that necessitates a full investigation into the uses,
properties, market, process technology, and production economics, associated with
this particular chemical. Having considered these aspects and several others, an
appropriate plant to fulfill the assessed market requirements is sized and specified
accordingly. [1], [10]
1.1 Backgrounds and History
Nitric acid is a colorless, highly corrosive liquid and a very powerful oxidizing
agent that in the highly pure state is not entirely stable and must be prepared from its
azeotrope by distillation with concentrated sulfuric acid. Nitric acid gradually yellows
because of decomposition to nitrogen dioxide. Solutions containing more than 80%
nitric acid are called fuming nitric acids. [1], [4]
Reagent-grade nitric acid is a water solution containing about 68% by weight nitric
acid. This strength corresponds to the constant-boiling mixture of the acid with water,
which is 68.4% by weight nitric acid and boils at 121.9°C. Nitric acid is completely
miscible with water and forms a monohydrate (HNO3.H2O, melting point: - 38°C) and
a dehydrate (HNO3.2H2O, melting point: -18.5°C). [7]
Scholars have known nitric acid for many centuries. Probably the earliest
description of its synthesis occurs in the writings of the Arabic alchemist Abu Musa
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (c. 721–c. 815), better known by his Latinized name of Geber. The
compound was widely used by the alchemists, although they knew nothing of its
chemical composition. It was not until the middle of the seventeenth century that an
improved method for making nitric acid was invented by German chemist Johann
Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670). Glauber produced the acid by adding concentrated
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to saltpeter (potassium nitrate; KNO3). A similar method is still
used for the laboratory preparation of nitric acid, although it has little or no
commercial or industrial value. [7]
The chemical nature and composition of nitric acid were first determined in 1784
by the English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). Cavendish
8
applied an electric spark to moist air and found that a new compound - nitric acid -
was formed. Cavendish was later able to determine the acid’s chemical and physical
properties and its chemical composition. The method of preparation most commonly
used for nitric acid today was one invented in 1901 by the Russian born German
chemist Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932). The Ostwald process involves the
oxidation of ammonia over a catalyst of platinum or a platinum-rhodium mixture. [2]
Today, nitric acid is one of the most important chemical compounds used in
industry. It ranks number thirteen among all chemicals produced in the United States
each year. In 2005, about 6.7 million metric tons (7.4 million short tons) of the
compound were produced in the United States. [1]
1.2 The Nitric Acid Production Processes:
All commercially produced nitric acid is now prepared by the oxidation of

ammonia. The requirement for a nitric acid product of 60%(wt.) Immediately restricts
the choice of a recommended production process. Only two processes are possible,
both highly efficient, each offering distinct advantages under different market
conditions. [1]
These two main Processes are:
1.2.1 The Single-Pressure Process
The Single-Pressure process was developed to take full advantage of operating

pressure in enabling equipment sizes to be reduced throughout the process. A single
compression step is used to raise the pressure through the entire process sufficiently to
favor absorption. Operating pressures range from 800 kPa as used by the Sumitomo
Chemical Company Ltd. to 1100 kPa as used in the C&l Girdler single-pressure
process. Increased ammonia oxidation and complete ammonia/air mixing, and
uniform flow distribution can minimize increased consumption of ammonia due to the
higher-pressure operation across the gauze "inside the reactor". The higher oxidation
temperature results in an increased consumption of platinum and rhodium and the
need to rework the gauze every five to seven weeks .The higher temperature and the
favorable pressure effect make possible a greater recovery of energy from the process.
[10]
The process begins with the vaporization of ammonia at 1240 kPa and 35°C using
process heat "as shown in the given flow sheet, Fig. (1). Steam is then used to
superheat the ammonia to 180°C, filtered air is compressed by an axial compressor to
an interstage level and then, following cooling, by a centrifugal compressor to a
discharge pressure of 1090 kPa. A portion of the air is diverted for acid bleaching; the
remainder is circulated through a jacket surrounding the tail-gas preheater and then
used for ammonia oxidation. [10]
In this process; the heated air and the ammonia vapor (10.3% ammonia by volume)
are then mixed and passed through the platinum/ rhodium gauze reactor where the
heat of reaction (producing nitric oxide) raises the temperature to be between 927°C
and 937°C. The reaction gas flows through a series of heat exchangers in which
energy is recovered either as high-pressure superheated steam or as shaft horsepower
from the expansion of hot tail gas. [6]
Approximately 70% of the oxidation to nitrogen dioxide occurs as the gas passes
through the energy recovery train and is cooled to 185°C. After further cooling to
63°C in the primary cooler/condenser, separation of approximately one third acid
product as 42% strength nitric acid is achieved. The remaining gas reaches a 43%
oxidation conversion to nitrogen dioxide, with approximately 20% dimerization. The
gas is combined with bleached air containing additional nitrogen peroxide; it then
passes through an empty oxidation vessel and the secondary cooler. [6]
In cooling to 66”C, the gas provides heat to a recirculating hot water system used
for vaporizing the ammonia. The gas entering the absorber is 95% oxidized to
nitrogen peroxide. In the absorber deionized water is added to the top tray, and weak
acid from the low-pressure condenser is added to a tray corresponding to its strength.
[6], [5]
Down-flowing acid and up-flowing acid alternately mix as the chemical steps of
action formation and nitric oxide oxidation take place with the liberation of heat.
There are three operational zones in the absorber, these are the lower zone cooled
with plant cooling water, the middle zone cooled with chilled water, and the upper
zone which is essentially adiabatic. High efficiency of heat removal in the middle and
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lower zones is particularly important due to its effect on the oxidation and
dimerization reactions. [6]
For this process, chilled water at 7°C is used and the tail-gas exit temperature is
approximately 10°C. Acid from the bottom of the absorber is bleached at 1010 kPa
with partially cooled compressed air. The bleach air, containing nitrogen peroxide
stripped from the acid, is then added to the main gas stream before entering the
oxidation vessel. The cold gas is warmed by heat exchange with the hot compressed
bleached air, and then heated to the expander inlet temperature of 620°C by two
exchangers in the recovery train. The expander recovers 80% of the required
compressor power. Expanded tail gas at 300°C flows through an economizer,
providing heat to high-pressure boiler feed water and to low-pressure de ionized
deaerator make-up water. Subsequently tail gas is exhausted to the atmosphere at
66°C and less than 1000 ppm of nitrogen oxides. [9]
The chilled water (7°C) for absorption refrigeration unit, using heat, supplies the
absorber recovered from the compressor and intercooler as the energy source. Heat
for ammonia vaporization, as previously noted, is available at 35°C and is recovered
from the secondary gas cooler. The system uses circulating condensate as the energy
transfer medium. [7]
1.2.2 The Dual-Pressure Process
The dual-pressure process was developed to take advantage of two factors:

a) Low-pressure ammonia oxidation;
b) High-pressure absorption for acid production.
In addition to the higher conversion, the lower catalyst gauze temperature
(associated with the low-pressure ammonia oxidation) results in a much lower rate of
platinum deterioration. Both advantages are maximized at the lowest pressure. In
contrast, however, absorption is best performed at the highest pressure. [7]
The low-pressure ammonia oxidation is usually performed in the pressure range of
101.3 kPa to 344 kPa. High-pressure absorption is usually performed in the operating
range of 800 kPa up to 1010 kPa. This process begins with the vaporization of
ammonia at 550 kPa and 7”C "as shown in its flow sheet of Fig. (2)" followed by
superheating to 76°C using heat from the compressed bleached air. Filtered air is
compressed in an axial compressor to 350 kPa and is mixed with the superheated
ammonia vapor (1 O-l 1% ammonia by volume) prior to entering the
converter/reactor. In the converter, the gases react over the platinum/rhodium gauze
catalyst. [7]
The gases leaving the reactor at 330 kPa and 865°C flow through a series of heat
exchangers for recovery of energy, either as high-pressure superheated steam or shaft
horsepower from expansion of hot tail gas. Approximately 40% of the oxidation to
nitrogen dioxide occurs in the gas as it passes through the energy recovery train and is
cooled to 135°C (exit from the tail-gas preheater). After further cooling to 45°C in the
medium-pressure condenser, and separation of 20% of the acid product as 30%
strength nitric acid, the gas reaches 50% oxidation to nitrogen peroxide with
approximately 20% dimerization. [7]
The gas is combined with bleach air containing additional nitrogen peroxide and is
compressed in a centrifugal nitrous-gas compressor to 1025 kPa. The exit temperature
of 224°C is achieved due to the combined heat effects of the compression, the further
oxidation to 80% nitrogen peroxide, and the virtual disappearance of the dimer. The
compressed gas flows through an empty oxidation chamber, a high-pressure boiler
feed water economizer, and a low-pressure deionized water economizer, and thus is
cooled to 95°C. Residence time in the system and the effect of increased pressure
result in at least 95% oxidation to nitrogen peroxide, but the dimerization is low due
to the temperature level. [10]
The gas is then cooled to the dew point (50°C) for entry into the absorber. The
dimerization increases to 48%, adding significantly to the heat removed prior to the
absorber. The system uses circulating condensate as the energy transfer medium. The
absorber is essentially the same as that previously described for the single-pressure
process. [4]
Chilled water at 15°C is used in the absorber and the outlet gas temperature is
18°C. Refrigeration for the chilled water is provided by the ammonia vaporizer which
operates at 7°C. [6]
Weak acid from the bottom of the absorber is let down to 330 kPa for bleaching
with air from the axial compressor. This air, with nitrogen peroxide stripped from the
acid, flows to the suction of the nitrous-gas compressor together with the main nitrous
gas stream from the condenser. [5]
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1.2.3 Process Selection
(Factors Favoring the Single-Pressure Process)

The single-pressure process uses a higher ammonia conversion. This higher
pressure provides advantages in terms of equipment design, e.g. smaller converter
dimensions and a single heat-exchanger-train layout. The higher temperature and the
favorable pressure both increase the energy recovery from the process. The single-
pressure process provides an extra 10% high-level recoverable heat energy. Plant
capital costs in the USA have been estimated at 8 million (USS5.1 million) for the
single-pressure process and 9.1 million for the dual-pressure process.
The 1.1 million higher cost of the dual-pressure process is accounted for by the
larger vessels required at lower operating pressures. Estimates made for the two plants
in European locations show a differential of 0.8 million, also in favour of the single-
pressure process A discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis based on these US figures
was performed by matching the capital cost advantage of the single pressure process
against the production cost advantage of the dual pressure process. They indicate that
it would take 21 years for the lower operating cost of the dual-pressure process. In
this project, pressure process to finally overcome its initial capital cost disadvantage
due to its smaller capital cost compared to the dual pressure process. [1] , [9] , [10]
1.2.4 Process Selection Conclusions
The single-pressure process appears to be preferred for our project. The capital
cost advantage of this process surpasses the benefits of the superior operating cost
structure of the dual-pressure process.
1.3. Main Uses of Nitric Acid
Nitric acid is predominantly used for fertilizer manufacture. It also finds use in the
manufacture of adipic acid, nitroglycerin, nitrocellulose, ammonium picrate,
trinitrotoluene, nitrobenzene, silver nitrate, and various isocyanates.
Nitric acid has enormously diverse applications in the chemical industry. It has
commercial uses as a nitrating agent, oxidizing agent, solvent, activating agent, and
catalyst and hydrolyzing agent. The most important use is undoubtedly in the
production of ammonium nitrate for the fertilizer, which accounts for approximately
65% of the world production of nitric acid. [5]
Nitric acid has a number of other industrial applications. It is used for pickling
stainless steels, steel refining, and in the manufacture of dyes, plastics and synthetic
fibres. Most of the methods used for the recovery of uranium. Such as ion exchange
and solvent extraction, use nitric acid [7].
An important point is that for most uses concerned with chemical production, the
acid must be concentrated above its azeotropic point to greater than 95%(wt).
Conversely, the commercial manufacture of ammonium nitrate uses nitric acid below
its azeotropic point in the range 50-65%(wt). If the stronger chemical grade is to be
produced, additional process equipment appropriate to super-azeotropic distillation is
required. [2] , [7] , [10]
1.4. Physical Properties
In its commonest form nitric acid is a pungent, colorless liquid and pure
(anhydrous) that boils at 86°C and solidifies at -42°C. Those are the most common
nitric acid properties. It is used in varying dilutions across many industries and
chemical processes from munitions thru to agriculture, cleaning and woodworking.
As a pure acid HNO3 often emits white vapor when exposed to air and as a
dissolved solution can give off a vapor that is reddy-brown leading to its common
name ‘red fuming acid’. When stored in a diluted form for some length of time the
acid can take on a yellow tinge. Nitric acid is completely soluble in water.
This mineral based acid is highly corrosive, even in dilute forms, and if splashed
on skin will cause yellow blisters to be formed this should be expunged immediately
with copious amounts of water. It is highly toxic.
Pure anhydrous nitric acid (i.e. undiluted) is not, however, stable and even at
ambient temperatures can decompose, as temperatures increase so too does the rate of
the acid’s decomposition and when heated vigorously it will divide into its component
form of water, oxygen and nitrogen dioxide. Care is required, therefore in its storage
and handling. [3]
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1.5. Chemical Properties
Nitric acid can be seen to have a number of properties that can be describes as
acidic, oxidizing, reactive and as passivation.
Its acidic nature means that varying degrees of corrosion can be anticipated
dependent on the levels of dilution – leading to its use as a cleansing, etching and
‘ageing’ chemical in many applications. If being used as a reagent or cleanser then
care needs to be taken to use vessels made from corrosion resistant alloys or metals to
enable processes to take place.
As a strong and powerful oxidizing agent it reacts, sometimes vigorously and
violently, with numerous non-metallic substances and compounds and the resultant
reaction can be an explosive one. This holds true to most metals with the exception of
those classed as ‘precious’ and it is for that reason that nitric acid is used in the
cleansing and assessing of precious metal purity. Depending on the level of dilution
used during oxidization nitrous oxide may be formed.
When used in conjunction with many metals the end result is that nitric acid will
dissolve most of them and in the process creates nitrogen oxides. If combined with
hydrochloric acid then Nitric acid can be used to dissolve what are known as ‘noble’
metals such as gold, platinum, iridium and others. [3]
1.6. Safety Properties
Nitric acid is a strong acid and a powerful oxidizing agent. The major hazard
posed by it is chemical burns as it carries out acid hydrolysis with proteins (amide)
and fats (ester), which consequently decomposes living tissue (e.g. skin and flesh).
Concentrated nitric acid stains human skin yellow due to its reaction with the keratin.
These yellow stains turn orange when neutralized. Systemic effects are unlikely,
however, and the substance is not considered a carcinogen or mutagen.
The standard first aid treatment for acid spills on the skin is, as for other corrosive
agents, irrigation with large quantities of water. Washing is continued for at least ten
to fifteen minutes to cool the tissue surrounding the acid burn and to prevent
secondary damage. Contaminated clothing is removed immediately and the
underlying skin washed thoroughly.
Being a strong oxidizing agent, reactions of nitric acid with compounds such as
cyanides, carbides, and metallic powders can be explosive and those with many
organic compounds, such as turpentine, are violent and hypergolic (i.e. self-igniting).
Hence, it should be stored away from bases and organics. [1], [3]
1.7. Market Survey
1.7.1 Economic Outlook

Nitric acid is not produced in Saudi Arabia. However, worldwide annual
production of nitric acid is at present approximately 34 million tons. The USA, UK,
Poland and France are the largest producers. The trend in the last decade has been for
growth by the larger producers, very much at the expense of the smaller ones. The
global scene is a much more stable market. This can be attributed historically to
consumption being more broadly based with a sizable consumption in chemical
production processes.
World nitric acid consumption peaked in the late 1980s before declining
significantly through 1994. That decline was related primarily to economic turmoil in
the Eastern bloc countries. Since then, the market has exhibited an upward trend. The
largest market for nitric acid consumption is the production of ammonium nitrate
(AN) and calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN). In 2010, this accounted for 80% of total
world consumption of nitric acid. The major end use of AN fertilizer is in decline as a
result of concerns about nitrate groundwater contamination and increased usage of
solid urea, which has a higher nitrogen content (46%) than AN (34%), is less costly,
and is less dangerous. Consumption of AN in explosives and blasting agent
applications continues to grow, but is much more regulated since September 11, 2001.
[9]
The following pie chart shows (Figure 1) world Produces of nitric acid
16
World Producers of Nitric Acid
%21 USA
%30
Poland
france
USSR
%10
UK
%7 Other
%10
%4 Estern Europe
%18
Figure 1 World producers of nitric acid [2]
Most nitric acid is consumed captively and the merchant portion of the market
accounts for less than 10% of the total. International trade is minor and has little
impact on the nitric acid balance. Although there has been a relatively steady increase
in capacity, the world's average operating rate increased to 76% in 2010, indicating a
much stronger market balance than previously.
It is estimated that AN (and CAN) production accounted for 80% of the world
nitric acid market in 2010. The AN market is nearly three-quarters fertilizer and one-
quarter industrial applications. However, other nitric acid–based products such as
nitrophosphates and potassium nitrates are also used in fertilizer applications,
accounting for an additional 2.5% of total nitric acid consumption. The remaining
17.5% of nitric acid is consumed in industrial (nonfertilizer) applications. The
combined production of organic compounds, such as nitrobenzene, toluene
diisocyanate (TDI), adipic acid, and nitrochlorobenzenes accounted for nearly 10% of
total world nitric acid consumption in 2010.
Western Europe, China, the former USSR, Central Europe and the United States
dominate the market statistics. Together, these five regions accounted for 81.4% of
capacity, 82.0% of production, and 81.9% of consumption in 2010. Since 1994, the
largest increases in capacity, production and consumption have occurred in China.
One environmental problem affecting the consumption of nitric acid concerns the
use of ammonium nitrate fertilizers. The loss of nitrogen to groundwater because of
nitrification and leaching has become a significant problem and has negatively
impacted the use of nitrogen fertilizers, particularly in Western Europe. A European
Community directive has set a target of reducing nitrate levels in groundwater to a
maximum of 50 milligrams per liter. There is also concern about nitrate levels in
groundwater in the United States.
Current world production is approximately 34 million tons per annum, and over
30% is produced in the United States. Of the remaining production, about 60% is
based in Europe. The USSR (6 million tons), United Kingdom (3.3 million tons),
Poland (2.4 million tons) and France (1.5 million tons) are the main producers.
The plant should operate on a standard 8000 hour/year basis, with approximately
330 days of production. Nitric acid market price is $400 per ton can be obtained for
the product.
Ammonia market price is $500 per ton; we need to 18687.08 tons for ammonia to
produce 100000 tons of nitric acid. [9]
Table 1: Prices of raw materials and product
Component Price per ton Total Price

Ammonia $500 $9343540
Water $0.04 $963
Nitric acid $400 $40000000
Total Profit = 40000000 - 9343540 - 963 = $30655497
1.8 Preliminary Hazard Analysis
1.8.1 Summary of Previous Plant Accident
At about 6 a.m. on December 13, 1994, two explosions rocked the ammonium
nitrate (AN) facility at the Port Neal, U.S.A Iowa nitrogen products manufacturing
complex operated by Terra Industries. Four people were killed and 18 injured.
18
Approximately 5,700 tons of anhydrous ammonia was released, and releases of
ammonia continued for nearly six days following the explosion. Chemicals released
as a result of the blast contaminated groundwater under the facility. [10]
Figure 2 Terra's Port Neal, Iowa complex before the explosion. The ammonium nitrate plant is indicated
[2]
Figure 3 Post-explosion aerial photograph of the Port Neal plant [2]
The Port Neal plant produced an 83 percent AN solution by reacting ammonia and
nitric acid in a vessel called a neutralizer. The original neutralizer was replaced in
1980 and a major modification and upgrade of the plant occurred in 1992. A scrubber
and new control system were also added in September 1994. In the two days prior to
the explosion, the nitric acid plant was shut down for maintenance. With the nitric
acid plant not operating, the AN facility was also shut down.
The accident occurred due to unsafe plant operations including poor maintenance
and inadequate employee training. Specifically, during the shutdown period, the pH
of the neutralizer vessel contents dropped to an unusually low level and leaks in other
equipment led to the introduction of chloride ions that catalyzed the final reaction.
Unaware that the 18,000 gallon-capacity neutralizer vessel was in a highly acidic and
contaminated condition, Terra employees injected superheated steam to try to keep
the vessel contents from freezing due to the winter cold. The energy from injected
superheated steam led to the runaway chemical reaction of the sensitized ammonium
nitrate solution and resulted in the subsequent explosive detonations. [5]
1.8.2 Inherent Safety Aspects
Taking into consideration the inherent safety aspects such as substitution of

hazardous chemicals, safe location, plant layout, transportation and storage can reduce
accidents Potential consequences:
a) Hazardous Chemicals:
The following hazards may arise during nitric acid production:

 Equipment/piping failure because of corrosion
 Explosion hazard due to the air ammonia mixture
 Explosion of nitrite/nitrate salts
(i) Equipment/Piping Failure
Corrosion protection is achieved by the well-proven use of suitable austenitic
stainless steel where condensation can occur and by regular monitoring of the
conditions.
(ii) Explosion Hazard due to the Air Ammonia Mixture
The air ammonia ratio is continuously controlled and kept below the hazardous
range. Safety is ensured by the automatic closure of the ammonia control valve and
separate shutdown trip valve when too high an air ammonia ratio is measured, either
from each individual ﬂow meter or indirectly from the catalyst gauze temperature.
(iii) Explosion of Nitrite/Nitrate Salts
Any free ammonia present in the nitrous gas will give a deposit of nitrite/nitrate in
a cold spot. Local washing and well proven operating practices will prevent the
hazard. [1], [6]
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b) Safe Location:
The selection of suitable location is a very important decision to make when there
is new plant to build. Some of the factors that should be consider when selecting the
location for a plant is for example the availability of raw materials used, also good
transportation network, and availability of market, weather condition suitability and
the water supply. From safety aspects, few factors should be taken in consideration
before deciding whether the location is suitable. Most important is the distance from
the residential area, availability of water and power supply. [4]
c) Plant Layout:
Another inherent safety is plant layout. After deciding on the plant location the
overall plant layout, for example the processing areas, the absorber column, control
rooms, roads and storage areas and other utilities must be planned carefully taking in
consideration the future problems that might arise. Firstly and elementary layout
developed first, these shows the fundamental relationship between the operating
equipment and the storages area. Then the second step is the primary layout base of
the flow of the material, unit operational storage, and future expansion. An efficient
arrangement and coordination is very important to reduce the risk and hazards in plant
by putting the element of health and safety into the design. [9]
d) Transportation:
Transportation to and from the plant is very important. Usually if the plant is big, it
requires inside transportation and these kinds of vehicles should be ensured that it is
safe and does not bring any hazards to the workers or the plant itself. Vehicles should
be using diesel instead of petrol, as a diesel engine does not produce sparks that might
ignite fire. For nitric acid transferring process, container should be constructed from
insulating material. [9]
e) Storage:
Most of the large accidents in chemical or petrochemicals plants happen in the

storage area. Storages room or tanks is where most plants stores whether their raw
material or their products. Chemical storage areas shall be inspected at least annually
and any unwanted or expired chemicals shall be removed. Adjusting the storage
capacity or installing safety system will definitely reduce accident occurrence. The
duration of material stored should also be taken in consideration. For example, longer
store might change the material properties, which might cause to undesired accidents.
Raw materials and products should not be stored for long period. [4]
1.8.3 Local Safety and Environmental Regulations
(Nitrogen oxides defined as nitrogen dioxide NO2)

1) Purpose:
The purpose of these standards is to prevent development of nitrogen dioxide
concentrations, which could produce adverse health effects or lead to the production
of significant concentrations of photochemical oxidants.
2) Standards:
a) During any 30 days period, one-hour average NO2 concentration shall not
exceed 660-microgram/cubic meter (0.35 ppm) more than twice at any location.
b) During any 12 months period, the annual NO2 concentration shall not exceed
100-microgram/cubic meter at any location. [11]
22
1.9 Site Feasibility
1.9.1 Selection Criteria
Several factors influence the selection of a site for the location of a chemical plant.
The following list contains a few of the important considerations, but should not be
considered exhaustive.
(a) Designation as a heavy industrial development area (‘light’ industry usually means
assembly of electronic components, small metal fabricators, etc., and a major
chemical plant would not be acceptable).
(b) Prior existence of similar chemical plants and location of other industrial centres.
(c) Existing roads and services, e.g. electricity, gas, water, etc.
(d) Appropriate terrain, sub-surface, drainage, etc.
(e) Suitable access for transportation of raw materials and chemicals, and for
construction of a chemical plant.
(f) Proximity to major transportation networks, e.g. roads, railways, airports,
waterways and ports. This is a major consideration in the location of a plant. In some
cases direct pipelines for the transportation of chemicals or utilities (e.g. water, gas,
oil) may be the most economical method. The cost of transportation by tanker (road,
rail or sea) is reduced if a return load can also be carried.
(g) Availability of a local workforce and distance from local communities.
(h) Availability of domestic water and plant cooling water.
(i) Environmental discharge regulations.
(j) Proximity to both the raw materials supply and the market for the product
chemical.
(k) Existence of services equipped to deal with a major industrial accident.
(1) Climatic conditions, e.g. humidity, maximum wind velocity and its prominent
direction, rainfall, etc.
(m) Proposed or possible government restrictions regarding industrial development or
discharge emissions.
(n) Room for expansion.
(0) Price of land.
(p) Public opinion.
(q) Possibility of earthquakes, subsidence, avalanches, etc.
(r) Availability of government regional development grants or tax incentives,
subsidies, etc. [1], [9]
1.9.2 Potential Site Location
The manufacture of nitric acid is categorized as a petrochemical project. The plant
must therefore be sited in a special zone provided by the government. After
conducting the feasibility and site survey, three existing industrial areas have been
evaluated to choose the most suitable area for the acetone plant, which are Jubail
Industrial City (JIC), Yanbu Industrial City (YIC) and Ras Alkhair Seaport.
Table 2: Information of site location
Site Location
Factors JIC YIC Ras Alkhair
Seaport
Type of Industrial Area 10 10 10
Raw Materials IPA 9 0 10
Power 10 10 10
Water 10 10 10
Utilities Steam 9 8 6
Natural 8 8 8
Gas
Available Area 9 8 10
Land Price 10 10 10
Space for Expansion 0 0 0
Cost of Living 5 8 9
Seaport 10 10 10
Transportation Railway 5 0 10
Roadway 10 10 10
Airport 5 10 3
Price of Power 6 6 6
Utilities Water 10 10 10
Existing Infrastructure 10 10 10
Existing Services for 10 10 10
Industrial Accidents
Training Centre 10 5 5
Government Incentives 10 10 10
TOTAL SCORE 166 162 167
PERCENTAGE (%) 83 81 83.5
RANKING 2 3 1
In these cities, there are a lot of petrochemical plants and because the raw material
(ammonia) plant is available in Ras Alkhair, we have chosen the location of our plant
to be there.
24
Chapter 2
Material Balance
2.1 Process Description
The process begins with the vaporization of ammonia at 1240 kPa and 35°C using
process heat. Steam is then used to superheat the ammonia about 170°C, filtered air is
compressed by a centrifugal compressor, discharge pressure of 1200 kPa.
In our process; the air and the ammonia vapor are mixed and passed through the
platinum/ rhodium gauze reactor where the heat of reaction raises the temperature to
be between 650°C and 630°C. The reaction gas flows of heat exchangers to cooled
down to 70 oC.
Approximately 95% of the oxidation to nitrogen dioxide occurs as the gas passes
in the Oxidation unit, after that cooled to 60°C, then sent to absorber to produce nitric
acid (60%) purity.
26
2.1.1 The Flow Sheet of the Selected Process
Figure 4 Process flow sheet for nitric acid production by the single pressure process." our selected process"
28
2.1.2 Justification for the Equipment Selection
Process Units
1. Air Compressor “Two stage compressors to achieve the high pressure required".
2. Ammonia Vaporizer: a shell and tube-type heat exchanger. This unit should contain internal
baffles. This exchanger is made from mild steel.
3. Ammonia Superheater: a shell and tube-type heat exchanger of similar mechanical
construction to the ammonia vaporizer. Also constructed from mild steel.
4. Mixer (usual mixing vessel).
5. Reactor: the reactor is a pressure vessel operating in the range 1050 kPa to 1100 kPa. The
vessel must be designed to ensure even passage of the feed gas mixture over the
platinum/rhodium catalyst gauze The catalyst gauze and accompanying platinum filter gauze
are fixed in position by lateral supports across the width of the reactor.
6. Cooler: this shell and tube-type heat exchanger uses deionized water as its cooling medium. It
has a design pressure of about 1200 kPa.
7. Oxidation Unit: the oxidation unit is a normal pressure vessel that takes input reaction gases
and air.
8. Secondary Cooler: the secondary cooler takes the exit gases from the oxidation unit at 140°C
and cools them down to 60°C, a suitable temperature for entry into the absorption column. It
is a shell and tube-type heat exchanger.
9. Absorber: the absorber is usually a sieve tray-type column. It has a design pressure of 1200
kPa, and operates at a temperature range of 60oC to 30oC.
The material balances for the all units of the plant were hand calculated. A material balance
for each unit presented below in tabulated form. The main equations used in the calculations are
shown in their relevant sections. The detailed calculations are included in Appendix (C).
The general equation for material balance is
Input – Output + Generation – Consumption = Accumulation
For steady state without chemical reaction
Input – Output = 0
2.2 Overall Mass Balance
S1 S 12
S2
S 13
S 14
Table 3: Summery of overall mass balance
Component Input S1 Input S2 Output S14 Output S12 Output S13

(Kg/h) (Kg/h) (Kg/h) (Kg/h) (Kg/h)
O2 9142.88 - - 799.19 -
N2 34394.64 - - 34490.82 -
NH3 - 2335.88 - - -
H2O - - 3007.51 646.00 5000.00
HNO3 - - - - 7500.00
NO2 - - - 288.20 -
NO - - - 156.70 -
Total 48880.91 48880.91
30
2.3 Reactor Mass Balance
S7
S8
R-201
Table 4: Summery of reactor mass balance
Component Input S7 Output S8

(Kg/h) (Kg/h)
NH3 2335.88 -
O2 9142.88 3756.58
N2 34394.64 34490.82
NO - 3916.05
H2O - 3709.93
Total 45873.4 45873.4
2.4 Oxidation Mass Balance
S9
S 10
R-202
Table 5: Summery of oxidation mass balance

(Kg/h) (Kg/h)
NO 3916.05 156.70
NO2 - 5764.39
O2 3756.57 1751.55
N2 34490.82 34490.82
H2O 3709.93 3709.93
Total 45873.40 45873.40
32
2.5 Absorber Mass Balance
S 12
S 14
S 13 S 11
T-201
Table 6: Summery of absorber mass balance
Component Input S11 Input S14 Output S12 Output S13

(Kg/h) (Kg/h) (Kg/h) (Kg/h)
H2O 3709.93 3007.51 646.00 5000.00
HNO3 - - - 7500.00
NO2 5764.40 - 288.20 -
NO 156.70 - 156.70 -
O2 1751.55 - 799.19 -
N2 34490.82 - 34490.82 -
Total 48880.91 48880.91
Chapter 3
Energy Balance
34
3.1 Vaporizer Energy Balance
S4 S5
E-101
For S4: NH3 at -15 oC and S5: NH3 at 35 oC
∑ 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1.78 𝐾𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
∑ 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑄̇ = 2902575.37 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
3.2 Compressor Energy Balance
S1 S3
C-101
For S1: Air at 101 kPa and S3: Air at 1090 kPa
𝑊 = 8879734.37 𝑘𝐽/ℎ
(This is the mechanical energy required by the compressor.)
36
3.3 Superheater Energy Balance
S5 S6
E-102
For S5: NH3 at 35 oC and S6: NH3 at 177 oC
𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5.442 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
𝑄 = 747758.01 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
3.4 Mixer Energy Balance
S3
S7
S6
M-101
For S3: NH3 at 177 oC, S6: Air at 262 oC and S7: NH3+Air at ?
𝑄 = 0 (𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐)
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 250 °𝐶
38
3.5 Reactor Energy Balance
S7
S8
R-201
For S7: NH3+Air at 250 oC and S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC
Table 7: Summary of enthalpy components in reactor

(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
H (Air) 6.654 19
H (NH3) 8.84 -
H (NO) - 19.744
H (H2O) - 23
𝑄̇ = −51820729.07 𝑘𝐽/ℎ
3.6 Heat Exchanger Energy Balance (1st Cooler)
S8 S9
E-201
For S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC and S9: Air+NO+H2O at 70 oC

𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
For air: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 17.693 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

For NO: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 18.400 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
For H2O: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 21.173 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = −30,084,503.19 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
40
3.7 Oxidation Energy Balance
S9
R-202
S 10
For S9: Air+NO+H2O at 70 oC and S10: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 140 oC
Table 8: Summary of enthalpy components in oxidation

(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g) 1.521 3.919
H (Air) 1.312 3.37
H (NO) 1.345 3.47
H (NO2) - 4.5
𝑄 = −3707006.24 𝑘𝐽/ℎ
3.8 Heat Exchanger Energy Balance (2nd cooler)
S 10
S 11
E-202
For S10: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 140 oC and S11: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 60 oC

𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
For H2O: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 2.737 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

For air: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 2.350 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
For NO: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 2.4230 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
For NO2: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 3.1796 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = −3911927.94 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
42
3.9 Absorber Energy Balance
S 12
S 14
T-201
S 11
S 13
Basis: Tref = 25oC

For S11: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 60 oC, S14: H2O at 20 oC, S12: Air+NO+H2O at 30 oC and S13:
HNO3+H2O at 30 oC
Table 9: Summary of enthalpy components in absorber

(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g) 1.18 - 0.166 -
H (H2O) (L) - -0.375 - 0.375
H (Air) 1.02 - 0.145 -
H (NO) 1.044 - 0.149 -
H (NO2) 1.32 - - -
H (HNO3) - - - 0.55
Q= -29876241 KJ/h
Chapter 4
Design and Sizing

Equipment
44
4.1 Sizing of Pump [7]
Pump Specification Data
Ammonia
Flow rate = 2335.88 kg/h
Temperature = -15°C
Density at -15°C = 656.67 kg/m3
Estimating the pump diameter required
2335.88
Mass flowrate (G) = = 0.6488 Kg/s
3600
G = 0.6488 kg/s
0.6488
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝑄) =
656.67
Q = 0.001 m3/s
Piping Specification
Atypical velocity for fluid flow is 2 m/s.
Determination of the pipe area:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Area of pipe (A) =
Velocity
0.001
Area =
2
Area= 0.0005 m2
4 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 0.5
Diameter of pipe (D) = [ ]
𝜋
4 × 0.0005 0.5
𝐷=[ ]
𝜋
D = 25 mm
This value is compared with the result achieved by applying the ‘Economic pipe diameter’
formula for stainless steel from
Optimum diameter = 226 G0.5 ρ-0.35
Optimum diameter = 226 (0.6488)0.5 × (656.67)-0.35
Optimum diameter = 19mm
Accept the larger value as a conservative estimate
4.2 Design of Heat Exchanger (Vaporizer)
The objective is to design a heat exchanger (vaporizer) (shell and tube) to heat Ammonia of flow
rate 2335.88 kg/h from -15oC to 35 oC using saturated steam entering at 1 atm.
Table 10: Data of ammonia
Component Mwt N M Mole fraction Mass fraction

Y X
Kg/Kmol Kmol/h Kg/h
NH3 17 137.404 2335.88 1 1
Table 11: Physical properties of ammonia at Tave = 10oC and Pave = 1240 kPa
Component Cp Μ K Ρ
KJ/kg.K Pa.s W/m.K Kg/m3
NH3 5.02 1.531 x 10-4 0.5135 623.6318
Table 12: Physical properties of standard steam at 1 atm and T ave = 100oC = 373 K
Cpl Cpv μl μv ρl ρv kl kv Λ
3
KJ/Kg.K Pa.s Kg/m W/ m.K KJ/Kg
4.24 1.888 0.27 x 1.295 x 953 0.596 0.681 0.0251 2256.9
10-3 10-5
Heat duty (Q) needed to be added to gas mixture:

Q = m Cpmix ΔT [7]
Q = 163 kJ/s (kw)
For steam:
Qlost = Qgain = m λ [7]
msteam = 163/2256.9
msteam = 0.0722 kg/s
46
Finding ΔTlm:
T1 = 100 oC T2 = 100 oC
t2 = 35 oC VAPORIZER t1 = -15 oC
∆Tout = T1 − t 2 = (100 − 35) = 65 oC
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 = (100 − (−15)) = 115 𝑜𝐶
∆𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∆𝑇𝑖𝑛
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = [7]
∆𝑇
𝑙𝑛 ∆𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑖𝑛
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 87.63 °𝐶
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and one tube passes:
ΔTm = 87.63 oC
According to Table A in Appendix E, Cold fluid is Ammonia and hot fluid is condensing steam.
The following value of overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated:
U= 500 W/ m2.oC
Required Area for Heat transfer:

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 𝛥𝑇𝑚  𝐴 = 𝑄/𝑈 𝛥𝑇𝑚 [7]
𝐴 = 3.72 𝑚2
Choosing 25 mm “OD”, 21 mm “ID” stainless steel tubes to resist corrosion problems. Placing
condensing steam in the shell side. Take Tube length L=2 m [7]
Calculation of Number of tubes:
𝐴 3.72
𝑁𝑡 = =
𝜋 × 𝑑 × 𝐿 𝜋 × 25 × 10−3 × 2
𝑁𝑡 = 24 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠
Since the steam in the shell side is always clean, we will use triangular pitch arrangement with
Pt= 1.25do:
Calculation of bundle diameter Db:
1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 [ ] [7]
𝐾1
K1, n1 are constants given in Table C:

K1 = 0.319
n1 = 2.142
1
159 2.142
𝐷𝑏 = 25 [ ] [7]
0.319
Db = 187.9 mm
Calculating the shell diameter Ds:
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 [7]
From Figure A in Appendix E and for split-ring floated heat type of heat exchanger we get,
clearance= 48 mm
𝐷𝑠 = 187.9 + 48 = 235.64 𝑚𝑚 [7]
48
Calculating the heat transfer coefficients for tube side (hi):
𝜋 𝜋
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 𝑑𝑖2 = (21)2 = 346.36 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
𝑁𝑡 𝜋
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ( ) × 𝑑𝑖2 = 0.008312 𝑚2 [7]
𝑁𝑜. 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.64885 𝐾𝑔⁄
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 78.06 𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
𝐴 0.008312
𝐺𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 78.06
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 0.125 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 623.6318
To calculated hi use the equation
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝜇 0.14
= 𝐽ℎ × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 0.33 × ( ) [7]
𝐾𝑓 𝜇𝑤
hi = inside heat transfer coefficient
di = tube diameter = 21x10-3 m
Kf = thermal conductivity of water fluid = 0. 5135 W/m.oC
Jh = factor for heat transfer given form Figure B in Appendix E in Appendix E by (Re)
𝜌𝑣𝑑 623.6318 × 0.125 × 21 × 10−3

𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 ′ 𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑅𝑒) = = = 10692.57 [7]
𝜇 1.531 × 10−4
(Turbulent Flow)
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 5.02 × 103 × 1.531 × 10−4
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑟) = = = 1.49 [7]
𝐾𝑓 0.5125
From Figure B in Appendix E at Re= 10692.57
Jh = 4 x10-3
 0.14
From (eq. hi) and neglecting ( ) and assume it approximately 1
w
Then:
ℎ𝑖 (21 × 10−3 )
= (4 × 10−3 )(10692.57)(1.49)0.33
0.5135
hi = 1192.93 W/m2.oC
Calculate heat transfer coefficients for shell side (ho):
Area for cross flow of the shell side As, using Kern Method:
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜
𝐴𝑠 = [ ] 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵 [7]
𝑃𝑡
Pt = tube pitch
do = tube outside diameter Pt
Ds = shell inside diameter
LB = Buffle spacing (usually one fifth of shell diameter) do
do = 25 mm
Pt = 1.25 do mm = 31.25 mm
𝐷𝑠 235.9
𝐿𝐵 = = = 47.18 𝑚𝑚
5 5
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 31.25 − 25
𝐴𝑠 = [ ] 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵 = [ ] (235.9)(47.18) = 2226 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 31.25
As = 0.002226 m2
Mass velocity (Gs) and liner velocity (vs):

mshell = mass flow rate of steam = 0.0722 kg/sec
𝑚𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 0.0722 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = [ ]=[ ] = 32.43 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
𝐴𝑠 0.002226
𝐺𝑠 32.43
𝑣𝑠 = [ ] = [ ] = 54.42 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
𝜌𝑠 0.596
The equivalent (Hydraulic) diameter de:
1.10 2
𝑑𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 ) [7]
𝑑𝑜
1.10
𝑑𝑒 = [(31.25)2 − 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01775 𝑚
25
Re & Pr for shell side:

𝑚𝑠 0.0722 𝐾𝑔
𝛤ℎ = = = 1.5 × 10−3 ⁄𝑚. 𝑠 [7]
𝑁𝑡 𝑙 24 × 2
50
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 (32.43)(0.01775)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 45721.4 [7]
𝜇𝑣 1.259 × 10−5
𝐷𝑏 187.9
𝑁𝑟 = = = 6.01 [7]
𝑃𝑡 31.25
The shell side coefficient ( hs or ho )

1
(953)(953 − 0.596)(9.8) 3 −1
ℎ𝑠 = (0.95)(0.681) [ ] × 6.01 6
(0.27 × 10−3 )(1.5 × 10−3 )
hs = 13441.08 W/m2.oC
Calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient (U):
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln ( 𝑜⁄𝑑 ) 1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑜
𝑖 𝑜
= + + + ( )+ ( ) [7]
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝐾𝑤 ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖
Uo = overall coefficient based on outside area of the tubes
ho = outside fluid film coefficient
hi = inside fluid film coefficient
do = tube outside diameter
di = tube inside diameter
Kw = thermal conductivity of tube wall material = 16 (W/m.oC) for "stainless steel"
hod = outside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B)
hid = inside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B)
1 1 1 25 × 10−3 ln(25⁄21) 1 25 1 25
= + + + ( )+ ( )
𝑈𝑜 13441.08 3000 2 × 16 1192.93 21 3000 21
Uo = 516 W/𝒎𝟐 .oC
The value of 516 W/m2.oC is well above the estimated value of 500 W/m2.oC.
Hence, the present design satisfactory. (ok)
52
Calculating the pressure drop (ΔP) for side tube and shell tube:
1.The tube side ΔPt
L μ −m ρvt2
∆Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] [ ] [7]
di μw 2
ΔPt = tube side pressure drop (N/m2)
Np = Number of tube passes
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re ' Found from Figure 12.30 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25
L = length of one tube = 2 m
vt = flow velocity inside the tube =0.125 m/sec
m = exponent value depending on type of flow
For laminar (Re<2100)  m = 0.25
For Turblent (R>10000)  m = 0.14
Now, assuming viscosity ratio =1 and finding jf corresponding to Re= 5594.35, we get;
−3 )
2 623.6318 × 0.1252
∆Pt = [8(5 × 10 ( ) + 2.5] [ ]
21 × 10−3 2
ΔPt =30.74Pa = 0.0307 kpa (Acceptable)
2. The shell side ΔPs
Ds L ρvs2 μ −0.14
∆Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) ( )( ) [7]
De LB 2 μw
ΔPs = shell side pressure drop (N/m2)
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re , Found from Figure 12.30 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25
Ds = shell diameter = 235.9 mm
De = equivalent diameter for shell side = 17.75 mm
Re= 45721.4
vs = flow velocity in shell = 54.42 m/sec
LB = Baffle spacing = 47.18 mm
ρ shell = 0.596 kg/m3
Neglecting viscosity correction, we get:
−2 )
235.9 2 × 103 0.596 × 4.422
∆Ps = 8(3.9 × 10 ( )( )( )
17.75 47.18 2
ΔPs = 155.12 kpa (acceptable)
54
Finally, we summarize our present design as follows
1. The selected heat exchanger has one shell pass and one tube passes, in which
ammonia flow inside the tube and condensing steam flows inside the shell “.
2. The selected tubes are made of stainless steel with 25 mm outside diameter, 21 mm
inside diameter, the total number of tube is 24, while the tube length is 2 m, and the
triangular pitch applied for this tube distribution is 31.25 mm.
3. The shell diameter Ds is 235.9 mm. and the baffles used are 25% cut, while the baffle
spacing is 48 mm.
4. The first estimated value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 500 W/m2.oC,
while the final calculated value is 516 (W/m2. oC).
5. The pressure drop (ΔPt) for the tube side is 0.0307 kPa , while the shell side (ΔPs) is
155.12 kPa .
4.3 Sizing of Compressor [7]

𝑃𝑀𝑤 101 × 1000 × 28.9 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = = 1.15 ⁄𝑚3
𝑅𝑇 298 × 8314
1 3
𝑉1 = = 0.8733 𝑚 ⁄𝑘𝑔
𝜌
V = 12.693/1.145 = 10 .562 m3/s = 38023.2 m3 / h
From Figure C in Appendix E and for volumetric flow 38023.2 and discharge pressure 11 bars
the recommended compressor is centrifugal compressor
Calculation the polytropic coefficient (n)
From Figure D in Appendix E and suction flow 10.562 m3/s Ep = 0.74

Average heat capacity of mixture at T = 30 oC
𝐽
𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑖 = 29.099 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝑅 = 29.099 − 8.314 = 20.785

𝐶𝑝⁄
𝛾= 𝐶𝑣 = 1.4
(𝛾 − 1)
𝑚= = 0.386
𝛾(𝐸𝑝 )
1
𝑛= = 1.62
1−𝑚
The polytropic work:
(𝑛−1)⁄
𝑛 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑣1 [( ) − 1]
𝑛 − 1 𝑃1
Wpoly =376366.4 J/kg

Actual work required:
Wpoly/Ep = 508731.6 J/kg
Power required
Pac = W × m = 12.693 × 508731.6 = 6068.531 KW
Electric power:
From table the approximate electrical efficiency, Ee is 0.97
Pe = Pac /Ee = 6068.531 /0.97 = 6256.2 KW
4.4 Design of Heat Exchanger (Superheater)
56
The objective is to design a heat exchanger (superheater) (shell and tube) to heat Ammonia of
flow rate 2335.88 kg/hr from 350C to 177 0C using saturated steam entering at 40 bars.
Table 13: Data of ammonia
Component Mwti Ni Mi Mole fraction Mass fraction

kg/kmol kmol/h Kg/h Yi Xi
NH3 17 137.404 2335.88 1 1
Table 14: Physical properties at Tave = 106oC and P = 1240 kPa
Component Cp μi K ρ
kJ/kg.K Pa.s W/m.K kg/m3
NH3 2.38 1.32 x 10-4 0.0364 7.04
Table 15: Physical properties of standard steam at 40 bars and Tave = 250.3oC = 523.45 K
Cpv μv ρv kv 𝝀
kJ/kg.K Pa.s kg/m3 W/ m.K kJ/kg
1.958 1.84 x 10-5 20.12 0.0388 1712.9
Heat duty (Q) needed to be added to gas mixture:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝛥𝑇 [7]
𝑄 = 219.28 𝑘𝐽/𝑠 (𝑘𝑤)
For steam:
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚 𝜆 [7]
𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 219.28/1712.9
𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 0.128 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Finding ΔTlm:
T1 = 250.3 oC T2 = 250.3 oC
t2 = 177 oC SUPERHEATER t1 = 25oC
∆𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇1 − 𝑡2 = (250.3 − 177) = 73.3 °C
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 = (250.3 − 35) = 215.3 °C
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = [7]
∆𝑇
𝑖𝑛
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 131.79 °C
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and one tube passes.
According to Table A in Appendix E, Cold fluid is Ammonia and hot fluid is condensing steam.
The following value of overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated:
U= 160 W/ m2.oC
58
𝑄
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 𝛥𝑇𝑚  𝐴 = [7]
𝑈𝛥𝑇𝑚
𝐴 = 10.39 𝑚2
Choosing 25 mm “O.D”, 21 mm “I.D” stainless steel tubes to resist corrosion problems. Placing
condensing steam in the shell side. Take Tube length L = 5 m [7]
Calculation of Number of tubes:
𝐴 10.39
𝑁𝑡 = = [7]
𝜋 × 𝑑 × 𝐿 𝜋 × 25 × 10−3 × 5
Since the gas mixture in the shell side is always clean, we will use triangular pitch arrangement
with Pt= 1.25do [7]
Calculation of bundle diameter Db:

1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 [ ] [7]
𝐾1
K1 = 0.319
n1 = 2.142
1
27 2.142
𝐷𝑏 = 25 [ ] [7]
0.319
Db = 198.5 mm
Calculating the shell diameter Ds:
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 [7]
clearance= 49.5 mm
𝐷𝑠 = 198.5 + 49.5 = 248 𝑚𝑚
Calculating the heat transfer coefficients for tube side (hi):
𝜋 𝜋
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 𝑑𝑖2 = (21)2 = 346.36 𝑚𝑚2 [7]
4 4
𝑁𝑡 𝜋
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ( ) × 𝑑𝑖2 = 0.009351 𝑚2 [7]
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 69.39 𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
𝐴 0.009351
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 9.85 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝜇 0.14
= 𝐽ℎ × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 0.33 × ( ) [7]
𝐾𝑓 𝜇𝑤
Kf = thermal conductivity of water fluid = 0.0364 W/m.oC
Jh = factor for heat transfer given form Figure B in Appendix E by (Re)
𝜌𝑣𝑑 7.04 × 9.85 × 21 × 10−3
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 ′ 𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑅𝑒) = = = 110320 [7]
𝜇 1.32 × 10−5
(Turbulent Flow)
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 2.38 × 103 × 1.32 × 10−5
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑟) = = = 0.863 [7]
𝐾𝑓 0.0364
From Figure B in Appendix E at Re = 110320
Jh = 2.8 x10-3 [7]
𝜇 0.14
From (eq. hi) and neglecting (𝜇 ) and assume it approximately 1
𝑤
Then:
ℎ𝑖 (21 × 10−3 )
= (2.8 × 10−3 )(110320)(0.863)0.33
0.0364
hi = 510 W/m2.oC
60
Calculate heat transfer coefficients for shell side (ho):
𝐴𝑠 = [ ] 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵 [7]
𝑃𝑡
Pt = tube pitch
do = 25 mm
Pt = 1.25 do mm = 31.25 mm
𝐷𝑠 248
𝐿𝐵 = = = 49.5 𝑚𝑚
5 5
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 31.25 − 25
𝐴𝑠 = [ ] 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵 = [ ] (248)(49.5) = 2455.2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 31.25
As = 0.0024552 m2
mshell = mass flow rate of steam = 0.128 kg/sec
𝑚𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 0.128 𝑘𝑔⁄
𝐺𝑠 = [ ] = [0.0024552] = 52.13 𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
𝐴𝑠
𝐺𝑠 52.13
𝑣𝑠 = [ ] = = 2.59 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 [7]
𝜌𝑠 20.12
1.10 2
𝑑𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 ) [7]
𝑑𝑜
1.10
𝑑𝑒 = [(31.25)2 − 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01775 𝑚
25
Re & Pr for shell side:
𝜌𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑒 20.12 × 2.59 × 0.01775

𝑅𝑒 = = = 50269.92 [7]
𝜇 1.84 × 10−5
𝐶𝑝 𝜇𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 1.958 × 103 × 1.84 × 10−5
𝑃𝑟 = = = 0.928 [7]
𝐾𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 0.0388
The shell side coefficient ( hs or ho )

ℎ𝑠 𝑑𝑜 1 𝜇 0.14
= 𝐽ℎ × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 3 × ( ) [7]
𝐾𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝜇𝑤
From Figure B in Appendix E at Re= 50269.92
Jh = 3.2 x10-3 [7]
 0.14
From (eq. hs) and neglecting ( ) and assume it approximately 1
w
ℎ𝑠 (25 × 10−3 )
= (3.2 × 10−3 )(50269.92)(0.928)0.33
0.0388
hs = 343 W/m2.oC
Calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient (U):
62
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln ( 𝑜⁄𝑑 ) 1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑜
𝑖 𝑜
= + + + ( )+ ( ) [7]
hi = outside fluid film coefficient
Kw = thermal conductivity of tube wall material = 16 (W/m.oC) for '' stainless steel''
hod = outside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000(W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix E)
hid = inside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix E)
1 1 1 25 × 10−3 ln(25⁄21) 1 25 1 25
= + + + ( )+ ( )
𝑈𝑜 343 3000 2 × 16 510 21 2000 21
Uo = 163.5 W/𝑚2 .oC
The value of 163.5 W/m2.oC is well above the estimated value of 160 W/m2.oC.
Hence, the present design satisfactory. (Ok)
Calculating the pressure drop (ΔP) for side tube and shell tube:
1. The tube side ΔPt:
L μ −m ρvt2
∆Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] [ ] [7]
di μw 2
baffle cut of 0.25
vt = flow velocity inside the tube
at laminar (Re<2100)  m = 0.25
at Turblent (R>10000)  m = 0.14
Now:
5 7.04 × 9.852
∆Pt = [8(2.7 × 10−3 ) ( ) + 2.5] [ ]
21 × 10−3 2
ΔPt = 2154.82 Pa =2.154 kPa (Acceptable)
2. The shell side ΔPs:
64
∆Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) ( )( )
De LB 2 μw

baffle cut of 0.25
Ds = shell diameter = 248 mm
248 5 × 103 20.12 × 2.592
∆Ps = 8(2.8 × 10−2 ) ( )( )( ) [7]
17.75 49.5 2
ΔPs = 22.39 kPa (Acceptable)
Finally, we summarize our present design as follows:

1. The selected heat exchanger has one shell pass and one tube passes, in which ammonia flow
inside the tube and condensing steam flows inside the shell “.
2. The selected tubes are made of stainless steel with 25 mm outside diameter, 21 mm inside
diameter, the total number of tube is 27, while the tube length is 5 m, and the triangular pitch
applied for this tube distribution is 31.25 mm.
3. The shell diameter Ds is 248 mm. and the baffles used are 25% cut, while the baffle spacing is
(49.5 mm).
4. The first estimated value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 160(W/m2 . oC) , while the
final calculated value is 163.5 (W/m2. oC).
5. The pressure drop ( ΔPt ) for the tube side is 2.154 kPa , while the shell side ( ΔPs ) is 22.39
kPa .
4.5 Sizing of Mixer
66
𝑘𝑔⁄
𝜌 𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 1.15 𝑚3
Volumetric flow rate:
3
𝑉 = 𝑚/𝜌 = 12.7 / 1.15 = 11 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
Volume of mixture:
Residence time in the mixture drum: τ = 1s
𝑉 = 11 × 1 = 11 𝑚3
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐿/𝐷 = 4
𝜋
𝑉 = ( ) 𝐷3
4
1⁄
𝑉 3
𝐷=( )
𝜋
𝐷 = 1.6 𝑚
𝐿 = 6.1 𝑚
4.6 Design of Reactor
Introduction
The direct oxidation of ammonia over platinum 10% odrhodium catalyst is the major step in
the production of nitric acid. This oxidation at temperature about 700 oC and pressure range of 5-
9 atm. At this temperature platinum oxides are formed on the surface and some portion of it are
vaporized and carried away in the gas stream.
A suitable shape for the reactor has been found to be in the form of two frustrated square
pyramids, between the large cross-sections of which are placed the catalyst gauze. This shape
allows the walls of reactor to be kept as cool as possible.
A major issue in the design of this type of reactor is the arrangement of catalyst layer in the
form of screen supported in a manner that will ensure good distribution of flow. Because poor
distribution could cause hot spot in this exothermic reaction leading to volatilization of the
catalyst metal, and a direct reduction is also reduce the plant capacity.
Kinetic of reaction
The catalyst of ammonia oxidation is so rapid that the amount of catalyst required is very
small and heat transfer is not feasible. Typically configuration of this system is the woven – wire
gauze. This reaction completely by mass transfer, and the design of screen packs has been based
on pilot –plant studies and plant experience, and the reactor type is known as the shallow-bed-
adiabatic one. [5]
Assumption:
68
1. The reactions are mainly controlled by diffusion.
2. The partial pressure of ammonia on the catalyst surface is negligible.
3. The design model is developed as plug flow.
4. Typical reported data are used.
5. Ratio of mass of ammonia /hr.: mass of catalyst =85.
6. Cross sectional area = 0.256× 10-3 m2 / ton HNO3, daily.
Let: [5]
Nw = 80 inch mesh size
Aw = area /ton HNO3 = 0.256 m2/ton HNO3
dw = wire diameter = 0.003 inch =76 x10-4 cm
fw = wire area per gauza cross sectional area
Awr = surface area of screen / volume of one screen
The density of catalyst = 0.0214 kg / cm3
ns = number of screen per gauza
X= 0.95
Vg = volume of one screen = 110 cm3
YNH3 = 0.09
0.2
1 2
𝑎𝑤𝑟 = 𝜋 𝑁𝑤 2
[( ) + 𝑑𝑤 2 ] = 122.6 𝑐𝑚−1 = 294.39 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ−1 [5]
𝑁𝑤
𝑓𝑤 = 𝑎𝑤𝑟 × 2𝑑𝑤 = 294.39 × 2 × 0.003 = 1.77
aw dw 122.6 × 76 × 10−4
£ = Porcity = 1 − =1− = 0.8 [5]
4 4
𝑀𝐴
⁄𝑀𝑤
𝐵
(30⁄63) × 2000
𝐺 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = [5]
𝑌𝐴 × 𝑋𝐴 × 𝑎𝑤 24 × 3600 × 0.96 × 0.09 × 0.027547
𝑔
𝐺 = 4.63 𝑙𝑏𝑚⁄𝑓𝑡 2 . 𝑠 = 2.1 ⁄𝑐𝑚2 . 𝑠
 Superficial velocity
1 82.06 × 1209 𝑓𝑡
𝑢𝑠 = 2.1 × = 2.1 × = 890 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠 = 28.3 [5]
𝜌 7.8 × 30 𝑠
− 𝑙𝑛(1 − 𝑋𝐴 ) × £0.352 × 𝑑𝑤 0.648 × 𝐺 0.648 × 𝑢0.0190
𝑛𝑠 = [5]
(5.81761 ∗ 10−5 ) × 𝑓𝑤 × 𝑇 0.333 × (28.85 + 11.82 × 𝑦𝐴𝑜 ) 0.667
𝑛𝑠 = 19 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑧𝑎
mass amonia
Ratio  = 85 [5]
mass catalyst
The mass of ammonia / 85 = mass of catalyst
17 × 137.4
𝑚𝑐𝑎𝑡 = = 27.5 𝑘𝑔
85
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴 = 0.256 × 300 = 76.8 𝑚2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡/ 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 = 27.5 / 0.0214 = 1284 𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑐
𝑁𝑐 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = = 50 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 [5]
𝑉𝑔 − (1 − £)
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 0.5 × 50 + 1 𝑇𝑜𝑝 + 1 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 27 𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋 × 𝐷 × 𝐿
76.8
𝐷 = = 1𝑚
𝜋 × 27
70
4.7 Design of Heat Exchanger (1st Cooler):
The objective is to design a heat exchanger (shell and tube) to cool vapor mixture of flow rate
45873.40 kg/h from 645 0C to 70 0C. Cooling water will be used as the coolant fluid entering at
200C and exiting at 600C.
Table 16: Data of mixture

Y X
Kg/Kmol Kmol/h Kg/h
Mixture 28.27 1622.88 45873.40 1 1
Table 17: Physical properties of mixture at Tave = 630.5 K and Pave = 12.4 bars
Component Cp μ K ρ
Mixture 1.1538 3.03 x 10-5 0.0484 6.4106
Table 18: Physical Properties of cooling water at Tave = 40oC = 313 K
Component Cp μ K ρ
H2O 4.181 0.656 x 10-3 0.571 992.25
Heat duty (Q) needed to be remove from gas mixture:

Q = mCpmix ∆T [7]
= 12.7426 × 1.1538 × (645 − 70)
Q = 8453.887 KJ/s
For cooling water:

Qlost = Qgain = m1 Cpmix ∆T + m2 λ [7]
m1: mass flow rate of mixture without water = 42163.34 kg/h
= 11.71 kg/s
m2: mass flow rate of water which is condensing
Calculating the remaining water in vapor pressure after 1st cooler:

P vap
H2 O vapor exit at 70 oC (yH2 O ) = [7]
P total
By Antoine Equation, we find Pvap of water
B
ln P vap = A −
T+C
A =16.3872. B =3885.70. C =230.170
P vap = 31.256 kPa
31.256
yH2 O =
1064
yH2 O = 0.029
yH2 O
m2 = (mass flow rate of mixture without H2 O)
1 − y H2 O
0.029
m2 = (42163.45)
1 − 0.029
kg kg
m2 = 1259.25 ⁄h = 0.35 ⁄s
The remaining water in the exit liquid stream = H2O entering 1st cooler in stream 7 – H2O exiting
vapor stream in stream 8
The remaining water = 1.03 – 0.35 = 0.68 kg/s
Qlost = Qgain = m1 Cpmix ∆T + m2 λ [7]
λ = 1954.79 kJ/kg
Q 8453.887 kg
mass of water = mwater = = = 50.55 ⁄s
Cp∆T 4.181 × 40
Finding∆𝐓𝐥𝐦 :
T1 = 645 oC T2 = 70 oC
COOLER 72
t2 = 60 oC
t1 = 20 oC
∆Tout = T1 − t 2 = (645 − 60) = 585 oC
∆Tin = T2 − t1 = (70 − 20) = 50 oC
∆Tout − ∆Tin
∆Tlm = [7]
∆T
ln ∆Toutt
in
∆Tlm = 217.52 °C
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and two tubes pass.
So we need a correction factor for ΔTlm:
ΔTm = Ft (ΔTlm)
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑅= = 14.375 [7]
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑆= = 0.064 [7]
𝑇1 − 𝑡1
From given Figure (12.19) in textbook for Ft as function of (R, S)
 Ft = 0.97 [7]
ΔTm = (0.97)(217.52) = 210.99 oC
According to Table A in Appendix E, Cold fluid is water and hot fluid is gas. The following
value of overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated:
U=300 W/m2.oC
Q = U A ΔTm  A = Q / U ΔTm
A= 133.56 m2
Choosing 25 mm “OD”, 21 mm “ID” Cupro-Nickel tubes to resist corrosion problems. Placing
cooling water in the tube side since it is more corrosive. Take Tube length L=5 m
Calculation of number of tubes (Nt):
A 133.56
Nt = = [7]
π × d × L π × 25 × 10−3 × 5
Nt = 341 tubes
with Pt= 1.25do [7]
Calculation of bundle diameter (Db):

1
Nt n1
Db = do [ ] [7]
K1
K1 = 0.249
n1 = 2.207
1
341 2.207
Db = 25 [ ]
0.249
Db = 659.36 mm
Calculating the shell diameter (Ds):
Ds = Db + clearance [7]
clearance= 66 mm [7]
Ds = 659.36 + 63 = 722.36 mm
Calculating the heat transfer coefficients for tube side (hi): [7]
𝜋 𝜋
4 4
74
𝑁𝑡 341
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 = = = 170.5 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒⁄𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑁𝑡 𝜋
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ( ) × 𝑑𝑖2 = 0.059 𝑚2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 856.78 𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 0.059
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 1.374 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
hi di 0.33
μ 0.14
= Jh × Re × Pr ×( )
Kf μw
′
𝜌𝑣𝑑 992.25 × 1.374 × 21 × 10−3
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑅𝑒) = = = 43643.872
𝜇 0.656 × 10−3
(Turbulent Flow)
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 4.181 × 103 × 0.656 × 10−3
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑟) = = = 4.803
𝐾𝑓 0.571
From Figure B in Appendix E at Re = 43643.872
Jh = 2.9 x10 -3
μ 0.14
From (eq. hi) and neglecting (μ ) and assume it approximately 1
w
Then:
hi (21 × 10−3 )
= (2.9 × 10−3 ) × (43643.872) × (4.803)0.33
0.571
hi = 5776.13 W/m2.oC
Calculate heat transfer coefficients for shell side (ho): [7]

Pt − do
As = [ ] Ds LB
Pt
Pt = tube pitch
do = 25 mm
Pt = 1.25 do mm = 31.25 mm
Ds 722.36
LB = = = 144.47 mm
5 5
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 31.25 − 25
𝐴𝑠 = [ ] 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵 = [ ] (722.36)(144.47) = 20871.87 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 31.25
As = 0.02087187 m2
mshell = mass flow rate of mixture = 12.7426 kg/sec
𝐺𝑠 = [ ]=[ ] = 610.52 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑠 0.02087187
𝐺𝑠 610.52
𝑣𝑠 = [ ] = = 95.24 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜌𝑠 6.4106
1.10 2
de = (P − 0.917d2o )
do t
1.10
𝑑𝑒 = [(31.25)2 − 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01775 𝑚
25
For shell side:
Physical properties of liquid water at Tave:
kg⁄
ρL = 60.03 m3
μL = 0.083 × 10−3 Pa. s
k L = 0.47 W⁄m. K
kg
ρv = 0.34 ⁄m3
76
Ws 12.7426
Γh = = = 4.98 × 10−3
Nt L 511 × 5
Db 659.36
Number of tubes in centre row Nr = = = 21
Pt 31.25
2
Nr = × 21 = 14
3
1⁄
ρL (ρL − ρv )g 3
−1⁄
hc = 0.95 × k L [ ] × Nr 6
μL × Γh
1⁄
60.03(60.03 − 0.34) × 9.8 3
−1⁄
hc = 0.95 × 0.47 [ ] × 14 6
0.083 × 10−3 × 4.98 × 10−3
hc = 1264.34 W/m2 . oC
Calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient (U): [7]

𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln ( 𝑜⁄𝑑 ) 1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑜
𝑖 𝑜
= + + + ( )+ ( )
Kw = thermal conductivity of tube wall material = 50 (W/m.oC) for ''Cupro -Nickel alloys''
hod = outside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000(W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix E)
hid = inside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix E)
1 1 1 25 × 10−3 ln(25⁄21) 1 25 1 25
= + + + ( )+ ( )
𝑈𝑜 5776.13 3000 2 × 50 1264.34 21 3000 21
Uo = 529.53 W/m2 .oC
The value of 529.53 W/m2.oC is well above the estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC. Hence, the
present design satisfactory OK
Calculating the pressure drop (ΔP) for side tube and shell tube: [7]
78
L μ −m ρvt2
∆Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] [ ]
di μw 2
baffle cut of 0.25
at laminar (Re<2100)  m = 0.25
at Turblent (R>10000)  m = 0.14
Now,
5 992.25 × 0.7582
∆Pt = 2 [8(3.5 × 10−3 ) ( ) + 2.5] [ ]
21 × 10−3 2
ΔPt = 5226.02 Pa = 5.22602 kPa (Acceptable)

∆Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) ( )( )
De LB 2 μw
baffle cut of 0.25 = 2.8 x 10-2
857.99 5 × 103 6.4106 × 67.512
∆Ps = 8(2.8 × 10−2 ) ( )( )( )
17.75 171.59 2
ΔPs = 4609.086 kPa (Too high!)
This value for ΔPs is high, so we will decrease vs by quadrupling the baffle spacing, which will
reduce the velocity in the shell by a factor of (1/3)
i.e. new vs new = 0.333 vs old
ΔPs α vs2
ΔPs new α (0.333)2 ΔPs old
ΔPs new = (0.333)2 (4609.086) = 511.09 kPa
But this effect of using half vs old will affect the hs as follows
hs α Re0.8
hs now = ( 0.333 )0.8 hs old
hs now = ( 0.333)0.8 (5776.13) = 2396.58 W/m2.oC
The new value for the overall heat transfer coefficient will be Uo = 468.91 W/m2.oC which is still
above the initial estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC then this trial for reducing ΔPs is satisfactory.
80
1. The selected heat exchanger has one shell pass and two tubes pass, in which cooling
water flow inside the tube and mixture flows inside the shell “.
2. The selected tubes are made of Capper - Nickel alloy with 25 mm outside diameter, 21
mm inside diameter, the total number of tube is 341, while the tube length is 5 m, and the
triangular pitch applied for this tube distribution is 31.25 mm.
spacing is (63 mm).
4. The first estimated value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 529.53 (W/m2. oC) ,
while the final calculated value is 468.91 (W/m2. oC).
5. The pressure drop ( ΔPt ) for the tube side is 6.20309 kPa , while the shell side ( ΔPs ) is
511.09 kPa .
4.8 Design of The Oxidation Unit

Partial pressure of O2 = 0.714 atm
Partial pressure of NO = 0.70 atm
2993
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑘 = − 11.323 = 2.529 × 10−3 𝑘𝑃𝑎−1 [14]
𝑇
𝑘
𝑟𝐴 = × (𝑃2 (𝑁𝑂) × 𝑃(𝑂2 )) [14]
𝑅𝑇
2.529 × 10−3
𝑟𝐴 = ((80.047)2 × (71.94))
8.314(343)
𝑟𝐴 = 0.408
130 × 1000
𝐹𝐴𝑜 =
3600
5.2 × 1000
𝐹𝐴 =
3600
𝐹𝐴𝑜 – 𝐹𝐴
𝑉= = 84.8 𝑚3
−𝑟𝐴
4.9 Design of Heat Exchanger (2nd Cooler):
82
The objective is to design a heat exchanger (shell and tube) to cool vapor mixture of flow rate
45873.40 kg/h from 140 0C to 60 0C. Cooling water will be used as the coolant fluid entering at
250C and exiting at 400C.
Table 19: Data of mixture

Y X
Kg/Kmol Kmol/h Kg/h
Mixture 28.27 1622.88 45873.40 1 1
Table 20: Physical properties of mixture at Tave = 373 K and Pave = 12.4 bars
Component Cp Μ K ρ
Mixture 1.1085 2.051 x 10-5 0.0603 11.56
Table 21: Physical properties of cooling water at Tave = 32.5oC = 305 K
Component Cp Μ K ρ
H2O 4.183 0.771 x 10-3 0.616 995.5
Heat duty (Q) needed to be remove from gas mixture:

𝑄 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝛥𝑇 [7]
= 12.7426 𝑥 1.1085 (140 – 60)
𝑄 = 1130.0138 𝐾𝐽/𝑠
For cooling water:
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑄𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑝 𝛥𝑇 [7]
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1130.0138 / (4.183 × (40 − 25))
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 18.01 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Finding∆𝐓𝐥𝐦 :
T1 = 140 oC T2 = 60 oC
COOLER t1 = 25 oC
t2 = 40 oC
∆𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇1 − 𝑡2 = (140 − 40) = 100 𝑜𝐶
∆𝑇𝑖𝑙 = 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 = (60 − 25) = 35 𝑜𝐶
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = [7]
∆𝑇
𝑖𝑛
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 61.92 𝑜𝐶
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and two tubes pass.
So we need a correction factor for ΔTlm:
ΔTm = Ft (ΔTlm) [7]

𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑅= = 5.333 [7]
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑆= = 0.130 [7]
𝑇1 − 𝑡1
From given Figure (12.19) for Ft as function of (R, S)
 Ft = 0.98 [7]
ΔTm = (0.98)(61.92) = 60.68 oC

According to A in Appendix E, Cold fluid is water and hot fluid is gas. The following value of
overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated:
84
U= 300 W/m2.oC
Q = U A ΔTm  A = Q / U ΔTm [7]
A= 62.08 m2
Choosing 25 mm “OD”, 21 mm “ID” Cupro-Nickel tubes to resist corrosion problems. Placing
cooling water in the tube side since it is more corrosive. Take Tube length L=5 m
Calculation of number of tubes:
𝐴 62.08
𝑁𝑡 = =
𝜋 × 𝑑 × 𝐿 𝜋 × 25 × 10−3 × 5
with Pt= 1.25do [7]
Calculation of bundle diameter Db: [7]
1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 [ ]
𝐾1
K1, n1 are constants given in Table C: [7]
K1 = 0.249
n1 = 2.207
1
159 2.207
𝐷𝑏 = 25 [ ]
0.249
Db = 466.64 mm
Calculating the shell diameter Ds: [7]
𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
clearance= 56 mm [7]
𝐷𝑠 = 466.64 + 56 = 522.64 𝑚𝑚
Calculating the heat transfer coefficients for tube side (hi): [7]
𝜋 𝜋
4 4
𝑁𝑡 159
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 = = = 79.5 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒⁄𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑁𝑡 𝜋
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ( ) × 𝑑𝑖2 = 0.028 𝑚2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 643.21 𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 0.028
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑥 ) = = = 0.646 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 0.33
𝜇 0.14
= 𝐽ℎ × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 ×( )
𝐾𝑓 𝜇𝑤
𝜌𝑣𝑑 995.5 × 0.646 × 21 × 10−3
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 ′ 𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑅𝑒) = = = 17516.15
𝜇 0.771 × 10−3
(Turbulent Flow)
𝐶𝑝 𝜇 4.181 × 103 × 0.771 × 10−3
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑟) = = = 5.233
𝐾𝑓 0.616
From Figure B in Appendix E at Re=17516.15
Jh = 3.8 x10-3
 0.14
From (eq. hi) and neglecting ( ) and assume it approximately 1
w
Then:
hi (21 × 10−3 )
= (3.8 × 10−3 ) × (17516.15 ) × (5.233)0.33
0.616
hi = 3371.09 W/m2.oC
Calculate heat transfer coefficients for shell side (ho): [7]

86
𝐴𝑠 = [ ] 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵
𝑃𝑡
Pt = tube pitch
Ds = shell inside diameter Pt
LB = Buffle spacing (usually one fifth of shell diameter)
do = 25 mm do
Pt = 1.25 do mm = 31.25 mm
𝐷𝑠 522.64
𝐿𝐵 = = = 104.53 𝑚𝑚
5 5
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 31.25 − 25
𝐴𝑠 = [ ] 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵 = [ ] (522.64)(104.53) = 10926.31 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 31.25
As = 0.01092631 m2
mshell = mass flow rate of mixture = 12.7426 kg/sec
𝐺𝑠 = [ ]=[ ] = 1166.23 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑠 0.01092631
𝐺𝑠 1166.23
𝑣𝑠 = [ ] = = 100.88 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜌𝑠 11.56
1.10 2
𝑑𝑒 = (𝑃𝑡 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 )
𝑑𝑜
1.10
𝑑𝑒 = [(31.25)2 − 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01775 𝑚
25
Re & Pr for shell side
𝜌𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑒 11.56 × 100.88 × 0.01775
𝑅𝑒 = = = 1009242.67
𝜇 2.051 × 10−5
𝐶𝑝 𝜇𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 1.1085 × 103 × 2.051 × 10−5
𝑃𝑟 = = = 0.377
𝐾𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 0.0603
The shell side coefficient (hs or ho):

ℎ𝑠 𝑑𝑜 1 𝜇 0.14
= 𝐽ℎ × 𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 3 × ( )
𝐾𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝜇𝑤
From Figure B in Appendix E at 25% assumed design value for baffle cut and Re:
Jh = 6.2x10-4
 0.14
( ) Assumed to be approximately 1. We get
w
ℎ𝑠 (25 × 10−3 )
= 6.2 × 10−4 × 1009242.67 × 0.3770.33
0.0603
hs = 1093.85 W/m2.oC
Calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient (U): [7]

88
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln ( 𝑜⁄𝑑 ) 1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑜
𝑖 𝑜
= + + + ( )+ ( )
Kw = thermal conductivity of tube wall material = 50 (W/m.oC) for ''Cupro -Nickel alloys''
hod = outside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000(W/m2.oC) (From Table B)
hid = inside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B)
1 1 1 25 × 10−3 ln(25⁄21) 1 25 1 25
= + + + ( )+ ( )
𝑈𝑜 3371.09 3000 2(50) 1093.85 21 3000 21
Uo = 463.24 W/𝑚2 .oC
The value of 463.24 W/m2.oC is well above the estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC. Hence, the
present design satisfactory OK
Calculating the pressure drop (ΔP) for side tube and shell tube: [7]
L μ −m ρvt2
∆Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] [ ]
di μw 2
baffle cut of 0.25
at laminar (Re<2100)  m = 0.25
at Turblent (R>10000)  m = 0.14
Now,
5 995.5 × 0.6462
∆Pt = 2 [8(4.2 × 10−3 ) ( ) + 2.5] [ ]
21 × 10−3 2
ΔPt = 4362.09 Pa =4.36209 kPa (Acceptable)
90
∆Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) ( )( )
De LB 2 μw
baffle cut of 0.25 = 2.5 x 10-2
522.64 5 × 103 11.56 × 100.882
∆Ps = 8(2.5 × 10−2 ) ( )( )( )
17.75 104.53 2
ΔPs = 16569.19 kPa (Too high!)
This value for ΔPs is high, so we will decrease vs by quadrupling the baffle spacing, which will
reduce the velocity in the shell by a factor of (1/3)
i.e. new vs new = 0.333 vs old
ΔPs α vs2
ΔPs new α (0.333)2 ΔPs old
ΔPs new = (0.333)2 (16569.19) = 1837.34 kPa
But this effect of using half vs old will affect the hs as follows
hs α Re0.8
hs now = ( 0.333 )0.8 hs old
hs now = ( 0.333)0.8 (3371.09) = 1398.70 W/m2.oC
The new value for the overall heat transfer coefficient will be Uo = 388.04 W/m2.oC which is still
above the initial estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC then this trial for reducing ΔPs is satisfactory.

1. The selected heat exchanger has one shell pass and two tubes pass, in which cooling
water flow inside the tube and mixture flows inside the shell “.
2. The selected tubes are made of Capper - Nickel alloy with 25 mm outside diameter, 21
mm inside diameter, the total number of tube is 159, while the tube length is 5 m, and
the triangular pitch applied for this tube distribution is 31.25 mm.
spacing is (56 mm).
4. The first estimated value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 463.24 (W/m2 . oC) ,
while the final calculated value is 388.04 (W/m2. oC).
5. The pressure drop ( ΔPt ) for the tube side is 4.36209 kPa , while the shell side ( ΔPs ) is
1837.34 kPa .
4.10 Design of Absorber
92
Introduction
The most important step of manufacturing nitric acid is Absorption of NOx When it is compared
to other absorptions operation. Absorption of NOx is the most complex. This is for several
reasons:
1. NOx is a mixture of several components of NO,NO2,N2O3 and N2O4.

2. In absorption tower many reversible and irreversible reactions.
3. Simultaneous absorption of many gases occurs followed be chemical reaction.
4. Heat Generated from the reactions, which affect the absorption.
2NO2 + H2O + ½ O2  2HNO3
Figure 1 Nitric acid column
The objective
To design an absorption tower to absorb NO2 from the mixer gas stream using water to form
nitric acid with 60% weight.
Absorber design calculation
Tail Gases 30 ○C Water 20 ○C

Y2 = 0.0048 X2 = 0
Gases 60 ○C Nitric Acid 30 ○C

Y1 = 0.0884 X1 = 0.3
Figure 2 Stream temperature and NO2 molar composition
Number of Gases moles entered the absorber= Gm= 1417.09 Kmol/hr

Number of water moles entered the absorber=Lm=373.19 Kmol/hr
Table 22: Compositions of income gases
Component Mole fraction Molecular weight

NO2 0.0884 46
NO 0.0037 30
O2 0.0386 32
N2 0.869 28
94
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑀𝑤𝑡)
= (46 × 0.0884) + (30 × 0.0037) + (32 × 0.0386) + (0.869 × 28)
𝐾𝑔
= 29.74
𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑃 × 𝑀𝑤𝑡 1200000 × 29.74
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 (𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠) = 𝜌𝑣 = =
𝑅×𝑇 8314.34 × 333
= 12.89 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
P= 1200000 Pa T=60 C○ = 333 K R= 8314.34 𝑚3 × 𝑃𝑎/𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙 × 𝐾
Density of water at 20 C○, 1200 kPa = 𝜌𝑙 = 998.23 Kg/m3 [3]
Diameter Calculation
𝜌𝐿−𝜌𝑉 0.5
𝑈𝑣 = (−0.171 𝐿𝑡 2 + 0.21𝐿𝑡 − 0.047) ( ) [7]
𝜌𝑉
Lt=plat spacing=0.9 m
998.23 − 12.89 0.5
𝑈𝑣 = (−0.171 × (0.9)2 + 0.21 × 0.9 − 0.047) ( ) = 0.51 𝑚/𝑠
12.89
Taking 60% Uv =0.3 m/s
4𝑉𝑚
𝐷 = √𝜋𝜌 [7]
𝑚 𝑈𝑣
4 × 11.71
𝐷=√ = 1.96 ≈ 2𝑚
3.14 × 12.98 × 0.3
Design 1
Assumptions
1. N2O4 (2NO2) is the only species, which dissolved in the Liquid.
2. Neglect the reactions occurs in the column.
3. Isothermal Operation and the temperature is 45oC.
4. The design of the column is trays absorption column.
Height of Absorber
Equilibrium line can be specified:
𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋
From Raoult's law
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 [18]
Psat for NO2 at 45oC:

From Antoine Equation:
𝐵
𝐿𝑛 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝐴 − [7]
𝑇+∁
From appendix C page. 1123 [7]

A=20.5324
B= 4141.29
C=3.65
T= 45oC= 318 k
4141.29
𝐿𝑛 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 20.5324 − = 7.6572
318 + 45
Psat = 2115.944 mmHg = 282.01 kPa
So, the slope of the equilibrium line
282.01
𝑚= = 0.234
1200
96
𝑚𝐺 𝑌 − 𝑚𝑋 𝑚𝐺
ln[(1 − 𝐿 𝑚 ) (𝑌1 − 𝑚𝑋2 ) + 𝐿 𝑚 ]
𝑚 2 2 𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑁 = [19]
𝐿𝑚
ln(𝐿 𝐺 )
𝑚 𝑚
m = 0.235 Gm = 1417.09 kmol/hr Lm = 373.191 Kmol/hr

Y1 = 0.0048 Y2 = 0.0884 X2 = 0
0.0884 − 0
ln [(1 − 0.893) (0.0048 − 0) + 0.893]
𝑁= = 9.3 ≈ 10 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
1
ln (0.893)
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 × 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑁 × 𝐿𝑡 = 10 × 0.9 = 9 𝑚

Design 2:
Assumptions:
1. N2O4 (2NO2) is the only species, which dissolved in the Liquid.
2. The reaction occurs in the column.
3. 2NO2 + H2O + ½ O2  2HNO3
4. Isothermal Operation and the temperature is 45oC.
5. The design of the column is trays absorption column.
Height of Absorber:
From fuller equation, the diffusivity of N2O4 in water:
A = N2O4 B= H2O
VA= 33.5 VB=14.7
MA= 92 MB=18
T=45 C○ =318 K○ P=1200 Kpa = 11.843 atm
1 1 0.5
1 × 10−7 × 𝑇 1.75 × (𝑀 + 𝑀 )
𝐴 𝐵
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 0.33 0.33 )2 [17]
𝑃(𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵
1 1 0.5
1 × 10−7 × 3181.75 × (92 + 18)
𝐷𝐴𝐵 =
11.843(33.50.33 + 14.70.33 )2
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 1.6535 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
Mass transfer Coefficient can be calculated from the following Equation:
0.33
0.42 × 𝑁𝑆𝐶 −0.5 (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) × 𝜇𝐴 × 𝑔
𝐾𝑔 = ×[ ] [17]
𝑅𝑇 𝜌𝐴2
𝜇𝐴 2.3 × 10−5
𝑁𝑆𝐶 = 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = = = 13.3 [3]
𝜌𝐴 × 𝐷𝐴𝐵 1 × 1.6535 × 10−6
𝜇𝐴 = 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑂4 = 2.2 × 10−5 𝐾𝑔/𝑚. 𝑠
𝜌𝑣 = 12.89 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜌𝑙 = 998.23 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
𝜌𝐴 = 1.0 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑁𝑆𝐶 = 13.3
𝑔 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚3 𝑎𝑡𝑚
R= 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 8.2 × 10−2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑘
98
0.42 × 13.3−0.5 [(998.23 − 12.89) × 2.2 × 10−5 × 9.8]0.33
𝐾𝑔 = ×
8.2 × 10−2 × 318 12
𝐾𝑔 = 2.6484 × 10−3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚2 . 𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Determine the rate reaction

𝑃𝑁2 𝑂4 × 𝑠
𝑟𝐴 = [4]
1 1
𝐾𝑔 + 𝐻√𝐾1 × 𝐷𝐴𝐵
Kg= mass transfer coefficient, kmol/m2.atm.sec

PN2O4= partial pressure of N2O4 at interface, atm
H= solubility of N2O4 in liquid = 0.352 kmol/m3.atm [19, page.275]
K1= reaction rate constant= 1340 sec-1 [19, page.275]
𝐾𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚2 . 𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐻√𝐾1 × 𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 0.0166

3
𝑆 = 700 𝑚 ⁄𝑚2 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1 × 700
−𝑟𝐴 = = 1.6 𝑃𝑎
1 1
+
2.6484 × 10−3 0.0166
𝑃𝐴1
𝐺 𝑑𝑃𝐴
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑍) = ∫ [7]
𝑃×𝑓 −𝑟𝐴
𝑃𝐴2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑓 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
3
0.0019 𝑉 ⁄𝑠 3
−3 𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑⁄
𝑓= 3 3 = 2.05 × 10 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
0.0019 𝑉 ⁄𝑠 + 0.91 𝑉 ⁄𝑠
G = molar velocity of gas based on the area of the absorber
𝐺𝑚 = 0.3936 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑠. 𝑚2
𝐺𝑚 0.3936
𝐺= =𝜋 = 0.1253 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑚2 × 𝑠
𝐴 × 22
4
𝑃𝑁2 𝑂4 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.7 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑁2 𝑂4 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 1.3 × 10−1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
0.1253 0.7
𝑍= −3
ln ( ) = 27.7 𝑚 ≈ 28 𝑚
11.843 × 2.05 × 10 × 1.6 1.3 × 10−4
100
4.11 Design of Nitric Acid Tank
𝐷𝑖 0.5
𝐷𝑜 (𝑍 0.5 − 1)
𝑡 = ( ) (𝑍 − 1) = ( ) [ ] [7]
2 2 𝑍 0.5
Where:
t = wall thickness (mm)
Di = tank inside diameter (mm)
D0 = tank outside diameter (mm)
Z = (FE + P)/ (FE - P)
F = design tensile strength of material (MPa)
E = joint efficiency
P = internal pressure (MPa)
The internal pressure is equivalent to the head of liquid inside the tank. This maximum head of
10.7 m represents a pressure of 142 kPa. The recommended wall thickness is:
(𝐹𝐸 + 𝑃)
𝑍 = [7]
(𝐹𝐸 − 𝑃)
[(108 × 0.8) + 0.142]
𝑍=
[(108 × 0.8) − 0.142]
𝑍 = 1.003
15200
𝑡 = ( ) (1 .0030.5 − 1) = 11 𝑚𝑚
2
Adding a corrosion allowance of 5 mm, the final recommendation is for 16 mm plating for the
tank shell based on circumferential stress. Minimum thickness based upon longitudinal stress
(circumferential joints) Formula as given above for circumferential stress, except that:
𝑃
𝑍 = [ ] + 1 [7]
𝐹𝐸
With the internal pressure at 140 kPa, the calculation is:
𝑃
𝑍 = [ ] + 1
𝐹𝐸
0.140
𝑍 = [ ] + 1
108 × 0.8
𝑍 = 1.0016
15200
𝑡 = ( ) (1.00160.5 − 1) = 6 𝑚𝑚
2
This indicates that circumferential stresses are more important, and they determine the minimum
shell thickness for this tank. The BHP steel plate available and closest to this specification is 16
mm thickness.
Checking Calculations for Other Stresses
Dead- weight stress
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 + 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
= [𝜋{15.2 + (2 × 0.016)} 0.016 × 10.71
𝜋
+ 1.3 [( ) 15.2 2 × 0.0161]] [7]
4
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 12 𝑚3
Density of SS304L = 7.8 tones/m3
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 12 × 7.8 = 93.6 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠
Considering the stresses:
𝑚𝑔
Weight stress =
𝜋 𝐷𝑜 𝑡
93.6 x 9.8
Weight stress =
π (15.2 + (2 x 0.016)) 0.016
Weight stress = 1200 kPa
Weight stress = 1.2 MPa
𝑃𝐷𝑜
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
4𝐽𝑡𝑠
0.140 × {15.2 + (2 × 0.016)}
Axial stress =
4 × 1 × 0.016
Axial stress = 33 MPa
Hoop stress = 2 × Axial Stress = 66 MPa
Wind stresses are disregarded because of the high ratio of tank diameter to tank height.
Analysis of Stresses:
Upwind Total stress = Axial stress - Radial stress = 33 - 1.2 = 31.8 MPa
Downwind Total stress = Hoop stress - Radial stress = 66 - 1.2 = 64.8 MPa
Radial Radial stress = 0.5 × P = 70 kPa
102
Maximum stress = 70 MPa
The maximum stress is approximately 35% below the design stress of 108 MPa, and therefore
the shell thickness used in this design is considered acceptable. Inlet/Outlet Line Diameters The
inlet and outlet line diameters are sized for a recommended liquid flowrate of 2 m/s.
The inlet line sizing is determined by allowing 20% above the normal product flowrate of 11 700
kg/h. This corresponds to a volumetric flowrate of 2.9 × 10-3 m3/s.
Area of pipe = Volumetric flowrate/Velocity
2.9 × 10−3
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = = 1.44 × 10−3 𝑚2
2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 4 0.5
Diameter of pipe = [ ]
𝜋
0.5
1.44 × 10−3 × 4
[ ] = 40mm
𝜋
The nearest commercial pipe size is a nominal pipe size of 1.5, schedule number 40s (with inside
diameter of 41 mm and a wall thickness of 4 mm).
The outlet flowrate is calculated based upon the need to fill a standard 30 tonne tanker in 15
minutes. This corresponds to a volumetric flowrate of 2.5 x 10-2 m3/s
Area of pipe = Volumetric flowrate/Velocity
= 2.5 × 10-2/ 2
= 1.23 × 10-2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 4 0.5
Diameter of pipe = [ ]
𝜋
0.5
1.44 × 10−3 × 4
[ ] = 40mm
𝜋
The nearest commercial pipe size is a nominal pipe size of 6, schedule number 120 (with an
inside diameter of 140 mm and a wall thickness of 14 mm).
Figure 7 Tank of nitric acid [5]
104
Chapter 5
Control Loop
5.1 Introduction
Control is crucial because it provides a proper control of the process variables so that the whole
plant operation is within the specification limit for safety purposes. Besides, it has direct impacts
on the plant economics, environment and the product specifications. According to Seborg
(2004), without process control, it is impossible to operate most modern processes safely and
profitably, while satisfying plant quality standards.
The three most important considerations that make plant control necessary are:
1. Safe Plant Operation

 To keep the process variables within known safe operation limits
 To make sure the temperature and pressure at the desired level for reactor and columns
 To detect danger as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic shutdown systems
 To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating conditions
2. Production Rate and Quality

 To achieve the design product output composition specification for outlet stream of
reactor according to the literature specification
 To maintain the desired purity especially for ethyl acetate and acetic acid
3. Cost Operation
 To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other Objectives
 To minimize the usage of heating and cooling utility, and thus reducing the utility cost
The types of basic control strategies that is implemented under the scope of this project are:
 Feedback control
 Feedforward control
 Cascade control
 Ratio control
106
The simplest control loops requires:
1- Identifying the controlled variable.
2- Setting the required value of the controlled variable.
3- Measuring the controlled variable
4- Identifying the magnitude of deviation (set value – measured value).
5- Sending the deviation to the controller.
6- Adjusting the value of manipulated variable to offset the deviation.
Table 23: Symbols used in control loops
Symbol Definition
Control Valve
Normally Closed Gate Valve
LC Level Control
TC Temperature Control
FC Flow Control
TT Temperature Transmitter
AC Analyzer Control
PC Pressure Control
PT Pressure Transmitter
Figure 8 Process control loop for nitric acid production
108
5.2 Control of Vaporizer
Table 24: Control specification of vaporizer
Control Strategy Selected  Feedback control

Control Objective  To set the output temperature to 35 ⁰C
Controlled Variables  Output temperature

Measured Variables  Output temperature
Manipulated Variables  The flowrate of steam inside the vaporizer
 The flowrate of ammonia inside the
vaporizer
Disturbances  The Temperature of ammonia inside the
vaporizer
Set Points  35⁰C inlet temperature to Superheater.

5.3 Control of Reactor
Table 25: Control specification of reactor

 To set the reactor pressure to 1060 kPa

 Reactor pressure
 Reactor pressure
Manipulated Variables  The flow rate of Cooling water in the
reactor
 The flow rate of vented gas
 The flow rate of air and ammonia
 The Temperature of air and ammonia
Disturbances inside the reactor
Set Points  645 ⁰C inlet temperature to cooler.
110
5.4 Control of Absorber
Table 26: Control specification of absorber

 To set the reactor pressure to 1200 kPa

 Absorber pressure
 Absorber pressure
Manipulated Variables  The flow rate of Cooling water in the
Absorber
 The flow rate of vented tail gas
 The flow rate of multi gases
 The Temperature of multi gases inside the
Disturbances absorber
Set Points  30 ⁰C product temperature
Chapter 6
Economic Analysis
112
6.1 Estimation of capital investment items based on delivered equipment [16]
ITEM
*DIRECT COSTS
Purchased equipment cost (PEC) PEC
Purchased equipment Installation 0.47 PEC
Instrumentation and controlled 0.18 PEC
Piping (Installed) 0.66 PEC
Electrical (Installed) 0.11 PEC
Buildings (including services) 0.18 PEC
Yard improvements 0.10 PEC
Land 0
*TOTAL DIRECT PLANT COST 3.4 PEC
*INDIRECT COSTS
Engineering and supervision 0.33 PEC
Construction expenses 0.41 PEC
TOTAL DIRECT AND DIRECT
PLANT COSTS 4.14 PEC
Contractor fee 0.207 PEC
Contingency 0.414 PEC
Fixed capital investment (FCI) 4.761 PEC
Working capital investment (Wc) 0.84 PEC
Total capital investment (TCI) 5.601 PEC
6.2 Equipment Cost (at 2011) [16]
Equipment Material Purchase Cost $
Compressor SS 1,700,000
Vaporizer SS 38,760
Superheater SS 78,702
Reactor SS 227,587
Cooler 1 Cuppro-Nickel 286,868
Oxidation SS 115,838
Cooler 2 Cuppro-Nickel 212,937
Absorption Column SS 187,384
Nitric Acid Tank SS 1,396,861
Σ Cost $ 4,244,937
I0 (Index at 2011) = 586.5 I (Index at 2013) = 636

Cost (in 2013) = Cost (in 2011) × (I / I0)
ΣCost $ (at 2013) = 4603206
The Location Factor = 1.3
PEC = Σ cost (at 2013) × 1.3
PEC = $5,984,168
114
6.3 Total Production Cost (TPC) [16]
TPC = Manufacturing Cost + General Cost
1) Manufacturing Cost
A) Direct Production Cost
1) Raw Material $9343520
2) Operating labor 0.1TPC
3) Direct Supervisory 0.11TPC
4) Utilities 0.1 TPC
5) Maintenance 0.05FCI
6) Operating Supplies 0.005FCI
7) Liberty Charges 0.1TPC
8) Patients & Royalties 0
B) Fixed Charges
1) Deprecation 0.1FCI
2) Taxes 0
3) Insurance 0.005FCI
4) Rent 0
C) Plant Overhead Cost 0.05TPC
2) General Costs
a) Administration 0.02TPC
b) Distribution 0.05TPC
c) Research & Development Costs 0.05TPC
d) Financing 0
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)

FCI = 4.761 × PEC
FCI = 28490624$
Working Capital Investment (WC)
WC = 0.84 × PEC
WC = $5026702
Total Capital Investment (TCI)
TCI = 5.601 × PEC
TCI = $33,517,325
Total Production Cost (TPC)
TPC = Manufacturing Cost + General Cost
TPC = 0.58TPC + 0.16FCI + 9,343,520
TPC = $33,100,048
Revenue (total income)
Revenue = Price of Nitric Acid (per ton) × Capacity
Revenue = 400 × 100,000
Revenue = $40,000,000
Net Profit
Net Profit = Revenue - TPC
Net Profit = 400,00,000 – 33,100,048
Net Profit = $6,899,953
Return on Investment (ROI)
ROI = ((Net Profit)/TCI) ×100
ROI = 20.5%
Depreciation = 0.1 × FCI = $2,849,062.40

ACF = Annual Profit + Depreciation = 6,899,953 + 2,849,062.40 = $9,749,015.40
Pay Back Period (PBP)
PBP = TCI/ACF = 3.43 years
116
Chapter 7
Process Integration
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS INTEGRATION
The process industrial is among the most important manufacturing facilities. They span a
wide range of industries including chemical, petroleum, gas, petrochemical, food,
pharmaceutical, microelectronics, metal, textile, and forestry product. The performance of these
industries is strongly dependent on their engineering and engineers. So, what are primary
responsibilities of process engineers in the process industries? Many process engineers would
indicate that their role in the process industries is to design and operate industrial processes and
make them work faster, better, cheaper, safer, and greener. All of these tasks lead to more
competitive processes with desirable profit margins and market share. Specifically, these
responsibilities may be expressed through the following specific objectives: process innovation,
profitability enhancement, Yield improvement, capital productivity increase, Quality control,
assurance and enhancement Resource conservation, Pollution prevention, safety,
Debottlenecking.
Heat Integration –Objectives
Heat integration, as a part of process integration aims at:
 Designing a process in such a way that it makes optimum use of energy that is available
within the process itself
 Optimizing the quality level of the utilities required
 Optimizing energy exchange with neighboring plants and energy recovery with the view
to optimize energy and capital cost
However, our aim was to use the steam, which occurred when the reactor cooled down by water,
which leaded us to use the steam to vaporize the ammonia.
Stripping
Based on our project, we avoid using the stripping due to the problems, which can be caused,
by stripping such as increasing the purity of nitric acid, which can be ended up by killing the
plant. Also, this project had designed to use the nitric acid (60% purity) under specific conditions
on other words. If we use the nitric acid more than 60% purity we can use it as bombs, and if we
use it as 60% purity we can use it as fertilizer.
118
Chapter 8
Safety and Loss

Prevention
120
8.1 Plant Layout
There are several plant layout considerations relevant to the Bunbury site. First, the prevailing
winds direction, shown with a dark arrow in Figure 9. This would indicate that the tank farm is
best placed on the seaside of the site to avoid vapors drifting back across the plant area. The
second major consideration is the need for road access to the ammonium nitrate dispatch/storage
area.
A suggested layout for the overall complex is shown in Figure 9.It features the three chemical
processes flowing approximately one to the other. The joint administration and workshop
facilities are located in the southwestern corner of the plant. There is a central control room for
all operations, and the roadway is extended into the dispatch area.
The nitric acid plant is relatively small and should not occupy more than 1 hectare. Even this
small area should leave plenty of room for expansion. The plant layout includes space for a
parallel production trucks should the market expand sufficiently in the future such that a second
plant is required. The layout also offers plenty of room around each unit for maintenance work,
with units remaining closes enough for process streams to be transferred easily. The main
objectives of the plant layout are:
 To maximize safety
 To prevent spread of fire
 To facilitate easy operation and maintenance
 To consider future expansion
 To minimize the construction cost
Figure 9 Nitric acid plant layout
122
8.2 Safety of Materials
Ammonia
Both gaseous and liquid ammonia pose moderate health hazards to those who come into
contact with them. For example, farmers who handle liquid ammonia risk the possibility of
painful blistering of the skin or damage to the mucous membranes if they come into contact with
the fertilizer. Ammonia fumes can irritate the mouth, nose, and throat, causing coughing and
gagging responses. Higher levels of exposure may irritate the lungs, resulting in shortness of
breath and producing headaches, nausea, and vomiting. Very high exposures can cause a buildup
of fluid in the lungs that can result in death. Since ammonia is a common ingredient of many
household products, everyone should be aware of its health risks, although the threat posed by
such products is, in fact, very small. [15]
Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide is considered an environmental pollutant. It oxidizes readily to form nitrogen
dioxide, which, in turn, reacts with moisture in the air to form nitric acid, a component of acid
rain. Acid rain is thought to be responsible for a number of environmental problems, including
damage to buildings, destruction of trees, and the death of aquatic life. The nitrogen dioxide
produced from nitric oxide is also a primary component of photochemical smog, a hazardous
haze created by a mixture of pollutants in the presence of sunlight.
Even though it is toxic in the environment, nitric oxide plays several important roles in the
human body. Nitric oxide is involved in the process by which messages are transmitted from one
nerve cell to the next. It also regulates blood flow by triggering the smooth muscles surrounding
blood vessels to relax. This action increases blood flow and lowers blood pressure. Nitric oxide
also prevents the formation of blood clots, which can break off and travel to the heart or brain,
increasing the risk of heart attack or stroke.
Finally, nitric oxide plays a role in memory and learning. A deficiency of the compound
appears to be related to the development of learning problems. On the other hand, an excess of
nitric oxide has been implicated in the development of certain diseases, such as Huntington’s
chorea, an inherited disorder characterized by unusual body movements and memory loss, and
Alzheimer’s disease, a progressive disorder that results in memory loss.
When used to treat a medical condition, nitric oxide is usually administered in the form of a
solid or liquid medicine that decomposes in the body, releasing the compound. For example, the
drug nitroglycerin is used to treat heart problems. When it enters the bloodstream, nitroglycerin
begins to break down, releasing nitric oxide. The nitric oxide causes smooth muscle cells in the
heart to relax, relieving the symptoms of angina, chest pain caused by an inadequate flow of
blood to the heart. Other types of drugs produce nitric oxide to inhibit the buildup of fatty
deposits in blood vessels, which can lead to heart attack and stroke. Patients with pulmonary
hypertension, a condition in which the vessels that supply blood to the lungs are constricted,
preventing normal oxygen flow, are sometimes given an inhaler with a mixture of nitric oxide
and air to open blood vessels to the lungs.
In spite of its many benefits, nitric oxide may also be a health hazard. If inhaled in excessive
amounts, it may replace oxygen in the lungs, leading to asphyxia, suffocation resulting from an
insufficient supply of oxygen. Research suggests that exposure to low concentrations of the gas
over long periods of time may result in lung disease, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis. [15]
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide poses both safety and health hazards. As a strong oxidizing agent, it reacts
readily with combustible materials, such as paper, cloth, and other organic matter to produce
fires or explosions. It is also a toxic material, producing some biological effects at relatively low
concentrations in the air. These effects include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat; coughing;
congestion; chest pain; and breathing difficulties. The gas is sometimes referred to as an
insidious agent because its effects may go unnoticed for several hours or days, during which time
more serious damage may have occurred. This damage may include pulmonary edema, a
condition in which the lungs begin to fill with fluid; cyanosis, a condition in which the lips and
mucous membranes turn blue because of lack of oxygen; and a variety of heart problems. Long-
term exposure to nitrogen dioxide may result in chronic health problems, such as hemorrhaging
(blood loss), lung damage, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and eventually death. [15]
124
Nitric acid
Nitric acid is a highly toxic material. It attacks and destroys skin and other tissues, leaving a
distinctive yellow scar caused by the destruction of proteins in the skin or tissue. If swallowed,
inhaled, or spilled on the skin, it can cause a number of effects, including severe corrosive burns
to the mouth, throat, and stomach; severe irritation or burning of the upper respiratory system,
including nose, mouth, and throat; damage to the lungs; severe breathing problems; and burns to
the eye surface, conjunctivitis, and blindness. In the most severe cases, the acid can cause death.
[15] (For more information, see appendix A)
8.3 Hazard and Operability Studies
Figure 10 the three nodes chosen for HAZOP study
126
Node 1: Inlet to the Oxidation Unit (R-202)
Node No. 1: Start from the Cooler (E-201) to the Oxidation Unit (R-202)
Intention: To transport the multi gases to the Oxidation Unit
Guide
word Deviation Causes Consequences Action requires
None No flow  Flow control valve failure  No flow into the  Install low flow alarm
(closed, seat of plug broken, Oxidation unit  Install flow indicator and flow control
electrical signal fails)  No reaction valve
 Pipeline rupture  Plant emergency shutdown procedure
 Explosion
 Process stops  Check regularly (maintain), check
signal of control valve, operates by-
pass line
Less Less Flow  Partial plug or large leak in pipe  Product not according to  Install low flow alarm
 Valve not fully open the desire specifications
 Reduced production
Less  Cold weather  Product not according to  Install temperature indicator
Temperature  Temperature controller the desire specifications  Install low temperature alarm
malfunctioning
Less Pressure  Pressure controller  May cause change in the  Install pressure control
malfunctioning gas phase  Install low pressure alarm
 Pipe leakage
Cont’d Node 1
Guide Deviation Causes Consequences Action requires

word
More More Flow  Valve opened at full rate  Change in product  Install high level alarm
quality  Install flow indicator and flow control
 Some of gas exit without valve
reaction
More  Hold weather  Product not according to  Install high Temperature alarm
Temperature  Temperature controller the desired specification
malfunctioning  Reaction fail or run
away
More  Pressure controller  Increase pressure  Install pressure relief valve with
Pressure malfunctioning upstream automatic
 Partial blockage of line due to  Excess pressure (may  feed from temperature control system
partially closed valve cause explosion)  Install high pressure alarm
 Relief valve fails closed
128
Node 2: Inlet to Cooler (E-202)
Node No. 2: Start from the Oxidation Unit (R-202) to Cooler (E-202)
Intention: To transport the multi gases to Cooler
Guide
None No flow  Flow control valve failure  No product  Install low flow alarm
(closed, seat of plug broken,  Process stops  Install flow indicator and flow control
electrical signal fails) valve
 Pipeline rupture  Check regularly (maintain), check
signal of control valve, operates by-
pass line

Less Less Flow  Partial plug or large leak in pipe  Product not according to  Install low flow alarm
 Valve not fully open the desire specifications
 Reduced production
 Overheated flow
Less  Cold weather  Product not according to  Install temperature indicator

Temperature  Temperature controller the desire specifications  Install low temperature alarm
malfunctioning  cooler outlet
 Less flow temperature from temperature less than the
oxidation unit desired
Less Pressure  Pressure controller  May cause reverse in  Install pressure control
malfunctioning flow  Install low pressure alarm
 Pipe leakage
Cont’d Node 2
Guide
More Flow  Process rate changes  Reduce Heat transfer  Install high level alarm
efficiency  Install flow indicator and flow control
 Process fails valve
More  Hot weather  The output flow has  Install high Temperature alarm
Temperature  Fire near the stream high temperature than
 Temperature controller desired
malfunctioning
 High flow temperature from the  Fails process
oxidation unit
More
More  Pressure controller  Increase pressure  Install pressure relief valve with
Pressure malfunctioning upstream automatic feed from temperature
 Partial blockage of line due to control system
partially closed valve  Excess pressure (may  Install high pressure alarm
 Relief valve fails closed cause explosion)
 cooler fails
130
Node 3: Inlet to Absorber (T-201)
Node No. 3: Start from the Cooler (E-202) to Absorber (T-201)
Intention: To transport the multi gases to Absorber (T-201)
Guide
None No flow  Flow control valve failure  No Absorption in the  Install low flow alarm
(closed, seat of plug broken, column  Plant emergency shutdown procedure.
electrical signal fails)  Entire process stops as  Check signal of control valve, operates
 Pipeline rupture tail-gas row stops by-pass line
Less Less Flow  Partial plug or large leak in pipe.  The production of Nitric  Install low flow alarm
 Valve not fully open. acid will be less
 Decreased absorption
Less  Reaction gas temperature in  Increased dissolved  Install temperature indicator

Temperature oxidation unit lower NOx  Install low temperature alarm
 Concentration of the
product will be higher
Less Pressure  Gas Release (line rupture)  Less efficiency of NOx  Install pressure control
absorbed  Install low pressure alarm
Cont’d Node 3
Guide
More More Flow  Valve opened at full rate  Possible reduction in  Install high level alarm
absorption efficiency  Install flow indicator and flow control
 May cause flooding valve
More  Higher feed rates causing larger  Reduce absorption  Install high Temperature alarm
Temperature heat of reaction efficiency
 Higher NOx emission

due to lower absorption
More  Pressure controller  More NOx absorebed  Install pressure relief valve with
Pressure malfunctioning automatic feed from temperature
 Flooding control system
 Relief valve fails closed  Install high pressure alarm
132
Chapter 9
Waste Treatment
What Is NOx?
Most of the world’s nitrogen occurs naturally in the atmosphere as an inert gas
contained in air, which consists of approximately 78% N2 by volume. NOx refers to
oxides of nitrogen. These generally include nitrogen monoxide, also known as nitric
oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). They may also include nitrous oxide (N2O),
also known as laughing gas, as well as other less common combinations of nitrogen and
oxygen, such as nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and nitrogen pent oxide (N2O5).
The EPA defines nitrogen oxides as “all oxides of nitrogen except nitrous oxide.1”
In most high-temperature heating applications; the majority of the NOx exiting the
exhaust stack is in the form of nitric oxide (NO).
What is Wrong with NOx?
Health hazards: NO is poisonous to humans and can cause irritation of the eyes and
throat, tightness of the chest, nausea, headache, and gradual loss of strength. Prolonged
exposure to NO can cause violent coughing, difficulty in breathing, and cyanosis; it
could be fatal. NO2 is a reddish-brown, highly reactive gas that has a suffocating odor
and is a strong oxidizing agent. It is highly toxic and hazardous because of its ability to
cause delayed chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary edema. NO2 vapors are a strong
irritant to the pulmonary tract.
Ground level ozone: Ozone (O3) is present in the upper atmosphere and is desirable as
it shields the earth against high-intensity ultraviolet rays from the sun. However, ozone
in the lower atmosphere is undesirable. There, NO reacts with oxygen to form ozone, in
addition to NO2:
NO + HC + O2 + sunlight → NO2 + O3
Ozone is also a health hazard that can cause respiratory problems in humans. It is an
irritant to the eye, nose, and throat. Ozone can cause damage to plants including crops
and deterioration of textiles and other materials.
Acid rain: Rain is effective at removing NO2 from the atmosphere. However, NO2
decomposes on contact with water to produce nitrous acid (HNO2) and nitric acid
(HNO3), which are highly corrosive . NO is the predominant form of NOx produced in
industrial combustion processes. It reacts with O2 in the atmosphere to form NO2.
When NO2 forms in the atmosphere and comes into contact with water in the form of
134
rain, nitric acid is formed. Acid rain is destructive to anything it contacts, including
plants, trees, and man-made structures like buildings, bridges, and the like.
Smog: Another problem with NO2 is its contribution to smog. Smog is the combination
of smoke and fog and occurs where there are high concentrations of pollutants
combined with fog. Smog impairs visibility through the atmosphere. When sunlight
contacts a mixture of NO2 and unburned hydrocarbons in the atmosphere,
photochemical smog is produced.
Figure L: Acid rain
Figure K: Smog
Nitrogen Oxide Pollution
The nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 which make up NOx have long been known as
precursors of acid rain and smog. While ever more stringent emission limits apply in
many countries there are still a large number of nitric acid plants, which have no NOx
abatement equipment installed. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas being
about 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Even though nitric acid plants
represent the largest single industrial process source of this gas, most countries have not
yet imposed emission limits on N2O, although steps in this direction are being made, for
example, in the European Union. As nitric acid plants are point sources for N2O and
NOx emissions they make good candidates for the implementation of cost effective
greenhouse gas and NOx emission reduction technologies.
Uhde Technologies for NOx and N2O Abatement
1. Uhde DeNOx process: NOx reduction with ammonia:
It was found that one of the iron zeolites materials tested was a very efficient catalyst
for the selective reduction of NOx (NO and NO2) with ammonia. This catalyst has the
advantage that it can be used over a large range of temperatures, from ~200°C to over
500°C, while classical vanadium-pent oxide-based SCR catalysts for nitric acid plants
generally cannot be used at temperatures much above ~400°C. A further advantage is
that it generates no N2O, again in contrast to vanadium pent oxide, which is reported to
produced N2O at temperatures above 350°C (Jouannic etal.1984).
This is the basis of the Uhde DeNOx process, which has a similar ammonia
consumption to classical SCR/DeNOx processes, is applicable over a wider range of
temperatures and, in contrast to frequently used classical SRC/DeNOx catalyst
materials, contains no environmentally hazardous substances, thus simplifying handling
and disposal. The Uhde DeNOx process can be very conveniently combined with N2O
abatement as described below
2. EnviNOx® process variant 1: N2O decomposition with NOX reduction:
The iron zeolite catalysts investigated decompose N2O into its elements. An
important phenomenon is that the rate of decomposition is greatly enhanced when NOx
is present in the waste gas stream. This fact, combined with the NOx reducing
136
properties of the iron zeolite catalysts, is exploited in the EnviNOx® process variant 1,
which is illustrated in Figure 13.
The EnviNOx® reactor is typically located in the tail gas stream on the inlet side of
the tail gas turbine where the tail gas temperature is at its highest. Because of the high
NOx concentration in the tail gas entering the reactor, a very large proportion of the
incoming N2O is catalytically decomposed to nitrogen and oxygen in the first bed.
Ammonia is mixed with the tail gas between the beds, the ammonia distribution and
mixing equipment being incorporated into the reactor. In the second bed the NOX is
reduced to the level required for emission to atmosphere and some further
decomposition of N2O also takes place.
Figure 13 EnviNOx® process variant 1: Combined N2O and NOX abatement for nitric acid plants
using N2O decomposition and NOX reduction with ammonia
EnviNOx® process variant 1 is currently suitable for tail gas temperatures between
about 425°C and 520°C. High rates of N2O removal are possible with 98% typically
achieved in commercial installations and NOX emissions can be reduced to low levels
depending on the amount of ammonia supplied, with 5 – 40 ppmv being usual. As with
the Uhde DeNOx process ammonia consumption is similar to that of classical
SCR/DeNOx processes.
3. EnviNOx® process variant 2: N2O & NOX reduction by hydrocarbons & NH3
There are, of course, a great many nitric acid plants with tail gas temperatures below
425°C. The solution for a large number of these plants is the EnviNOx® process variant
2, which relies on another significant phenomenon, which was intensively investigated
during development work. While N2O in nitric acid tail gas can be reduced by reaction
with a hydrocarbon over certain iron zeolite catalysts, the effectiveness of the reduction
is greatly enhanced if the NOx is removed almost entirely from the tail gas. Even a few
ppm of NOx is sufficient to cause strong inhibition of the reactions of hydrocarbons
with N2O. This property combined with the NOX reducing properties of the iron zeolite
catalysts with ammonia leads to the EnviNOx® process variant 2, depicted in Figure 14.
Figure 14 EnviNOx® process variant 2: Combined N2O and NOX abatement for nitricacid plants
using N2O reduction with hydrocarbons and NOX reduction with ammonia
Ammonia is mixed with the tail gas entering the EnviNOx® reactor in such an
amount that NOx is completely reduced in the first DeNOx bed. The virtually NOx free
tail gas is then mixed with a hydrocarbon and passed over the second catalyst bed where
the N2O is reduced to a very low level by reaction with the hydrocarbon. Tail gas with
nearly no NOx and a very low concentration of N2O leaves the reactor. It is important to
recognize that the hydrocarbon acts as a chemical reagent and is not used as a fuel to
138
raise the temperature of the catalyst to a level at which high rates of N 2O decomposition
can occur. Because of their favourable costs and availability the hydrocarbons of choice
are natural gas or propane. Consumptions of both ammonia and hydrocarbon are quite
moderate. The EnviNOx® process variant 2 works best at temperatures between about
340°C and ~520°C.
4. Uhde DeN2O® process: N2O decomposition without NOX abatement
If there is no requirement to lower NOx emissions, the N2O decomposition catalyst

described above can be used on its own. The catalyst achieves high N2O abatement
performance up to temperatures of about 600°C, substantially increasing the range of
nitric acid plants which can be equipped with N2O abatement. In such plants a NOx
abatement unit can also be installed if necessary, provided an appropriate tail gas
temperature level between about 200°C and 500°C is available.
Conclusion
The EnviNOx® process for the combined abatement of NOx and N2O emissions
from nitric acid plants has proven itself in installations around the world which are now
operating at temperatures between 340°C and 510°C. Typically, N2O emissions are
reduced by ~98% – 99% while NOX emission levels of 1 to ~25 ppmv are achieved,
depending on the process variant.
The EnviNOx® process can be applied in nitric acid plants with tail gas temperatures
between about 340°C and 600°C covering an estimated 70% – 80% of all nitric acid
production worldwide. For many of the nitric acid plants with tail gas temperatures
outside this range, relatively simple plant modifications are possible to enable a nitrous
oxide abatement system to be installed.
The EnviNOx® process can thus make a useful contribution to lowering greenhouse gas
emissions.
EnviNOx® is an “operator friendly” technology since the EnviNOx® catalysts are easy
to handle, environmentally uncontroversial materials with a long operating lifetime.
Furthermore as an end-of-pipe process EnviNOx® does not interact in any way with the
plant product or its precursors.
Conclusion
In conclusion, setting up 100000 tons per year of nitric acid production plant in
Saudi Arabia is very feasible and attractive in order to meet high demand of ammonia in
this region. Ras Alkhair industrial city is identified as the most ideal location for the
new petrochemical plant. All the desired criteria for the construction of the plant in Ras
Alkhair are met and the necessary facilities for plant expansion are also available.
In order to produce the required capacity 100000 tons per year of nitric acid while
the amount of ammonia required 2335.88 kg/hr while the amount of air needed
43537.52 kg/hr.
Designing and sizing for equipment used are prepared in Equipment Specification
Sheet which provide the design and size estimation for chosen equipment.
A highly integrated process control system is also included to the proposed plant.
Control systems are essential to ensure the plant operates in safe manner and achieves
the desired production. The control system proposed are all feedback and cascade
model, which can correct the error continuously to serve better control objectives. All
equipment has been covered and proper control strategy and design have been proposed.
In designing the proposed plant, various safety factors and procedures such as
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP), plant start up and shut down procedures,
maintenance and inspection of each equipment as well as control system design were
taken into consideration. However, it is recommended that further studies in this area is
needed unceasingly to ensure operational safety of the plant. Safety aspects are also
been considered in recommending the plant layout.
In responding to the environmental obligation, the plant has been designed to achieve
the target of waste minimization while achieving cost minimization at the same time.
From our economic and cost estimation analysis, the expected payback period is
(3.43) years. The economic analysis of the process flowsheet indicated that the ROI is
about 20.5%. The project is worth investing.
140
Finally, it can be concluded that the construction of a 100,000 tons per year of nitric
acid production plant in Ras Alkhair is technically feasible and economically attractive.
Encouragement from the Saudi government investment with various incentives offered
serves as another factor that contribute to the feasibility of the plant.
References
1- Krick Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology", VoL.15, 3th Edition, Jonh Wiley,1982
2- George Charles Lowrison,"Fertilizer Technology",Eillis Horwood Limited,1989
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Corporation", 1964.
5- Howard F. Rase, "Chemical Reactor Design For Process Plants",Vol. one & two, John Wiley, 1977
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and Design of Chemical Processes ",3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2009
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Enviroment: Http://www.pme.gov.sa
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Http://www.siri.org
13- Richard M. Felder, Ronald W. Rousseau, " Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes ", Third
edition,2005
14- Fritz Ullmann, “ Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry “,John Wiley and Sons, 1999
15- Neil S. Chlager, Jayne Weisblatt, and David E. Newton, “Chemical Compounds”, 2001
16- Max. S. Peters, Klans D. Timmerhans, "Plan Design and Econmics for chemical Engineering 3-rd
Ed, McGraw-Hill, 1990.
17- Christie J. Geankoplis, “ Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles “, 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2003
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Thermodynamics", 7th Edition, McCraw-Hill,2005
19- W. S. Norman, "Absorption, Distillation and Cooling Tower", Longmans,1962
142
Appendix A (12)
(Material Safety Data)
144
146
148
150
Appendix B (13)
(Physical Properties Data)
152
154
156
158
160
Appendix C
(Detailed Mass Balance Calculation)
162
Overall Material Balance
NH3 + 2O2  HNO3 + H2O
Conversion: 95%
HNO3:
7500
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = 119.048 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
63
NH3:
1
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 137.405 − (119.048) = 18.357 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
1
O2:
0 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛 − 2 (119.048) => 238.096 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛
Excess 20 %
𝐹𝑖𝑛 = 285.715 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 285.715 − 238.096 = 47.619𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
N2:
285.715 × 32 × 0.79
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = 1228.38 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
28 × 0.21
H2O:
1
0.05𝐹𝑖𝑛 + 277.778 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛 + (119.048)
1
𝐹𝑖𝑛 = 167.084 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
Reactor Material Balance
1) 4NH3 + 5O2  4NO + 6H2O
Conversion: 95%
𝐸1 = 0.95 × 137.405 = 130.535
2) 4NH3 + 3O2  2N2 + 6H2O
Conversion: 5%
𝐸2 = 0.05 × 137.405 = 6.87
NH3:
4 4
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 137.405 − (130.535) − (6.87) = 0
4 4
O2:
5 3
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 285.715 − (130.535) − (6.87) = 117.393 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
4 4
N2:
2
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1228.38 + (6.87) = 1231.815 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
4
NO:
4
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 + (130.535) = 130.535 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
4
H2O:
6 6
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 + (130.535) + (6.87) = 206.107 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
4 4
164
Oxidation Material Balance
2NO + O2  2NO2
Conversion: 96%
𝐸 = 0.96 × 130.535 = 125.313
NO:
2
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 130.535 − (125.313) = 5.222 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
2
NO2:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 + 125.313 = 125.313 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
O2:
1
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 117.393 − (125.313) = 54.736 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
2
H2O:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 206.107 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
N2:
Absorber Material Balance
2NO2 + H2O + ½ O2 2HNO3
Conversion = 95%
𝐸 = 0.95 × 125.313 = 119.048 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
No2:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 125.313 – 2⁄2 × (119.048) = 6.265 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
HNO3:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 + 119.0475 = 119.0475 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
H2O:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 373.191 − 1⁄2 × (119.0475) = 313.667 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
NO:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5.222 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
O2:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 54.736 − 0.5⁄2 × (119.0475) = 24.974 𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
N2:
166
Appendix D
(Detailed Energy Balance Calculation)
Energy Balance
Vaporizer Energy Balance
S4 S5
E-101
For S4: NH3 at -15 oC and S5: NH3 at 35 oC
Tref = -15 oC
𝑄̇ = ∑ 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑ 𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑖𝑛

𝑄̇ = ∑ 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 0
𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑖 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑛[∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 + 𝜆 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇]
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑇𝑏𝑜𝑖
𝑇2
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑎(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇22 − 𝑇12 ) + (𝑇23 − 𝑇13 ) + (𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
𝑇1 2 3 4
1133.642
∑ 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1000 × 137.405[1.78 + ( × 17) + 0.07232]
1000
∑ 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄̇ = 2902575.37 𝐾𝐽/ℎ

−15
∑ 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 0
−15
168
Compressor Energy Balance
S1 S3
C-101
For S1: Air at 101 kPa and S3: Air at 1090 kPa
𝑃2
𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑄1 ln
𝑃1
𝑃2
𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑚(𝑎𝑖𝑟) ln
𝑃1
36000 1090
𝑊 = 101 ( ) ln
1.178 101
𝑊 = 8879734.37 kJ/h
𝑊 = 8879734.37 kJ/h (This is the mechanical energy required by the compressor)
Superheater Energy Balance
S5 S6
E-102
For S5: NH3 at 35 oC and S6: NH3 at 177 oC
𝑄 = ∑𝑛 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑𝑛 𝐻𝑖𝑛
𝑇2
𝐻 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
𝑇2
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑎(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇22 − 𝑇12 ) + (𝑇23 − 𝑇13 ) + (𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
𝑇1 2 3 4
Tref = 35 ○C
𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 137.405 × 1000 × 5.442 = 747758.01 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 – 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 = 747758.01 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
170
Mixer Energy Balance
S3
S7
S6
M-101
For S3: NH3 at 177 oC, S6: Air at 262 oC and S7: NH3+Air at ?
𝑄 = 0 (𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐)
Energy required to heat ammonia = Energy lost by air
𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ) = 𝑚𝐶𝑝(𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 )
𝐶𝑝 (𝑁𝐻3 ) = 2.38 𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔. 𝑜𝐶
𝐶𝑝(𝐴𝑖𝑟) = 1.05 𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔. 𝑜𝐶
2335.88 × 2.38 × (𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 177) = 43537.52 × 1.05 × (262 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 250𝐶
Reactor Energy Balance
S7
S8
R-201
For S7: NH3+Air at 250 oC and S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC
𝑄 = ∑ 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 – 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑ 𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑖𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡1) ∆𝐻𝑟1 + 𝑛(𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡2) ∆𝐻𝑟2
1) 4NH3+5O2  4NO+6H2O (1)

Conversion=95%
2) 4NH3+3O2  2N2+6H2O (2)

Conversion=5%
𝛥𝐻𝑟 = 𝛴(𝐹𝛥𝐻𝑓)𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 − 𝛴(𝐹𝛥𝐻𝑓)𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝛥𝐻𝑟1 = −904.74 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Based on (NO):
𝛥𝐻𝑟1 = −904.74/4 = −226.185 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝛥𝐻𝑟2 = −1266.22 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Based on (H2O):
𝛥𝐻𝑟2 = −1266.22/6 = −211 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑖𝑛 + 𝛥𝐻𝑟
𝑇2
𝑇1
𝑇2
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑎(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇22 − 𝑇12 ) + (𝑇23 − 𝑇13 ) + (𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
𝑇1 2 3 4
172
Tref = 25oC

(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
H (Air) 6.654 19
H (NH3) 8.84 -
H (NO) - 19.744
H (H2O) - 23
𝑄 = 21192906.91 + 𝐹(𝑁𝑂)𝑜𝑢𝑡. 𝛥𝐻𝑟1 + 𝐹(𝐻2 𝑂)𝑜𝑢𝑡. 𝛥𝐻𝑟2

𝑄 = −51820729.07 𝑘𝐽/ℎ
Heat Exchanger Energy Balance (1st Cooler)
S8 S9
E-201
For S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC and S9: Air+NO+H2O at 70 oC

𝑄 = 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑖𝑛
Tref = 70℃
𝐻(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
Input:
645
𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑑
𝐻=∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇2 − 𝑇12 ) + (𝑇23 − 𝑇13 ) + (𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
70 2 3 4
For air
645
0.4147 × 10−5
𝐻 = ∫ cp dt = 28.94 × 10−3 (645 − 70) + ( )(6452 − 702 )
2
70
0.3191 × 10−8 1.965 × 10−12

+ (6453 − 703 ) − (6454 − 704 ) = 17.693
3 4
For No:
645
𝐻 = ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 18.400
70
For H2O:
645
𝐻 = ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 21.173
70
𝑄 = −[(1318 × 1000 × 17.963) + (130.535 × 1000 × 18.4) + (206.107 × 1000 × 21.17)]

𝑄 = −30084503.19 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
174
Oxidation Energy Balance
S9
R-202
S 10
For S9: Air+NO+H2O at 70 oC and S10: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 140 oC

2NO+O2  2NO2
Conversion=96%

𝛥𝐻𝑟 = −113.14 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Based on (NO2):
𝛥𝐻𝑟 = −113.14/2 = −56.57 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑖𝑛 + 𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝛥𝐻𝑟
𝑇2
𝑇1
𝑇2
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑎(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇22 − 𝑇12 ) + (𝑇23 − 𝑇13 ) + (𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
𝑇1 2 3 4
Tref = 25oC
(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g) 1.521 3.919
H (Air) 1.312 3.37
H (NO) 1.345 3.47
H (NO2) - 4.5
𝑄 = −3707006.24 𝑘𝐽/ℎ
Heat Exchanger Energy Balance (2nd cooler)
S 10
S 11
E-202
For S10: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 140 oC and S11: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 60 oC
Tref =60oC
𝑄 = 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑖𝑛
𝑇2
𝑇1
𝑇2
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑎(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + (𝑇22 − 𝑇12 ) + (𝑇23 − 𝑇13 ) + (𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
𝑇1 2 3 4
𝐻(𝑜𝑢𝑡) = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
Input:
For H2O
140
𝐻 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 2.737 kJ/mol
60
For air
140
𝐻 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 2.350 kJ/mol
60
176
For NO
140
𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 2.4230𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐻= ∫
60
For NO2
140
𝐻 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 3.1796 kJ/mol
60
𝑄 = −3911927.94 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
Absorber Energy Balance
S 12
S 14
T-201
S 11
S 13
Basis: Tref = 25oC

For S11: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 60 oC, S14: H2O at 20 oC, S12: Air+NO+H2O at 30 oC and S13:
HNO3+H2O at 30 oC
1
3NO2+H2O + 2 O2 2HNO3
Conversion =95%
𝛥𝐻𝑟 = −435.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Based on (HNO3):
𝛥𝐻𝑟 = −435.6/2 = −217.8 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 = 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝛴(𝐹𝐻)𝑖𝑛 + 𝑛𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝛥𝐻𝑟
𝑇2
𝑇1
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝐻 = 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑇 2 + 𝑇 3 + 𝑇 4
2 3 4
178
Tref = 25oC
(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g) 1.18 - 0.166 -
H (H2O) (L) - -0.375 - 0.375
H (Air) 1.02 - 0.145 -
H (NO) 1.044 - 0.149 -
H (NO2) 1.32 - - -
H (HNO3) - - - 0.55
𝑄 = −29876241 𝐾𝐽/ℎ
Appendix E
(Equipment Design References)
180
Table A: Typical overall coefficients
Shell and tube exchangers

Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2.oC)
Heat exchanger
Water Water 800-1500
Organic solvents Organic solvents 100-300
Light oils Light oils 100-400
Heavy oils Heavy oils 50-300
Gases Gases 10-50
Coolers
Organic solvents Water 250-750
Light oils Water 350-900
Heavy oils Water 60-300
Gases Water 20-300
Organic solvents Brine 150-500
Water Brine 600-1200
Gases Brine 15-250
Heaters
Steam Water 1500-4000
Steam Organic solvents 500-1000
Steam Light oils 300-900
Steam Heavy oils 60-450
Steam Gases 30-300
Dowtherm Heavy oils 50-300
Dowtherm Gases 20-300
Flue gases Steam 30-100
Flue Hydrocarbon vapor 30-100
Condensers
Aqueous vapors Water 1000-1500
Organic vapors Water 700-1000
Organic (some non-
condensable) Water 500-700
Vacuum condensers Water 200-500
Vaporizers
Steam Aqueous solutions 1000-1500
Steam Light organics 900-1200
Steam Heavy organics 600-900
Table B: Fouling factors (coefficients), Typical values
Fluid Coefficient (W/m2.oC)

River water 3000-12000
Sea water 1000-3000
Cooling water (towers) 3000-6000
Towns water (soft) 3000-5000
Towns water (hard) 1000-2000
Steam condensate 1500-5000
Steam (oil free) 4000-10000
Steam (oil traces) 2000-5000
Refrigerated brine 3000-5000
Air and industrial gases 5000-10000
Flue gases 2000-5000
Organic vapors 5000
Organic liquids 5000
Light hydrocarbons 5000
Heavy hydrocarbons 2000
Boiling organics 2500
Condensing organics 5000
Heat transfer fluids 5000
Aqueous salt solutions 3000-5000
Table C: Triangular pitch constants for use
Triangular pitch pt = 1.25do

No. 1 2 4 6 8
Passes
K1 0.319 0.249 0.175 0.0743 0.0365
n1 2.142 2.207 2.285 2.499 2.675
182
Figure A: Shell-bundle clearance
Figure B: Shell side heat transfer factors, segmental baffles

Figure C: Compressor operating ranges
Figure D: Approximate polytrophic efficiency of centrifugal and axial compressor
184
Appendix F
(Computer Simulation by CHEMCAD)
Note: No Absorber column in CHEMECAD. So, we choose Reactor & Distillation
186
CHEMCAD 5.1.3 Page 1
Job Name: nitric acid Date: 12/21/2013 Time: 17:03:43
Stream No. 1 2 3 4
Name
- - Overall - -
Molar flow kmol/h 1513.4900 1513.4900 137.1546 1650.6446
Mass flow kg/h 43537.5214 43537.5214 2335.8798 45873.3981
Temp C 25.0000 426.6417 177.0000 397.9546
Pres kPa 101.3000 1240.0000 1240.0000 1060.0000
Vapor mole fraction 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Enth kcal/h -2407.9 4.3619E+006 -1.3266E+006 3.0352E+006
Tc C -142.3629 -142.3629 132.5000 -122.8054
Pc kPa 3580.9491 3580.9491 11278.4833 3657.0015
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1 0.860 0.860 0.619 0.843
Std. sp gr. air = 1 0.993 0.993 0.588 0.960
Degree API 33.0631 33.0631 96.9616 36.3168
Average mol wt 28.7663 28.7663 17.0310 27.7912
Actual dens kg/m3 1.1758 6.1004 5.7967 5.2582
Actual vol m3/h 37026.8361 7136.8696 402.9700 8724.1045
Std liq m3/h 50.6795 50.6795 3.7749 54.4544
Std vap 0 C m3/h 33922.8318 33922.8318 3074.1346 36996.9653
- - Vapor only - -
Molar flow kmol/h 1513.4900 1513.4900 137.1546 1650.6446
Mass flow kg/h 43537.5214 43537.5214 2335.8798 45873.3981
Average mol wt 28.7663 28.7663 17.0310 27.7912
Actual dens kg/m3 1.1758 6.1004 5.7967 5.2582
Actual vol m3/h 37026.8361 7136.8696 402.9700 8724.1045
Std liq m3/h 50.6795 50.6795 3.7749 54.4544
Std vap 0 C m3/h 33922.8318 33922.8318 3074.1346 36996.9653
Cp kcal/kmol-C 7.0023 7.4548 9.9937 7.7200
Z factor 0.9999 1.0051 0.9735 1.0042
Visc Pa-sec 1.826e-005 3.386e-005 1.580e-005 3.227e-005
Th cond kcal/h-m-C 0.0219 0.0447 0.0398 0.0460
Stream No. 5 6 7 8
Name
- - Overall - -
Molar flow kmol/h 1684.9333 1684.9333 1622.3906 1622.3907
Mass flow kg/h 45873.2316 45873.2316 45873.1642 45873.1678
Temp C 957.1419 70.0000 104.1766 60.0000
Pres kPa 1060.0000 1060.0000 1060.0000 1060.0000
Enth kcal/h 3.0352E+006 -1.0178E+007 -1.0178E+007 -1.2225E+007
Tc C -93.0223 -93.0223 -73.2175 -73.2175
Pc kPa 2905.8708 2905.8708 3100.2549 3100.2545
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1 0.847 0.847 0.882 0.882
Std. sp gr. air = 1 0.940 0.940 0.976 0.976
Degree API 35.5966 35.5966 28.9246 28.9247
Average mol wt 27.2255 27.2255 28.2750 28.2750
Actual dens kg/m3 2.8143 11.1596 9.7690 12.1854
Actual vol m3/h 16299.9875 4110.6495 4695.7688 3764.5903
Std liq m3/h 54.2205 54.2205 52.0554 52.0554
Std vap 0 C m3/h 37765.5022 37765.5022 36363.6909 36363.6944
- - Vapor only - -
Molar flow kmol/h 1684.9333 1524.9087 1593.0640 1444.2333
Mass flow kg/h 45873.2316 42990.3889 45344.8463 42654.5080
Average mol wt 27.2255 28.1921 28.4639 29.5344
Actual dens kg/m3 2.8143 10.4658 9.6577 11.3403
Actual vol m3/h 16299.9875 4107.7002 4695.2154 3761.3197
Std liq m3/h 54.2205 51.3372 51.5270 48.8410
Std vap 0 C m3/h 37765.5022 34178.7630 35706.3755 32370.5377
Cp kcal/kmol-C 8.3271 7.1471 7.5261 7.3563
Z factor 1.0026 1.0009 0.9960 0.9968
Visc Pa-sec 4.840e-005 1.986e-005 2.043e-005 1.911e-005
Th cond kcal/h-m-C 0.0745 0.0250 0.0523 0.0406
- - Liquid only - -
Molar flow kmol/h 160.0246 29.3266 178.1574
Mass flow kg/h 2882.8427 528.3180 3218.6598
Average mol wt 18.0150 18.0150 18.0664
Actual dens kg/m3 977.4477 954.7504 984.0946
Actual vol m3/h 2.9494 0.5534 3.2707
Std liq m3/h 2.8833 0.5284 3.2144
Std vap 0 C m3/h 3586.7355 657.3158 3993.1563
Cp kcal/kmol-C 18.0725 18.2167 18.0877
Z factor 0.0091 0.0086 0.0094
Visc Pa-sec 0.0004115 0.0002687 0.0004782
Th cond kcal/h-m-C 0.5648 0.5833 0.5542
Surf tens N/m 0.0642 0.0578 0.0657
188
Stream No. 9 10 11 12
Name
- - Overall - -
Molar flow kmol/h 1533.2676 166.9448 1700.2124 1274.8711
Mass flow kg/h 45873.2493 3007.5101 48880.7581 35693.1056
Temp C 83.4790 25.0000 81.9617 -168.2483
Pres kPa 1060.0000 101.3000 1060.0000 1060.0000
Enth kcal/h -1.2225E+007 -1.1412E+007 -2.3638E+007 -4.0263E+006
Tc C -61.2340 374.2000 -30.2339 -142.3805
Pc kPa 6126.5270 22118.2302 5555.8245 3356.5915
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1 0.894 1.001 0.900 0.815
Std. sp gr. air = 1 1.033 0.622 0.993 0.967
Degree API 26.6962 9.8949 25.6625 42.0561
Average mol wt 29.9186 18.0150 28.7498 27.9974
Actual dens kg/m3 11.3094 996.7087 12.2125 665.4294
Actual vol m3/h 4056.2009 3.0174 4002.5238 53.6392
Std liq m3/h 51.3324 3.0080 54.3404 43.8188
Std vap 0 C m3/h 34366.1179 3741.8412 38107.9591 28574.5104
- - Vapor only - -
Molar flow kmol/h 1457.2828 1442.0068
Mass flow kg/h 44273.8775 43542.4315
Average mol wt 30.3810 30.1956
Actual dens kg/m3 10.9193 10.8929
Actual vol m3/h 4054.6525 3997.3251
Std liq m3/h 49.8439 49.3320
Std vap 0 C m3/h 32663.1003 32320.7496
Cp kcal/kmol-C 7.7917 7.7344
Z factor 0.9948 0.9953
Visc Pa-sec 1.851e-005 1.858e-005
Th cond kcal/h-m-C 0.0249 0.0249
- - Liquid only - -
Molar flow kmol/h 75.9847 166.9448 258.2056 1274.8711
Mass flow kg/h 1599.3718 3007.5101 5338.3266 35693.1056
Average mol wt 21.0496 18.0150 20.6751 27.9974
Actual dens kg/m3 1032.9471 996.7087 1026.8606 665.4294
Actual vol m3/h 1.5484 3.0174 5.1987 53.6392
Std liq m3/h 1.4886 3.0080 5.0084 43.8188
Std vap 0 C m3/h 1703.0165 3741.8412 5787.2082 28574.5104
Cp kcal/kmol-C 19.3733 18.0248 19.2078 18.6700
Z factor 0.0099 0.0010 0.0098 0.0511
Visc Pa-sec 0.0003485 0.0009227 0.0003542 0.0001005
Th cond kcal/h-m-C 0.5132 0.5215 0.5190 0.0777
Surf tens N/m 0.0560 0.0721 0.0569 0.0033
Stream No. 13 14 15
Name
- - Overall - -
Molar flow kmol/h 425.3410 137.1546 137.1546
Mass flow kg/h 13187.6533 2335.8798 2335.8798
Temp C 95.7593 -15.0000 35.0000
Pres kPa 1060.0000 1240.0000 1240.0000
Vapor mole fraction 0.0000 0.0000 1.000
Enth kcal/h -2.4990E+007 -2.3156E+006 -1.5163E+006
Tc C 311.1441 132.5000 132.5000
Pc kPa 12082.3953 11278.4833 11278.4833
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1 1.255 0.619 0.619
Std. sp gr. air = 1 1.071 0.588 0.588
Degree API -18.7077 96.9616 96.9616
Average mol wt 31.0049 17.0310 17.0310
Actual dens kg/m3 1164.9129 656.6747 9.1153
Actual vol m3/h 11.3207 3.5571 256.2590
Std liq m3/h 10.5216 3.7749 3.7749
Std vap 0 C m3/h 9533.4425 3074.1346 3074.1346
- - Vapor only - -
Molar flow kmol/h 137.1546
Mass flow kg/h 2335.8798
Average mol wt 17.0310
Actual dens kg/m3 9.1153
Actual vol m3/h 256.2590
Std liq m3/h 3.7749
Std vap 0 C m3/h 3074.1346
Cp kcal/kmol-C 9.6843
Z factor 0.9044
Visc Pa-sec 1.072e-005
Th cond kcal/h-m-C 0.0240
- - Liquid only - -
Molar flow kmol/h 425.3410 137.1546
Mass flow kg/h 13187.6533 2335.8798
Average mol wt 31.0049 17.0310
Actual dens kg/m3 1164.9129 656.6747
Actual vol m3/h 11.3207 3.5571
Std liq m3/h 10.5216 3.7749
Std vap 0 C m3/h 9533.4425 3074.1346
Cp kcal/kmol-C 23.8315 19.5609
Z factor 0.0131 0.0190
Visc Pa-sec 0.0003193 0.0002027
Th cond kcal/h-m-C 0.3885 0.4913
Surf tens N/m 0.0415 0.0299
190

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Nitric Acid Project Final PDF

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Production of Nitric Acid for Fertilizer

Submitted in partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor

It is required to design a suitable process for the production of 100,000-ton/year of

The objectives of this design project include the following:

1.1 Backgrounds and History

1.2 The Nitric Acid Production Processes:

All commercially produced nitric acid is now prepared by the oxidation of

These two main Processes are:

1.2.1 The Single-Pressure Process

The Single-Pressure process was developed to take full advantage of operating

1.2.2 The Dual-Pressure Process

The dual-pressure process was developed to take advantage of two factors:

(Factors Favoring the Single-Pressure Process)

1.2.4 Process Selection Conclusions

1.3. Main Uses of Nitric Acid

1.4. Physical Properties

1.6. Safety Properties

1.7. Market Survey

1.7.1 Economic Outlook

Figure 1 World producers of nitric acid [2]

Table 1: Prices of raw materials and product

Component Price per ton Total Price

Total Profit = 40000000 - 9343540 - 963 = $30655497

1.8 Preliminary Hazard Analysis

1.8.1 Summary of Previous Plant Accident

Figure 3 Post-explosion aerial photograph of the Port Neal plant [2]

1.8.2 Inherent Safety Aspects

Taking into consideration the inherent safety aspects such as substitution of

The following hazards may arise during nitric acid production:

Most of the large accidents in chemical or petrochemicals plants happen in the

1.8.3 Local Safety and Environmental Regulations

(Nitrogen oxides defined as nitrogen dioxide NO2)

Table 2: Information of site location

2.2 Overall Mass Balance

Table 3: Summery of overall mass balance

Component Input S1 Input S2 Output S14 Output S12 Output S13

H2O - - 3007.51 646.00 5000.00

Table 4: Summery of reactor mass balance

Component Input S7 Output S8

Table 5: Summery of oxidation mass balance

Component Input S9 Output S10

Table 6: Summery of absorber mass balance

Component Input S11 Input S14 Output S12 Output S13

For S4: NH3 at -15 oC and S5: NH3 at 35 oC

∑ 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1.78 𝐾𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

For S5: NH3 at 35 oC and S6: NH3 at 177 oC

For S7: NH3+Air at 250 oC and S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC

Table 7: Summary of enthalpy components in reactor

Component Input S7 Output S8

For S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC and S9: Air+NO+H2O at 70 oC

For air: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 17.693 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

For S9: Air+NO+H2O at 70 oC and S10: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 140 oC

Table 8: Summary of enthalpy components in oxidation

Component Input S9 Output S10

For S10: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 140 oC and S11: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 60 oC

For H2O: 𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 2.737 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

Basis: Tref = 25oC

Table 9: Summary of enthalpy components in absorber

Component Input S11 Input S14 Output S12 Output S13

Design and Sizing

Table 10: Data of ammonia

Component Mwt N M Mole fraction Mass fraction

Heat duty (Q) needed to be added to gas mixture: