Instructor’s Solutions Manual to accompany Fundamentals of Aerodynamics Third Edition John D. Anderson, Jr. Curator of Aerodynamics ‘National Air and Space Museum and Professor Emeritus University of Maryland a Boston Bur Ridge, IL_Dubugne,1A Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogota. Caracas KuslaLumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan -Montieal New Delbi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei TorontoCHAPTER 1 Li @ pn Rae ea @ P= RE" Geneon ~ C32ekemt re Be M88 ee © To Rae x1 ya7ig 12 “I (pe cos 6 + ty sin 6) ds ® + Se (p, cost, sin6) ds, an ds cos @= dx ds sin 8 =-dy Hence, - $2 @-pode+ f™ Gate day w=- J (e-po-@,-polde+ [™ Gate ay Divide by ge Sqn e(1) -(2ste)feet 12 [ This is Eq. (1.15).Arm IE Cpe sind + 4 0088) a5, + J @¢ sind +t, cos8) ds, a =f" O-pdayt f™ Get ae A= [% tov-pd—@e-paldy+ f° Geax ae (52) feet: (s am EM Cn menayr Eff (yen) de This is Eq. (1.16). Miz J [(p,c0s0 +, sind) (pu sind - x c098)y] d5 + JE Cp, 0058 +4, sind)x + (p, sind + ¢,cos6)y] ds, tes [ Dpaopdxdx- fF Getz.) x ay +2 pepdlydy+ JE Cote dy a Miz= [0 [pe-pd-@e-po)]xax- 1 Gute.) xdy +97 tpe-pd-@e pod) ydy+ J Gutsy dx Divide by goo:J (C.-C, )xex- JF (C, #,) xay + ie (C,, -¢, This is Eq. (1.17), ydy+ f° (Cy, 4C,) ya] 13 Me>/ Mu=- f% @.-p)@) @x-@,-p) f° xdx & Miz=-(@.- Pd) > = Jp Oe pda&=o-pde1s Fora flat plate, @ = 0 in Eqs. (1.7)— (1.11). Hence, = JS @epyde= J) (2x10 Gt) + 1.19% 105} ex 2x10 Ae box} + [1.19 x 105) L12x10N fo Geena ane J) (731% +288) ax ian 12x 10° cos 10°— 1274 sin 10° = [L105 x 10°N, ‘N’ sino + A’ cosa = 1.12 x 10° sin 10° + 1274 cosa =B.07x10N, Mts= J fpa-p dex J) 2x10" Gey? 1.19.x 10°} x dx ro es eo "Nal 10.595 x 1058] +2x10° 78 x 10° + 1,105 x 10° (0.25) M's = Mis +L’ (old) 10° Ni (578 x10) 112 x 10°15 0 cy cose. ~ cy sin = (1.2) cos 12° (0.3) sina = e= Gy Sine + cy cose = (1.2) sin 12° + (03) cose = 0.379 16 Gq =C, cosa + eg sina. Also, using the more accurate N’ rather than L’ in Eq, (1.22), we have Hence: a) a Xa/e -2.0 0.0498 1.09 0 0.25 OAL 2.0 044 0.336 4.0 0.639 0.306 6.0 0.846 0.293 8.0 1.07 0.284 10.0 1243, 0277 12.0 1.402 0271 14.0 1.52 0.266Note that xep moves forward as c is increased, and that it closely approaches the quartes- chord point in the range of a of 10°to 14°, At higher angles-of-attack, beyond the stall (a> 16°), Xop Will reverse its movement and move rearward as c continues to increase. Compare the above variation with the center-of-pressure measurements of the Wright Brothers on one of their airfoils, shown in Fig. 1.28. 17 K=3 (mass, length, and time) f/(D, poy Vac, g)=0 HenceN=5 We can write this expression in terms of N -K = 5 —3 =2 dimensionless Pi products: f (i, Me) where T= f.(Pe, Vex 6D) Th = £4 (Pe, Ver 8) Let Th=pe* Ver c'Dim £*)* (6 vy em et) = mass: a+1=0 length: -3a+b+e+1=0 time: -b-2=0 Hence: Let Th=p.? Voc? gt 1 (m £9) (6°) £0 (Ee PyF=0 mass: a=0 length: -3a+ 1+ b+ time: -1-2d=0 Hence: Ih= ve, vee Thus: &M,1h)=f (2 Toe or: . 18 Dw=fi (Pee, Vaey © Gen Cpe Gy) K (mass, length, time, degrees)fz Davy Psy Vacs Cy Bay Cp» Gy) =O Hence, N=7. This can be written as a function of N-K = 7 —4 =3 pi products: Th, Th) =0 where: Th = £4 (Pex Voor ©, Cp, DY Tp = fs (Peo, Van, © Cp» Mex) Ths = £5 (Ou Ves © Gp &) The dimensions of ¢ and o are oy energy _ (force)(distance) _ (mét™*) mass?) mas(*) ss m(*) £7 x7 (Cy! where (°) degrees. po V2 cho D=Th (om £39 (£0 COE PY OP (mE mass: i+1=0 length: -3i+j+k+2n+1=0 n=0 time: -j-2n-2=0 degrees: -n=0 Hence: For [hyTam eV eD Y PEKO CE CP mass: i=0 i=0 length: -31+1+j+2k+n=0 k=0 time: 2k-n=0 n=-1 For Thy = pal Vad ch of" cy Team eye ry Preyer (ey ey mass: i+0 length: -3i+j+k time: j-2n-2=0 degrees: -n—1=0 or,Gate) 100 [00 . 200 ¥200 Hence, the Mach numbers of the two flows are the same. (#)-2e] ‘The Reynold’s numbers are different. Hence, the two flows are not dynamically similar. TS eae (223)(229) nase 1.739/\200. 2)Y 200 1.10 Denote free flight by subscript 1, and the wind tunnel by subscript 2. For the lift and drag coefficients to be the same in both cases, the flows must be dynamically similar. Hence Mi=M, Qa) pNye, _ P2Vae 2 For Reynolds number: A Ms Assume, as before, that pa VT. Hence 22% AVS vtor, ie 34.65 VE Finally, from the equation of state: 101 x 10° ee R 287 =351.9 @ Eqs. (1) ~ (@) represent three equations for the three unknowns, 2, V2, and Ty. They are summarized below: a) 2) 8) From Eq. (3 p27 351.9T2 Oy Subst. (4) into (2) fy. 3519/ V, < =| 2 ]=3465 Wr) ‘Subst. (1) into (5): 3519 467 34.65 Hence, nqy~ G51NET 465) Fi From Eq (1): V2=16.7 {i 67 \1696 ‘From Eq. (3): p2 oor 35 ke = 07 7, 1696 111 pp=pa-pgdh = 1.01 x 10°~ (1.36 x 10°\9.8(0.2) py [7.43 x 10° Nin} 1.12 Weight = Buoyancy force + lift w B +L B=(15,000) (1.1117) (8), = 1.634x10°N AWW volume air density acceleration (m’) at 1000m of gravity (keim’) —_(am/sec) 1 5 Qe 5 Pa Vee ; 2.1117) G0y? = 500 Nim? n(14)°/4 = 153.9 m? L= qo S Cy = (500X153.9)(0.05) =3487N Hence: W= 1.634 x 10° + 3847= [67x 10N~ 1.13 Let us use the formalism surrounding Eq. (1.16) in the text. In this case, cg = ca, and from Eq, (1.16), neglecting skin friction 2ca? J™ (c,,~¢,,)av a From Eq, (1.13) in the text, Eq. (1) above can be written as cnt J (Cy, ~Cy,) © sin@ ds) @ Draw a picture: Following our sign convention, note that @ is drawn counterclockwise in this sketch, hence itisa negative angle, -0 From the geometry: - 0=n-9 Hence, sin (-6) =~ sin @ = sin (-8) = cos 6 Substitute this into Eq. (2), noting also that ds = rd and the chord ¢ is twice the radius, ¢ = 2r. From Eq. (2), a== J™ (6,-¢,) cos@rae C,,) cos ode JE, cosas 3 JE ©, cosede 8) Consider the limits of integration for the above integrals. The first integral is evaluated from ‘the leading edge to the trailing edge along the upper surface. Hence, § = 0 at LE and x at TE.The second integral is evaluated from the leading edge to the trailing edge along the hottom surface. Hence, = 2n at LE and r at the TE. Thus, Eq. (3) becomes 1s 5 a5 fl C,costad $41 C,, costae ® In Eq. (4), C,, =2 cos? > for 0< > 133 x 10°90. \ oxfi-(3) ] Vo= (147 mised ‘pi —p2= w Sh= (1.33 x 10°\(0.1) = 1.33 x 10° N/m? po ™ pi— 1.33 x 10*= 1.01 x 10° = 1.33 x 10° 8.77 x 10" Nim pom prt 3 pv? =sa7x10'+ (1.230477 = [OLR Nin Note: It makes sense that the total pressure in the test section would equal one atmosphere, Decause the flow in the tunnel is drawn directly from the open ambient surroundings, and for an inviscid flow, we have no losses between the inlet and the test section. 07-10) x 10° Jog gm 123, see 38 Vay, Ve=u= constant 9 2 0 20 ¥ vp fh 5 30Itisap cally possible incompressible flow. o 0 vav-|7 5 EP io9-J0- Met 0 ¥ 39 Hence, the flow is a physical possible incompressible flow, except at the origin where r= 0. ‘What happens at the origin? Visualize a cylinder of radius r wrapped around the line source per unit depth perpendicular to the page. The volume flow across this cylindrical surface is, 31ff vas a) ‘Since we are considering a unit depth, then we have the volume flow per unit depth. This is precisely the definition of source strength, A. Hence, from (1), Axconstant= ff V> dS @ From the divergence theorem: V- &= Ff war ) Combining Eqs. (2) and (3) ff (9 -V) av = A= constant a Shrink the volume to an infinitesimal value, AV, around the origin. Eq. (4) becomes (w-¥) av= Taking the limit as AV» 0 i > (W-W= tim =o. Hence V-V =o at origin av To show that the flow is irotational, calculate VxV 5 me eee toe ce a2 &@ 4) at 9 6 @ a @ a| 1 a & v. We Vy eo 0 aHence, Laplaces equation: Fb Fe £ + £ =0+0=0is identically satisfied. a ge Similarly, fory=Vy, 2 & Hence, Laplace’s equation 12 ) 186 r#),4 Ta r is identically satisfied.wk OO Wa Hence, Laplaces equation is identically satisfied. 3.12 The stagnation point is a distance A/2V.. upstream of the source. Hence, A a1 or A=28Ve BAW, ‘The shape of the body is given by x =Varsing + & we 2 on A rsing+ _— or, 342.8 25 20 nid 1.0 0.75 1.0033, 1.02 1.072 1.255 1.57 191 254 ‘To plot the pressure coefficient: or, Ve Ve 005 0+ A 2a V. sin ®foPRESSURE COEFFICIENT 3.13 }- ——*_.—_+ A eR — % via ° Sink StagnationAt point A: Velocity due to freestream = Va. Velocity due to source = 2a(e+d) (note that it is in the negative x-direction) GA) Velocity due to sink = A) elocity due to sit eee (Note that it is in the positive x-direction) Total velocity at Point A: vacve A 1 yA? 2s G0) 2z Grd) From point A to be a stagnation point, Va ~ 0. o-ves Apt +t) 2a “@+b) (rb) ova & [Ete] ver d (2b) 2a [@+b\r—b) | Qe Pb Seasadess wee ay= 2 Q@ Q)Substitute (2) into (1) Va? cos" + (55) Ve sin? At the surface, r=R_ Cp=1-4 sino 3.16 From Eg. (3.93)From Eq. (3.94) (1432) an ‘At any given point (7,0), Ve and Ve are both directly proportional to Ve. Hence, the direction of the resultant, V, is the same, no matter what the value of Va may be. Thus, the shape of the 2 . 3.17 From Eq. (3.119): From Eq, (3.94): Note that Vo/Vw is itself'a function of Va via the second term. Hence, as Vn changes, the direction of the resultant velocity at a given point will also change. The shape of the streamlines changes when V., changes. 318 L'=peVel = PaV. (1.2330) 0.163 m*/sec 403.19 At standard sea level conditions, pam 0.002377 28 7 _ Slog He = 3.737 x 107 —8_ Wed Also V=120 mph = 120 (2) filsec= 176 ne Vas 3 (0.002377) (176)? = 36.8 Ib/f? For the struts: D = 2 in = 0.167 ft. 2377) 187.7)(0167) _ 199 399 3.737 x 10 From Fig. 3.39, Cp = 1. The total frontal surface area of the struts is (25) (0.167) = 4.175 ft. Hence, Drag due to struts; Ds qe S Cp = (3684.1 75)(1) = 153 Ib For the bracing wires: D = Zin 0007s 8 Re = 199382 (20078) = 9312 0167 From Fig. 3.39, Co= #°. Hence, The total frontal surface area of the wires is (80) (0.0078) Drag due to wires: Dy = ge S Cy = (36.8)(0.624)(1) =23 Ib Total drag due to struts and wires = Ds-+ Diy = 153 +23 4‘The total zero-lift drag for the airplane is (including struts and wires) Cy, =GeS Cy, = 66.8230)(0.036) = 804.9 Note that, for this example, the drag due to the strats and wires is 17. = 0,58 ofthe total drag —i.e., 58 percent of the total drag. This clearly points out the drag reduction that was achieved in the early 1930°s when airplane designers started using intemally braced wings ‘with one or more central spars, thus eliminating struts and wires completely. 3.20 The flow over the airfoil in Figure 3.37 can be syntheized by a proper distribution of singularities, ic., point sources and vortices. The strength of the vortices, added together, gives the total circulation, I, around the airfoil. This value of T is the same along all closed curves around the airfoil, even if the closed curve is drawn a very large distance away from the airfoil. In this case, the airfoil becomes a speck on the page, and the distributed point vortices appear as one stronger point vortex with strength I’. This is exactly equivalent to the single point Vortex in Figure 3.27 for the circulat cylinder, and the lift on the airfoil where the circulation is taken as the total Fis the same as for a circular cylinder, namely Eq G.140), = po Ver — ~ Ltnte <— Naistence ee wey - Dietribaten, 5 \ ‘ ci oul Bink ett“ hleecs ti ae v 7 . / S| . y a2CHAPTER 4 41 qe? = pe Ve = (0.002377)(50)" = 2.97 Iie? 2 2 ©, = 0.64 and c,,,=-0.036 L’= ques ¢, = 2.97)(2)(1)(0.64) = B80 Ib per unit span] Mange Se ¢, Des _ ay Dt Hence, the second term in Eq. (1) becomes J vavag a(¥}-0 From the momentum equation,bv De vp (neglecting body forces) ? Hence, the first term in Eq. (1) becomes DV. = los dp DN a=. 4vp &=- Die nee se ‘When p = const, or p = p(p), thea -{ Bo. Hence, fom Eq. 3) 1? § a&~o0 3 Dt Substituting Eqs. (2) and (4) into (1), we obtain 4) or Note: See Karamcheti, Jdeal-Fluid Aerodyna 5 details (pp. 239-242). 44 Murs-peVe f° E1@ aE =-peVe fo ; a £080) 8 GS sin a0 =+ pe Vo S . ant This is Eq. (4.36). == peVo L2aVe JF (1 —cos"6) d0 43 sco. where @.is in radians. Hence 4446 @ =02-05 (5) ie 02202 (%) *1:(2) 00888-02222 (*) Since x a (1 - 0086), then ( -0.05 +0.25 0S 851.3 Ge), 05 +025 cost, for 09 5 13694 (2) =-0.0223 + 0.1111 cos®, for 1.3694<0< Lee dz = SE (e080 1 a9 = J) (0105-+0.25 coseyfeos0 - 1) a0 - 4 e (0.0223 + 0.1111 cos0)(cos@ - 1) 48 6 5 (0.05 ~0.3 cos + 0.25 c0s*8) d0 (0.0223 — 0.13334 cos@ + 0.1111 cos*6) 48 sine) 547 = 02381 _ 6.0726 rad =f 4.78} = &) c, = 2m (ce + G0) where a is in radians Qn = oy B-419) * & cos a6 22 f°" (0.05 + 0.25 e058) cos0 40 * gu (0.0223 + 0.1111 e058) cos8 a0 ale (0.05 c0s0 + 0.25 c0s"0) dd + = Jig, (0.0223 cost + 0.1111 cos’6) a9 al . -0.05 sin + 0.25 (= + — sine) 1," [-0.05 sint Sr S201 aly 2 (0.0233) sind + 0.1111 é sin26)Fyeoe 46[0.04899 + 0.25 (0.6847 + 0.09800) + 0.1745 + 0.02185 — 0.1111 (0.6847 + 0.09800)] = (0.2561) 2 = 0.1630 = © 8 6508 20 a 2 pis * =f (-0.05 + 0.25 cos®) cos 2840 + ah. (0.0223 * 0.1111 c0s8) cost d@ 05) sin 28 + 0.25, a 4 B38 ys 2 0.0223) sin20 0.1111 SPs Sy, = 2 [0.009800 + 0.2 (0.4899 0.1372) + 0.004371 = 0.1111 (0.4899 ~0.1372)] = (0.0836) 2 - 0.0277 F a-ane £ (0.0277 -0.1630) = 01083 tosZa@e vane ioe sy (0.41630- 0.02779] = P38 ce 4 ce a48 Experiment Ref.11) Theory % Difference 1-9 39° 416° 6.25% e 0.76 0.782 2.8% 0.095 0.1063 10.6% 49 Mie=-peVe f° Ev@dé fi er@& wo a= £ sind a0 coy. [a 04289, % 4 gnnal y) 2v.(a, =) DA G| With the above, Eq. (1) becomes JT As =cos%0) a0~ 5°" Ay (1 -c0s6) sind sinn0 49 @) Note the following definite integrals: Jf cose sin? a0=0 43JJ sind sin n0 a0 = 0 JF cos® sind sin 20 49 JF cos6 sind sin n9 49 = 0 Hence, Eq. (2) becomes: = en SD Ag- S At & AL-% Al Cn, => [Ao 3 eri ] 4.10 The slope of the lift curve is _ 065—(-039) = 0.104 per degree 4-(-6) The slope of the moment coefficient curve is 0.037 — (0045) _ x10 per degree From Eq. (4.71), 49CHAPTERS ie dt x =Raye where ¢ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the loop, directed into the page. By symmetry, the resultant velocity due to the entire loop must be along the x-axis. Hence, 2 i) oe I [a5 cowo= (Ef? # rou _ ATR OP 30rR 2a? + R?)? 53 aectcres, where a, = 0.1080 per degree = 6.188 per radian wAR From Fig. 5.18: 8 =1= 0.054. 6188 = a = 491 pera. 1+ 2188 4 0054) (8) + 0.0857 per degree Cy =a (a- op-0) = 0.0857 [7- (1.3) = 2779 Co, - SE at ay= O22 01 054) = PTF aR (8) 54 an= 2 = G2" 609 Ss 170 At standard sea level, pe = 0.002377 slugitt ft/ sec Veo= 120 mph (# oe ) = 176 filsec z Po Vo = i (0.002377) (176)* = 36.8 Ib/ft? 49 = 0.1033 per degree 92 per rad S y 2 —— 2450 _ 03916 OS a.8 GRIT592 592 (602) =4.38 per rad (len) + +032) = 0.0764 per deg, ch (03916)? _ meAR 1(,64)(6.02) 33 Cp, 01267 Dr deS Cy, = (36.8)(170)(0.01267) = 5.6 To be consistent, we will use Helmbold’s equations for both the straight and swept wings, (@) a)=0.1 per degree = 0.1 (57.3) = 5.73 per radian Beet 5:73 = 0304 ZAR” x(6) From Helmbold’s equation for a straight wing, Eq. (5.81), a, vila, /(GAR)} +a, /(@AR) 573 573 Vis (@304? +0304 1349 er radi (b) From Helmbold’s equation for a swept wing, Eq. (5.82), where a, 005 A= 5.73 cos 45°= 4.05 per radian and a, cosa 405 gyi ZAR =(6) wwe haveComparing the results of parts (a) and (b), we re a, cosA a{l+[a, cos /(aAR)} . 4.05 i+ (0215)? +0215 +a, cosA/(nAR) ily conclude that the effect of wing sweep is to reduce the lift slope. Moreover, the reduction is substantial. sd Again, we use Helmbold’s equations, (@) a =5.73 per radian Se _ 573 _ ggg ZAR (3) =e Vi+le, (GARY +a, /(@AR) 573 573 i+(0.608)? +0608 1778 () ag.cos A= 4.05 cosh 4.05 zAR x(3) = 0.43 a, cos A, an 4.05 1+ (043)? 5.202 per radian vl+la, cosA/(@AR)P +a, cosA/(AR) Jn Problem 5.6, with an aspect ratio of 6, we hadThe lift slope for the swept wing is only 77% of that for the straight wing when the aspect ratio of both wings is 6. In Problem 5.7, with aspect ratio 3, we have Bove _ 2.667 _ = = 083 3.222 ‘The lift slope for the swept wing is 83% of that for the straight wing Conclusion: Wing sweep decreases the lift slope. Moreover, wing sweep affects the lift slope to a greater degree for higher aspect ratio wings than for lower aspect ratio wings. This makes some sense, because the lift slope for low aspect ratio wings is already considerably reduced just due to the aspect ratio effect. saCHAPTER 6 61 2 o a 20 = 6.00. ore: r’ sind 3d ae (0-0+0)-9 Flow is irrotational. 62 Ve=0, Vex VV 3S PSI GSO ee * 1a a Vi VaqzS+0+0=0+040= ra 8 The flow is a physical possible incompressible flow, 63 For the sphere: © (0-5Forthe cylinder: (Cy =1-4 sin" Attbe top ofthe sphere: 9 = 7/2, hence 1.25 (Co)ephere = > 5/4 For no manometer deflection, (Cp)spnere = (Caen. ~4sin’8 sin’@ = 0.5625 sind = 0.75 Hence: a = 48.64 The pressure tap on the cylinder must be located at an angular position 48.6° above or below the stagnation point 56CHAPTER 71 p=pRT _p _ (7892116) RT (1716934) (0.0103 slug 72 (@) - A going ds A yl ee R216 Lyyqg_ft ib y-1 04 slug °R e= 6,7 =4290 (934) 14.007 x 10° 5 slug h= opT = 6006 (934) 45.610 x 10° ee) slug (©) For a calorically perfect gas, cp and c, are constants, independent of temperature, Hence, we have again = 600 - slug tb slug °R oy = 4290, Also, at standard sea level, R=519°R. Hence E=4290 (519) = 2.227 x 10° <= n= 6096 (519) 43.117 x108 & slugbp —hy = ¢p (Ta - Ti) = (1004.5)(690-288) feos x 10% Joule kg | ey (Ta - Tr) = (718.5)(690-288) =12.884 x 10° a 8 Th_p me 0 joule =3)= a = (1004.5) f£n—— - (287) fn 8.656 4258.2 ey Ong“ fa = (10045) fn Fe - (287) fn a Po _ 435 x 10° = =r 0.6186 ke/m? RT, (287)(245) 74 po= : oa } 06186 a fo.saoa *S. 359 kein) RT (287(259) 76 py=RT, hencey= BE P 58w= 3(Q) 5 Note: } atm = 1.01 x 10°N/m? 1 p (02)(L01 x 10°) For an isentropic process: Lepr? ey eye How oyrrr=- bop! 43536 x 10° 2 * Gayo x 10) a R__ (LAYITIG) _ gop g_ ft To (04) slug °R noah+ © =oT+ we ~ (6006)(480) 300)" 3.708 x 108 KD 2 2 2 78 Let e)res* total enthalpy of the reservoir= cp (Te)res 9(h.)_= total enthalpy at the exit = c Te + —* For an adiabatic flow, hy = constant. Hence (s)res = (Bo)e (Toles = Cp Te + colTabres = Cp 3 {2 & [Jus ~ Te] = f2(10045)1000 — 660) =|896.4 m/sec (0.6101 x 10%) _ poR (0819287) ow oo oats (2) ;T= (2) 262.1 (#3) = 247.6 °K rs \pe/ Po! Loe 262.1 °K Since the flow is isentropic, itis also adiabatic. Hence, bo = constant (LOL x 10°)(0.61- 05) + (300)? = 3422 m/sec 0819 % error (5372) x 100 = (0.8194(yer roa\ee 71 T=Te|2} =262.1 {2} ips) \o6t =24K ‘v= -f2(1004.5)(262.1~ 214) + (300)" =432 m/sec [2(.01 x 10°(0.61-03) + (300) =408 mise 0819 132 -. 7) soorr~ (22082) 00 = 55 7.13 From Eq. (7.53) n+ constant 2 From Eqs. (7.6b) and (7.9), ay From the equation of state, RT=plp @ Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), ar {Pe 5) Hence, Eq. (7.53) can be written as (p) v? x (P) 4% <. yale) a -onstant, 4 In the limit of y -> 0, Eq. (4) becomes 6+ constant p+ Yeo V"=constant which is Bemoulli’s equation. Hence, the energy equation for compressible flow can be reduced to Bemoulli’s equation for the case of y— oo. Hence, the ratio of specific heats for incompressible flow is infinite, which of course does not exist in nature. This is just another example of the special inconsistencies associated with the assumption of incompressible flow, i., constant density flow, which of course does not exist in nature. This is why we have stated earlier in this book that incompressible flow is a myth. As to the question whether Bernoulli's equation is a statement of Newton’s second law or an energy equation, we now see that it is both, For an incompressible flow, the application of the fundamental principles of Newton's second law and the conservation of energy are redundant, both leading to the same equation, namely Bemoulli’s equation. However, philosophically this author feels strongly that Bemoulli's equation is fundamentally a statement of Newton’s second law ~ it is a mechanical equation. This is how we derived Bemoulli’s equation in a very straightforward manner in Chapter 3. For the study of inviscid incompressible flow, we need only to apply the fundamental principles of mass conservation and Newton’s second law. The principle of conservation of energy is redundant and is not needed,APTER 8 81 = PRT= JONI 04 mised 82 Gle=Glet wi (1385)? Te=To- 5 Se 3R 2e, 2(6006) ac= ORT, AYITIGVS593) = 929.1 °R Ye _ 1385 M=— + 9291 a) 83 a= ORT, = /(14)@87)G00) = 347.2 msec Me. 20 on a 3472 From Tables: s2= 1.104 and Pe = 1.412 P To= 1.104 T= 1.104 (300) =B31.2 °K) TeTal pom 1412 p= 1412 (1.2)= [1694 at) = BE Pe . (9.528)(1.412) = 0.7455 P Po 0.7455 p= 0.455 (1.2) = 9.8946 atm rn T, T* = 0.92 300) =B76 R] T2786) 0.8333 (1.104) = 0.92 333 m/sec a84 a= GRT = f(14)0716)(700) = 1297 frisec Me ees a 1297 From Tables: 22= 2.058 and 2. = 12.5 “ P T,=2.058 T= 2.058 (700) = [1441] Po= 12.5 p= 12.5 (1.6) re T (0.8333) (2.058) = 1.715 as t E T= 1.715 T= 1.715 (700) = [12007 BY _ P* Po © 528125) 66 P PP pr = 66 p= 6.6 (1.6) =[10.56 ain} at = JPRT* = (TAHITI 1200) = 1698 fusee 85 From Tables: Hence, for the test section flow, 4 p= 7.824 (1) = 7.824 atm T= 18 T=18 230)=414°K 64Since the flow is isentropic, both p, and Ty are constant throughout the flow. Also, in the reservoir, M * 0. Hence, the reservoir pressure and temperature are Po™ 7.824 atm Te= 414K 8.6 From the Standard Altitude Tables, at 10,000 ft, Poo = 1455.6 Ib/ft” and T. = 483.04 °R From Table Al: For M.= 0.82; Pe = 1.893, P ForM Since the flow is isentropic, p. = constant and T, = constant Los. 5 <> (1.555) (1455.6) 795 1-595) 0455.) coo T 87 From Table A2: 22 = 7,72, £2 =3.449, 238, Pi pi Pa M + = 0.4601 Py Pe, Hence, p= 2 p72 (1)= Lata Py The eh = 2.238 (288) = (445°)Pi (G01 x 10° RT, (287)(288) = 1.222 kg/m? = £2. 5, =3.449 (1.202) = HB kg ? 9.181 (1) = Past ama Pe = (287) ¢n 0.460) Rén ss P2 21933. From Table A.2, My=3.0 ay Thus, i= (12.06) (1)= Py 89 AS) Ra 0928 2 9.499 Pe, From Table A2: Mi=23 6JUHATHAIES = 1796.6 fisec Mp ar = (0.4695)(1796.6) = [843.5 fused 8.11 Is the flow subsonic or supersonic? For sonic flow, 2.=—1 p 0528 higher than 1.555. Hence, the flow is subsonic. Prom Table A.1, for 1.893, which is 1.555, M= 0.82. am \pRT = (@G87N288) = 340.2 m/sec V=Ma= (0.82)(340.2) = 278.9.n/sec 728 2116 means that a normal shock wave exists in front of the nose of the Pitot tube. From Table A.2, for 8.12 The ratio 645 is larger than 1.893. Hence, the flow is supersonic. ThisPo, _ 77128 = 3.645, My = 1.56 iy 2116) J@AYA7I6NS19) = 1116.6 fi/sec fused a> RT Vi=Mi a1 = (1-56(1116.6) = 28.7°. When a=0= 28.7°, B = 64.5°. M,, =MisinB=24 sin 64.5°=2.17 From Table A2, for M,, = 2.17: 2 =5.327 7 B Poe = 22 py =5.327 (1 atm) = S327 atm) Py and the maxinmum pressure occurs when a= 28.74 97 2 /m \ (es) ae From the 0-B-M diagram: B = 48° M,, =M, sin B=3.5 sin 48°= 60 Pu. = 0.4601, M,, = 0.5039, Po, From Table A2:™, 0.5039 Mor Sin 8) 1.648 ‘Sin(48- 302) — From Table AZ, for Mp = 1.648; 2& =0.876 Po From Table A.1, forM=3.5: 2 =76.27 U po * (0.876)(0.4601)76.27)(0.5) 98 Hence, p,, = 2& py = 151.8 (1 atm) =151.8 atm, PB a) M=4 From Table A.2, for Mi = 4: 0.1388, —- Pe, Pe. Po, p,, = Pe p,, = 0.1388 (151.8)= 21.07 am Pe ‘Loss in total pressure = p,, - p,, = 151.8 -21.07 = [130:7 atm] b) 6From the @-B-M diagram, p=38.7° M,, =M; sin B= 4 sin 38.7°=2.5 =0.499, M,, = 0.513 From Table A.2, for M,, M, 0513 sin(B~ 6) sin(38.7—253) a: 28 =0.6036 Poy From Table A.2, for Mo P Po, Pi Pov 5 = (0.6236)(0-499)(151.8)(1 atm) = 47.24 atm Po Po Loss in total pressure = p,, - p,, = 151.8 ~47.24= [1046 atm] ace ee wal z0% a Pa n * {2830 , 2a 0.499 Po, 2) From part (6) above, Mz From the B-O-M diagram: By = 47.3° ”For the second shock: M,, =Mo sin B2=2.21 sin 47.3°= 1.624 1.624: 2. = 0.8877, M,, = 0.6625 Po, From Table 4.2, for M, Ms From Table A.2, for My= 1.444: 2 0,947 Po, i= (0.947)(0.8877)(0.499\151.8) 151.8 ~ 63.68 = B81 at CONCLUSION: To decrease a supersonic flow to subsonic speeds via a shock system, a series of oblique shocks followed by a normal shock yields a smaller total pressure loss than ‘anormal shock by itself. Hence, a system of oblique shocks, followed by a normal shock is a more efficient means of slowing a supersonic flow to subsonic speeds than a single normal shock itself, Loss in total pressure p,, - 99 78From the 6-8-M diagram, By = 34.2° M,, =Mrsin By 2) sin 34.2°= 18 From Table A.2; for M,, =1.8: P =3.613, 2 =15%, Py 1 M,, = 0.6165 M, 6 ne 0616s ees ~ Sin(B, 8) sinG42-82) — For the Reflected Shock: ‘From the 0-B-M diagram, for Mp = 2.24 and = 18.2°: fi =44° M,, = Mz sin By =2.24 sin 44° = 1.56 From Table A.2, for M,, = 1.56: 23 =2.673, : = 1.361, M,, = 0.6809 Pe 5 M., 0.46809 sin(B,—@) sin(44—-182) = [L5q Note: The fact that My and M,, are equal is just a coincidence, @=Bp-0=44-18.2 = Pa Pa 5, (2.673)(.613)(1 atm) =B.66 atl Pe Pr = BB n= c.3610.5324820) = 108ER Ts @From Table A3: For M; =2, v1 =26.38° V2 O + yy = 23.389 + 26.38° = 49.76" ‘From Table A.1, for Mi = 2: ForM;=3: Pe =36.73, Pr T However: p,, _ and T,, = T,, . Thus a Ps Po a ae -bidal me 2 Ba ny=(s20) casny0r= DIBA = Ti = (4) (1.8)(630) = 05°R] po Pe OMDONS _ Fea7 TT Sa — (1716)(405) Par p= (7.8240.7) = BATT amd P, Po, = Po = 80Ty = (1.8)(630) ~ [11349 From Table A3: for My=2, y= 30° For M;=3, j2= 19.47 Referenced to the upstream direction: Angle of forward Mach line =p = BO} Angle of rearward Mach line = yp -@= 19.47 -23.38°= [3.914 Note: The rearward Mach line is below the upstream direction for this problem. 9.11 From Table A.1, for My = 1.58: 22 = 4.127 Pr Pa = Pa Pa Basan (= PoP OP 04: Pes From Table A.1, for =31.6,M2=29 Py From Table A.3, for My = 1.58; vi = 14.27, for Mp =2.9: y= 47.79 = 47.79 14.27 ~ B3.52! O=v2 8From the 0-8-M diagram: For Mi =3 and 0=30.6°, B = 53.1° M,, =Mr sin B=3 sin 53.1=2.4 From Table A2, for M,, =2.4: 22 0.s31 P _ 05231 sin(f— 0) sin(531- 306) From Table A.3: For My = 1.37, v2 = 8.128 v5™ 8.128 + 30.6 =38,73" From Table A.3: For vs =38.73°, Ms = 2.49 T From Table A.l: For My=3, 2 =36.73, fn P, h Po, 4, For Ma=2.48,: = =16.56, 1, Ps b a (0)(0.5401)G6.73)(1 atm) = [120 att 1 7 : (4) omesess Clearly, ps # pi, Ts # Th, and Ms#M. Why? Because there is an entropy increase across the shock wave, which permanently alters the thermodynamic state of the original flow, even after it is brought back to its original direction, 829.13 (@) — ForM,=2.6 and @= 5°, B=26.5° M,, =M: sin B = 2.6 sin 26.5° = 1.16 From Table A.2: 2 = 1.403 P, From Table A.1, for My =2.6: 2. = 19.95 ay From Table A.3, for M; =2.6: v:=41.41° Vos vy + O= 4141 +5° = 46.419 > Ma =2.83 P. From Table A.1, for Mz =2.83: =284 Po Pr = Px Pa Pou — @ 93529(1)(19,95) = 0.7022 (PsP 2) cosy Go > 7 PAY? 7 Wy PMp 27P, 2 at 2 832 (1.403 - 0.7022) cos $°= 14 ~ GaNQeF 2 (=-*) sina, “2% -o.148 2 - pong Fm aan cose cos (&) ForMy=2.6 and 0 = 15°, B = 35.9° M,, =Mj sin B= 2.6 sin 35.9°= 1.525 From Table A2; 22 =2.529 Bh From Table A.1, for My =2.6: 2 = 19.95 Bi From Table A3, for M; = 2.6: 4141.41? vat vi t= 41.4] +15 =56.41°—> M;=3.37 From Table A.1, for Mz=3.37: 2. = 63.33 Ps Pa = Pa Po Po ( as 5) (1y(19.95) = 0.315 Py Po, Pe, Pr 46333 2 é = 2. 2.529-0.315) cos 15° = 0.45) 58 Hear d Sine oo 459 SIS 55 cose costs? (©) For Mj = 2.6 and 6 = 30°, B = 59.3° M,, +Mj sin B =2.6 sin 59.3° = 2.24 4Ps 5.687, 2% = 19.95, y= 4141° B Pi vee +0=4141 +30=7141° > Ma= 4.46 1 = (Fx (219.95) = 0.0725 Pa 2 ——— > (5.687 — 0.07: 2) owe 25) a5Forregion 2. vi = 49.76" Vane Vi +0 = 49.76? + 5° = 54.76° > My = 3.27 ForM, =3: P& = 36.73: PB Forregion 3 = v2 + 0 = 54.76? + 20° = 74.76? -> Ms = 4.78 P For My = 4.78: = = 407.83 Forregion 4 My = 3 and 9 = 25°-> B= 44° M,,=Mb sin B =3 sin 44=2.08 Pe 4.881, M,, =0.5643, and 2 P Pe, 0.6835 M,, 05643 a = = 1.733. TaG_0 saaa—i5y Thus, vs~ 18.69, 2 = 5.165 Pe : For region 5: Vs = va +0 = 18.69° + 20° = 38.69° > Ms = 2.48 86Pa 216.56 Ps Pressure ratios Pos Po © Py Po, Poy Pr (154.76) = 0.09 Be 4.881 PB Bs Ps Po, Pes Pas _ (ae )ene 6835)(36.73) = 1.516 Pr Pa, Po, Po, Pr S165 Let € = length of each face of the diamond wedge. L=py £ cos 25°+ps £ cos 5°~ pz £ cos 5° - ps cos 25° = (pips) £ 00s 25° + (ps—pa) £ cos 5° t =0.823 4 : e However, ol 1. 0507 t © 2eos le = (0.823)(0.5077) = Dalg 37D'= py ¢ sin 25°+ ps € sin 5°-pp £ sin 5°- ps £ sin 25° = (pa—ps) £ sin 25° +(ps—py) £ sin 5° a “la $881 — 0.09) sin 25° + (1.516 ~ 0.6707) sin 5°] a= ae a 333 4 =o: c =2.277 rad = 130.45° Since, for My = 1, v1 = 0, then O=v2- vi = 130.45~0= [150-454 max, 889.16 For the cylinder, with ca based on frontal area, Dt = Ge S ca = Ge A(1(4/3) = = (d) Qe 3 For the dimensional wedge airfoil, referring to Figure 9.27. (w= r—pa)t Hence, 4 Og 3% (D'), —Ps)t However, t= dand qo= 5 pi Mi? To calculate pa/py, we have, for My = 5 and @ = 5°, B= 15.1°. Magi = Mi sin B =5 sin (15.1°)= 1.303 From Appendix B, for M,,) = 1.302, = = 1.805. Also, PB My _ 0786 _ gag snl) © sin(151—5) M= To calculate 22, the flow is expanded through an angle of 10°. From Table C, for Mz = Pr 4.48, v2 = 71.83 (nearest entry) v3 = v2 + 0=71.83 +10= 81.38" Hence, M; 5.6 (nearest entry) 89From Appendix A: For Mr =5, For Ms =5.6, 2 = 1037 Ps P, From Appendix B: For M,,= 1.303, ~% = 0.9794 Po, Thus, Ps _ Ps Poy Ps Pay Pi Pa, Poy Po Pr 1 = = Gas)oe 9794)(529.1) = 0.5 Hence, : This is why we try to avoid blunt leading edges on supersonic vehicles. (However, at hypersonic speeds, blunt leading edges are necessary to reduce the aerodynamic heating:) 9.17 The supersonic flow over a flat plate at a given angle of attack in a freestream with a given Mach number, Mu, is sketched below.‘The flow direction downstream of the leading edge is given by line ab. The flow direction is below the horizontal (below the direction of Ma) because lift is produced on the flat plate, and due to overall momentum considerations, the downstream flow must be inclined slightly downward. Also, line ab is a slip line; the entropy in region 4 is different than in region 5 ‘because the flows over the top and bottom of the plste have gone through shock waves of different strengths. The boundary condition that must hold across the slip line is constant pressure, Le., paps. Itis this boundary condition that fixes the strengths of the expansion ‘wave and the shock wave at the trailing edge. To calculate the trailing edge shock and expansion waves, and the flow direction downstream, use the following iterative approach: J. Assume a value for §- 2 Calculate the strength of the trailing edge shock for the local deflection angle («- 4). This gives, among other quantities, a value of ps 3. Calculate the strength of the trailing edge expansion wave for a local expansion angle of (a-4). This gives a value for ps. 4. Compare ps and ps from steps 3 and 4. If they are different, assume a new value of. 5. Repeat steps 2-4 until py = ps. When this condition is satisfied, the iteration has converged. and the trailing edge flow is now determined. 2CHAPTER 10 10.1 From Table A.1, for AJA* = 2.193, M,=2.3) io = 125, 2 =2.058. Pe T For isentropic flow, T, = constant and p, = constant. Hence, P,, = Po = Bata}, and T,, ~T.~ 520] 2 p~(4) Gam) =D amy Po, neh (saa) (520) = 852.79 eee 205) — = Pe __(04)(2116) RE (1716)(252.7) )0195 slugift] Pe a= RT, = JUAN ATAGGSZT) = 779.2 fsee = Me a = (2.3)(779.2) = 1792 filsed 102 Be -— 1 _ 3.199. From Table A.1, we see that Mz =14 and AJA* ~[Li13, Pe 03143 103 Ahead of the normal shock in front of the Pitot tube, = po™ 2.02 x 10° Nin? aX = 0.4416 P., 2.02 * 10 2From Table A.2: M, From Table A.l: AdA* =B.038 104 ta =pturAt;p,= Be = ONG 0118628. RY, (716520) ft pt = 2 9. =(0.634)(0.01186) = 0.007519 shag/ft® (0.833)(520) = 433.2°R ut =at = J(4)0716)(4332) = 1020 fuse mn = ptutA* = (0.007519)(1020) (4) loz 288 \n4a) sec 10.5 m=ptutA* ut = 9RT* and p*or, mG 10580 Ib/ft” 106 py=Satm=5@11 At = 4/144 = 0.02778 f sfozrs 28 see ae (105809}(0,02778) 520 which is the same as obtained in Problem 10.4 10.7 = Nee = 0.997 at, > ' Jatm oaFirst, check to see if the flow is sonic at the throat. Be = 1 = 1.056 Pe. 0947 From Table A., for 1.056: Me = 0.28 and AA* = 2.166 Pe Since “ =1.616< a =2.166, then Ay>A*. The throat size is larger than that for sonic flow, hence the throat Mach number, Mi, is subsonic. A, A, 1 " 2 = 1 2.166)=134 ae alae ise ON From Table A1, for St = 1.34; BR Py Pe 1 7 (Ge) (1.056)(0.947) = 0.843 atm} 10.8 Note: The équation for m given in Problem 10.5 can pot be used here because the flow is not choked, i-e., the throat Mach number is not sonic. m= peAete From Table A.1, for P= Pe 1.056: Me= 0.28, ‘Te= Te/].016 = 288/1.016 = 283.5°K = (0.94T)(L.01 x 10°) _ (287)(2835) 1.176 kg/m? ae = (PRT, = (.4)287)(2835) = 337.5 m/sec p= My ae = (0.28)(337.5) = 94.5 misec 95A=A (25) = (0.3(1.616) = 0.4848 m? ee = (1.176)(0.4848)(94.5) = 53.88 ke/sed amp 109 @ 1 = 1.064 P, 094 Av Ar Ae ( 5) (2.035) = 1.33 ata, a* (iss Since Ar> A*, then the flow is completely subsonic. No shock wave exists. Hence, from Pe 1.064, Me=0a) Pe From Table A.1: M,=0.3 and AVA* =2.035. Table A.1, for . 1 Fi by Pe = —_ = 1,129, Oo. taKe From Table A.1, for Pe = 1.129: Me= 0.42 and A = 1.539. Pe = in) (1.529) = 0.999 = 1. AL At M153 Hence, Ai = A*, and the flow i: Hence rom the above (©) From the above results, clearly when pe is reduced below 0.866 atm, sonic flow will occur at the throat, and the nozzle will be choked. Since p, = 0.75 atm is far above the supersonic exit pressure, we suspect that a normal shock wave exists within the nozzle. Note ‘that, if we rum the same calculation as in parts (a) and (b) above, we find: Au As A, Ay cisely sonic at the throat. It is subsonic everywhere else. 96ALL AL Ae = (3 } (1.127) = 0.7366. Since itis impossible for Ay Art = which comes from the shock wave theory discussed in the text, Key equation: 372. pew Be Pa Po, Pe a) To find the values of the ratios in Eq. (1): From Table A.1 for Ao/Ai* = 1.204: My = 1.54 Pos Po, From Table A.2 for My = 1.54: Mz = 0.6874, = 0.9166 From Table A.1, for Mp = 0.6874: a = 11018 (ta (1.1018) = 14 Returning to Eq. (1): Pe Pop a= (4) 9t66xt n9 =0.788 am, Poy Py A116: Pe= This is slightly higher than the given p. = 0.75. Hence, move the shock wave slightly downstream, Assume Ag/Ar= 1.301 From Table A.l: My = 1.66 From Table A.1, for My = 1.66: 2%. = 0.872, My = 0.6512 Po, Ay = 1.1356 From Table A.1, for Mp = 0.6512: AL AA AL og so( Ja 1356)= 1.335 Aly A, Ay Ay sou 9B= 1335: M.=0.50, 2 = 1.1862 Pe From Table A.1, for From Eq. (1): 1 —_) (0.87290 atm) = 0.735 (a) EQ atm) = 0.735 wt. 0.75- 0.735 1.301 ~ (1.301 - 1.204) > = 1.274 A ‘ ) ones 0735 Interpolate: ‘Thus, Assume A/A,= 1.274 From Table Al: My =1.63, Poy From Table A.2: M;=0.6596, P= = 0.8838 P,, Ar From Table A: 29; =1.1265 1 ) — | (1.1265) = 1.353 1274) From Table A.]: M.= 0.49, E 1.178 Pp Pe Pony = {1 \eo.ggay(1 atm) =075 atm Pepe) Te ee - atm “0154 atm A From Table A.1 5 153, whichis precisely the given area ratio of the nozzle. Hence, for this case, we have a completely isentropic expansion, where, 99M=188 10.10 From the 6-®-M diagram, for @ = 20° and = 41.8°, we have M; = 2.6. From Table Al, A 10.1 From Table At for We =6.79, My=3.5 From Table A.2, for Me=3.5: 2% = 0.2129 P,, (1.448) = 68 atl 1, 10.12 From Table AL, for Me 2.8: Pe 2714, 202.568 Pe At standard sea level: p= 2116 Ib/f?, T=519°R pow Pp, = 27.14)2116) = 67,430 IDE = 27.14 atm = (2.568)(519) = 13339 PB _57430 - me = 0.251 slug/fe RT, (17161333) 2 p* =(0.6339)(0.0251) = 0.0159 slug/fe- T*=0.833 (1333)=1110°R RT VGA)ANIE\ATIO) = 1633 fi/sec = ut 100in=prutat 7 pear (0.0159)(163: (0.0385 #7) From Table AJ: A/A*=3.5 Ae AL ‘A* = (3.5)(0.0385) = [1.1348 7} Ay At LP. From Eq, (10.38) in text: —“+ = — a en a From Table A.2: forMe=2.8: 2 = 0.3895 Ps, 1 = (0.0385) = poser (se ee 1013 m= ptutat ® ‘Also, R= RM = £244 . 519,612 16 kg kK P, 7 2 — =3.319 107 pp G19.6)(3600) alt = {ODGI9.63273) = 1428.6 m/sec 837.2 XB, see Hence, from Eq. (1), with m 287.2 = (3.319 x 107 p.)(1428.6)(0.2) 101= 872s nx 108 N 319x107 \14286)(02) m Po or, FF 101 x 10" 10.14 We assume the flow velocity is low at the diffuser exit; hence the total pressure at the Poy Po, exitis 1 atm. From Appendix B, for M=3, == 0.3283, no= Pa/Pe 19 Po, /Poy pow Pt = —1_ =P S4aial 0394 0394 102CHAPTER 11 == 1400 erie sin (nx) ae = VpRT = fA)A716)519) = 1116.6 f'sec Mo= Ye = 00_ = 9.6269 a, 11166 ‘Thus, at (x,y) = (0.2, 0.2) 22(70) 290-77902) aes = 700+ = cos [2n(.2)] = 765.6 fu/sec 7 0779 a V=-140 1 679M) sin [2(.2)] = -157.2 fe'sec ve Vubav® = (7656) ~ (1572)? = 781.6 flsec From Table A.1, for Me = 0.6269, 1,079 To = 1.079 To = a= RT, = {OAVA7IGV(S60) = 1160 f/see 079 (519) = 560°R (V4) = 1345 x 10 = (2)(7814 a= 1106 fi/sec Vv _ 7816 a 1106 p-7067From Table A.1, for M= 0.6269: 2 Pe Tt =1101 For M=0.7067 = 2 =1.400, 2 P T (2) ose my BiH -fi eR To (Ade 079519) = 508.6°R) 11.2 The results of Fig. 4.5 are for low-speed, incompressible flow. Hence, from Fig. 4.5, at a=5°, ata=5°, -054_ 054 (387 08146 ~054 (08146 + [03364(1.067) /1.6292}(-054) & 108[0.7763] Note the differences: There is a 17% discrepancy between the three compressibility corrections. Of the three, experience has shown the Karman-Tsien rule to be more accurate, 11.4. For the pressure coefficient on the airfoil: Me 03 04 05 06 G 0.43 0.447 -0.473 0.513 wos 07 08 0.574 -0.683-O.2 \ frond t)- Glaser? 10611.5 When M= Ma, then p at the minimum pressure point is clearly pe. = (0.528)(1.524) = P03 Evaluated Evaluated atM=1 atM=08 11.6 Prom Appendix A: ForM.=0.5, Pe = 1.186 Pa For M=0.86, P* = 1.621 P c= aajos” Check: Using Eg. (11.58) _2 -l( 1402(05)? (1405) | 1 + 02086) It checks! \o711.7 First, calculate Cy» at point A from the information in Figure 11.5(a). The actual pressure coefficient is where Pa = Pa Po Po Pe Pw From Appendix A (interpolating between entries for more accuracy for this problem), ForM,=03: Pe =1.064 ForM,=0435: Pe = 1.139 ‘Thus, 2 Cham or ) = 1.045 8 CHO" (its From the Prandil-Glauert rule, Cyo= Coa Ji-ME = (-1045),/1- 03)" =- 0.9969 For the case of part (c) where Ma,“ 0.61, again using the Prandtl-Glauert rule, 1.258 or, 108GAY(0.61)" 1.258) , 2 1= 06723 pens os Po Thus, Po Pa From Appendix A, for 2» = 1.912, Mx =[L.01] Pa This is close enough. Hence, given the numbers in Figure 11.5(a), the numbers in Figure 11.15(@) are consistent with the laws of physics. 11.8 There is a three-dimensional relieving effect for the flow over a sphere. The flow over a cylinder is two-dimensional ~ in order to get out of the way of the cylinder, the flow can move only upwards or downwards. This means it must greatly accelerate to get out of the way of the cylinder. In contrast, the flow over a sphere is three-dimensional — it can move not only upward or dowaward but also sideways. This extra degree of freedom means that the flow does not have to speed up so much in flowing over the sphere. Hence, the freestream Mach number of the sphere is higher in order to achieve sonic flow on the sphere ~ice,, the critical Mach number is higher. 10912.1 Consider a= 5° = 0.0873 rad. From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): ¢, = 0.148 erxor= PMB 01455 199 — 1.69% 0148 dat o¢ = (0.1455)(0.0873 baa From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): ¢, = 0.452 0452-0426 0.452, % exro1 x 100=3.47% ca ©, = (0.436)(0.2618) = 0.114 From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): ca= 0.121 M2014 100% 5.7% 021 %error= (©) @=30° = 0.5236 rad no% error 229873 5 190 =26.7% 119 ca= c, a= (0.873)(0.5236) = 9.459 From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): og = 0.687 %eror= 25870457 _ 33.59 0.687 Conclusion: At low a, linear theory is reasonably accurate, However, its accuracy deteriorates rapidly at high a. This is no surprise; we do not expect linear theory to hold for large perturbations. It appears that linear theory is reasonable to at least 5°, and that itis acceptable as high as 15°. At30° it is unacceptable. Keep in mind that the above comments pertain to the lift and wave drag coefficients only. They say nothing about the accuracy of the pressure distributions themselves. 122 C2 es wy26 26 +28 (2.67 -1 24 C= 0.83338 y MC, 2 pL? MIG, ON2.6* (08333) | Pe 2 2 P= 23943041 Pe Hence: Examining the physical picture: recalling a= = 0.873 rad. Pe Po 3.943 (.0873) + 1 = 1.6551 From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): P2. = 0.7022 Pe _ 0.7022— 0.6558 0.7022 % exror x 100=6.6% + 3.9430 + 1 = 3.943 (0873) +1 Pa From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): P2 % eror= A3=134 109 = 4.2% 1403 nz(b) For = 15° = 0.2618 rad 3.9434 -3.943 (2618) + 1= -0.0322 (physically impossible) ‘The result from exact theory (Prob. 9.13) is 22. = 0.315 Ps, = 3.9430 + 1= 3.943 (2618) + 1 = 2.05: Pe From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): 22 =2.529 % error = 7522=2.032 x 199 = 19.7% 2.529 (©) For a= 30° = 0.5236 rad Pa 23,9438 + 1=-3.943 (0.5236) +1= Po 064 (physically impossible) The result from exact theory (Prob. 9.13) is 22 ~ 0.0725 9430 + 1 =3.943 (0.5236) + From exact theory (Prob. 9.13): P% 5.687 9% error = 5587=3985 x 199 = 46% 5687 Conclusions: (1) Pressures predicted by linear theory rapidly become inaccurate as o. increases. (2) Pressures predicted by linear theory are reasonable only at low values of o, say below 5°. (3) At each value of a, the % error is much greater for pressure than for lift and wave drag coefficients. (See Prob. 12.1). Hence, linear theory works better for ¢, and cca than it does for p. What happens is that the inaccuracies in p on the top and bottom surfaces tend to compensate, yielding a more accurate aerodynamic force coefficient. 430.70716 P G4) O707O , 5 =5°= 0.08727 rad, 4.455 (.08727) + 1 = 0.6112 Surface 3: @ = 25° = 0.4663 rad Pa = 4.455 (4363) +1 = Po 1.9439 ‘Note: Although a negative pressure is not physically possible, in order to calculate the net force, we must carry itas such, 4363 rad Pe = 4.455 (4363) +1=2.944 ng08727 rad Surface 5: Ps 24.455 (08727) + 1 =1.3888 Pe 2 : £ (m2) con2se Be 2: cass (rom Prob. 9.14) yM? cll. py Pe Pe. J “3 ee £ (2.944 + 0.9439) cos 25° + (1 3888 — 0.6112) c0s 5 ee £ é c, = 0.682 =. However, “ = 0.5077 (From Prob. 9.14) e c = (0-682(5077) = 0.348 — £[[2-B)ame-( 22) sas y Mi clip. Pe Pe Po 4d (5077) [(2.944 + 0.9439) sin 25° + (1.3888 — 0.6112) sin 5°] 2 ca .4)@)" co= D108 Comparison Exact (Prob, 9.14) LinearTheory % Error cr ois 0346 172% on 0.169 0.1089 35.6% us(0.012/,0) At point 1 7 ay = JPRT, ~ J(4\(287\(288) = 340 m/sec Vi= Jat ev? = (639) 4232.6" = 680 msec ¥, _ 680 M = a, 340 6, = Tan! YY = Tan? (22 ) u, 639 vi = Mi) = 26.38" K= 20+ 26.31 46.38° At point 2: a= RT, = (14) @87)28 = 340 m/sec ‘V2= 680 m/sec 6v2 = 26.38" Ky.=6-v=-26.38° At point 3: = 2K) + (Ky) Va (46.38 26.38) = 10° va= Ve [Kh + Ke)a] = Ye (46.38 -26.38 M3=2.4 To obtain the other flow variables at point 3, note that: Po 27.824 and 2. = 1462 Ps Ps Pr PoP. Po, Po, Ps pia ( : (1)(7.824)(1 atm) = 9.535 ate 14.62) (2)(1.8)(288) = 240.99 a5 RT, = {UASTEAD) = 211.1 msec V3 = Msas = 2.4 (311-1) = 746.6 misec us = V3 cos 63 = 746.6 cos 10° ‘v3 = V3 sin 03 = 746.6 sin 10°= To locate point 3: Along the C, Characteristic: nyBave = V2 (82 + 83) = V2 (0+ 10) Have = V2 (2+ Hs) = ¥2 (30° + 24.62°) = 27.31° 4 = = Tan ave + Have) = Tan (5° + 27.31°) = 0.6324 Thus: y= 0.6324 x ~0.00765 o Along the C. characteristic: Gwe = Vo (Or + 83) = Yo (20° + 10°) = 15° Have = V2 (hay + ts) = V2 (30 + 24.62) = 27.312 ay 7 TaP One Hoe) = Tan (15° - 27.31") = -0.2182 y= 0.2182 x + 0.0684 @ Point 3 lies at the intersection of Eqs. (1) and (2) y= 0.6324 x -0.00765 y= -0.2182 x + 0.0684 Solving simultaneously: x= 0.0894 y= 0.0489 xs, Ys) = (0.0894, 0.0489) 18CHAPTER 14 JE —— 2 ™, XN ex (Cy, -C,,) cosa 141 = (C,,-C,,) sine (@) Using straight Newtonian theory: C= 2 sin? a For a= 5°; ¢, sin? 5° = 0.0152 c, = 0.0152 cos 5° = [0151] cq 0.0152 sin 5° = .00132) For a= 15°: sin? 19° = 0.1340, C,, c, = 0.1340 cos 15°= (3.129) cq = 0.1340 sin 15° = 9.0347] usFor a= 30° pp = 2sin? 30° = 0.5 c, = 0.5 cos 30° = 9.433) ca= 0.5 sin 35° = 0.25} (b) Using modified Newtonian: sino o PemPe 2 (2 1) Yip, 7 Moir. M Mp. 2 C= ae 181-1) = 1.729 m= (1ay2.6)" ¢, = 0.0131 cos 5° ca= 0.0131 sin 5° =f.00114) For a= 15° oy = 1.729 sin? 15° = 0.1158 €, = 0.1158 cos 15° = P1119 ca= 0.1158 sin 15° = 9.030) For «= 30° C,, = 1.729 sin® 30° = 0.4323 ¢, = 0.4323 cos 30°= 0.374) c= 0.4323 sin 30° = P.214 v0Comparison; Mod. Exact c, Newtonian Newtonian « (rob. 9.13) & % exror ce % error ° 0.148 0.0151 90 0.0131 a 15° 0.452 0.129 n O19 2 752 30° 119 0.433 63.6 0.374 68.6 Mod. Exact c, Newtonian ‘Newtonian (Prob. 9.13) & % error ce % error 0.0129 0.00132 90 0.00114 a1 1s? 0.121 0.0347 n 0.03 152 30° 0.687 0.25 636 0216 68.6 Conclusion: Newtonian theory gives terrible results for a flat plate a moderate o at low ‘Supersonic Mach numbers. 142 M,=20 e 3 From Newtonian theory: Cy =2 sin? a =2 sin® 20° = 0.234 121c, =0.234 cosa= aq ca = 0.234 sin a= 0.0 2 ( From shock-expansion theory: nthe top surface: v2 — vy +9 = 1162 +20= 136.20 This is beyond the maximum expansion angle. Hence, a “void” exists on the top surface, ie, =O. On the bottom surface: From the 0-B-M diagram, B=24.9° M,, = M1 sin B= 20 sin 24.9° = 8.4 Bs Pr 82.15 From Prob. 9.13: ene dy (2-2) ove “Me Mp PD and sing camo, cosa 2 954 = (82.15 ~0) cos 20°= 0.2757 Gayo es= 0.2757 Tan 20°=0.100 For og: % error = 92757-0220 _ 29% 027 For cy: %error= 2100-008 «2994 010 Note: Newtonian theory works much better for blunt bodies, i.e, for large values of 8.(®) Use Bq, (14.7) to estimate the pressure at point A. We first need to obtain ‘Cyax Which is a function of po2/px. From Appendix B for Me = 20, po2/Po = 0.5155 x 10°. Hence, 2 -} = *__. (6153-1) = 1.837 (14207 From Eq, (14.7), at point A on the surface Cy, = Cama sin” 0 = (1.837) sin? 20°= 0.2149 Since c= (2s i) * ¥ MU \Pe then, M2C, ? Pa 7 MC 4 = CANE 02149) 1 6147 Po 2 2 Hence, Pa=61.17 3.06 (®) The stagnation temperatuié is found from Eq. (8.40) a +o [P= 140.220) 81 7 ‘Assuming an isentropic flow from the stagnation point to point A, 13Pa _ Palo -( Poo Poa /Pa or, any? 02857 5 Set)" = = 0.5439 e=(Sig) “OnE TAT, o Tax gt] Ton © 5439)(81)(500) = B2,028°R] (Please note. Relative to our discussion in Problems 8.17 and 8.18, we know this estimate of Ta to be too large because we are not taking into account the effect of chemically reacting flow.) (©) At point A, for an isentropic flow, po. = Po2 f = Poa — (uS Ay) Pa 2 i _ Pop /Pe _ 5155 Pa/Pa OLI7 =8.427 (8.42787 = 1.8385 ‘My? = (1.8385 ~ 1) —=— = (0.8385)(5) = 4.1925 @ an= PRT, = YONA E2,028) = 7275 fsec [Ad x 10" ise Va =a Ma = (7275)(2.05) Note: Once again, this estimate of Va is t90 high because Ta, hence aa, is too high. Also note: The purpose of this problem is to illustrate that, from the Newtonian sine- «law for pressure variations, the other flow field quantities can also be obtained. squé 1aCHAPTER 15 15.1 (@) Since the plates are infinite in length, u= u(y) only. Also, v= 0, ic. the flow is in the x-direction only. The governing equation is Eq. (15.18a), which reduces to the following u = u(y), v= 0 and p= const. a gy au ( y Integrating: pusayter Aty™0,u=0: o=0 Atyshusue pue=crh Thus: ‘The velocity variation is linear between the plates. en eth OF t 125( r) it -( 320)" 28816+110 _ | ogg T) Trio \osgi6/ “3204110 p= 1.084 jlo = 1.084 (1.7894 x 10°) = 1.94 x 10° Ks wm see 30 -c.9ta105 (22) = EST F=(L94x 109 (55 im’ ‘The shear stress is constant, and hence is the same on the top and bottom walls. 152 u=n(y), v= 0, p=pX) 0 2,4 (a) ae” dy ay Aty=0,u=0. Thus 0 126(B3 The velocity profile is parabolic. (2 an 2u On the bottom plate, y= 0: r=p 2 dy (2) 2, (#) Vad a” Ve) 2p du . On the top plate, y=h: x=} (5) since dy is negative, ie. the distance away fiom the top ly plate is in the downward (negative direction) -wie(22)® (8) 2) oe Lax) 2, h (2) 2 Vax For both the top and bottom walls, Shear stress varies linearly with the magnitude of the pressure gradient. Note: Due to the content of chapters 16, 17, and 18, no homework problems are required. 12719.1 1 mishr= 0.4471 mm/sec Vom (14128) 04471 _m/see} - 63.04 m/sec fr) mi/ hr Rep= PaNe® _ (123X600) _ 6 93 5 196 Be 1.7894 x 10° 2 _ 1328 rae Re, 693 x 10° ‘Notting that drag exists on both the bottom and top surfaces, we have Dy=2 qu S Cr 2(¥2)(1.23)(63.04)°(9.75)(1.6)(5.04 x 10°) = 58.4 074-0074 Wo 3.17x 107 Re, (693x10°)' ) = Couns. 59.4) = 317 X10" 59.4) = BTS Dr 3 (Coie 504 x 10 Note that turbulent skin friction is 6.28 times larger than the laminar value. 5.0x (5.0)(1.6) ce 19.2 = a = 3.04 x 10 m= 1.304 em) . VRe, 693 x 10° ae 037s 037009) o> 545 10%m= Estee © Re,” (6.93x10°)* a Bs 193 Transition 128Qo ™ V2 (1.23)(63.04)' = 2444 Nim? VuG% Re.= 5x 108 PaVe C= %e) He Sx 10H, _ (Sx10°)(17894 x 10%) PAV, (1.23)(6304) (1 Xe) =0.1154m Dr= Qe S Ce= (2444)(0.1154)(9.75)(1.878 x 10°) =5.16N Turbulent drag on (x1 - x0): Cr tas ys 75.36 x 107 (5 x 10°)! de= (2382107) 55-1425 1878 x 10°) From Prob. 19.1, the turbulent drag on (%— x.) was 241.5. Hence, Turbulent drag on (2 - x1) = 241.5 — 14.73 = 226.8 N Total skin friction drag = [Laminar drag on (Xt —x.)] + (Turbulént drag on (x2~ x1)] = 5.16 +2268 = 232 19.4 Atstandard sea level: p= 0.002377 slug/ft To=519°R awa RT = (OAATIGVSIS) = 1117 ft/sec Voo= Me de #4 (1117) * 4468 filsec 129£002377)(5868)5/12) _ 1 9 5 49? 3.7373 x 107 TIncompressible Cr= C,, = 7228 - 1378 __ = 3.36610" Re. From Fig, 18.8 CHC, = 0.85; Cr= 3.286 x 10 Dy= qu S$ Cr= (YoX.002377)(4468)'(5/12)G.286 x 10°) Dr= 8.24819 on one side of the plate. 19.5 For incompressible flow: 0.074 0.074 c 7 w Re, (18 x 10°) =2.85 x 107 From Fig. 19.1: Cr~ 16x 10? (The effect of Mach number is to reduce Cy by about 44% in this case.) From Prob. 19.4, the laminar value of Dy is 3.248 for a value of Cr= 3.286 x 10*. Hence, the turbulent value is Dre (2800) 6.248) = E215 3286 x 10% 19.6 FromEq, (18.32): a aia a =< = — 1) mae 2 («8 ® From Eq. (18.41) with Pr= 1 @) Eqs. (1) and (2) are identical. Hence 130hho= e+ cp u, where cy and cp are constants. Atthe wall, u=0 and hy= 2. by. Hence, he= C1 +0, oF ¢)=By At the boundary layer edge: by, =c1+ eo Ue hy +670, Thus: hy= ey ep = byt Since =p T, then 2 Tt (1, Te) 19.7 From Eq, (18.70), .763 Pr (Dette) ow —by) qQ) where, from Eq. (18.82), the velocity gradient is given by da, 1 [Ped & R Q) The subscript ¢ denotes properties at the Outer edge of the stagnation point boundary layer, i.e., pe and pe are the inviscid stagnation point values of pressure and density. The speed of sound it the ambient atmosphere is ae PRT, = (COBY 314.5 m/sec (@) For Vs = 1500 m/sec, we have 131__ 1500 Me= a, 314, 477 From Appendix B (nearest entry), Po2 39.59 Pe and from Appendix A (nearest entry), Pe = (29.52)(583.59) = 1.723 x 10¢ Nin? Tos Te= (5.512)(246.1) = 1357 K 1.723 x 10 (287)(1357) = 0.044 kg/m* From Southerland’s law, Eq. (15.3), using the standard sea level value of jty = 1.7894 x 10° kg/(an)(sec) at Ty = 288K, we have (2)"s +110 (3)"( 288-110) ay (n) Ten" Vase) 13574110 he = (2.7T)(1.789 x 10°) = 4.957 x 10° ke/(mm)(sec) From Eq. (2) above 1 {20.723 x 10‘ —58359) (0.0254) V 0044 =3.42x 10/sec Pe ‘Assuming a recovery factor r= 1, then lew = ho. io y, (1500)? = cp To + —2— = (1008)(246.1) + 7? eae 8)(246.1) + “=F Baw = Bo = bio = 2.48 x 10° + 11.25 x 10° = 13.73 x 10° joule/kg, Baw = ¢p Tw = (1008)(400) = 4.032 x 108 joule/kg ° 132The “rho-mu” product is (kg)? m* sec Pelle = (1.044)(4.957 x 10°) = 2.18 x 10°° From Eq. (1) above qa = 0.763 Pro (Patt) Ge Ber Be) = 0.763 (0.72)? (2.18-x 103.42 x 108)” (13.73 — 4.032) x 10° Joules 693 =3693 2S seo(m®) m () For Vx. = 4500 m/sec, we have Ve _ 4500 Mo= —* =~ = 1431 a, 3145 From Appendix B (interpolated) Pea. 264.0 Pe From Appendix A (interpolated) t, sen ai94 xray Pe * (264)(583.59) = 1.54 x 10° Nim? 1.94 (246.1) = 10,321 K Pe __154 x 10° RT, ds/doszy | °°? Kem @) T.+10 (10223)"( 248110) . T, T,+110 288 10321+110- 133He = (8.186)(1.7894 x 10%) = 1.465 x 10° ke/(m)(sec) From Eq. (2) 1 (0.0254) fos x 107 58559) 0.052 v2 Baw = at = 2.48 x 10 + ao = 1.037 x 107 jouleske patie = (0.052)(1.465 x 104) =7.62x 106 8) mi sec ay = 0.763 PF (pa) PE Chay) i = 0.763 (0.72)? (7.62 x 10°)(9.56 x 10°)” (1.037 x 10” - 4.032 x 10°) 2.218 x 10% SAS mi Comparing the results from parts (a) and (b), we note AM) soy _ 2218 x 10" ( 3693 ‘When the velocity increased from 1500 m/sec to 4500 m/sec, a factor of 3, the heat transfer increased by a factor of 60. This illustrates the rapid growth of the importance of acrodynamic heating as vehicles fly faster, well into the hypersonic flight regime. A simple, approximate analysis for aerodynamic heating which assumes very high Mach numbers (s0 that hyy >> hy) indicates that aerodynamic heating is proportional to V..". (See for example, Anderson, Introduction of Flight, 4" ed., McGraw-Hill, 2000, page 570.) For the present example, in going from a relatively low, not quite hypersonic condition (Mz. 4.77) 10 a relatively high Mach number of Ma, = 14.31, the increase was even faster. 134