sensors

Article
Integrity Testing of Pile Cover Using Distributed
Fibre Optic Sensing
Yi Rui 1 , Cedric Kechavarzi 1 , Frank O’Leary 2 , Chris Barker 2 , Duncan Nicholson 2 and
Kenichi Soga 3, *
1 Centre for Smart Infrastructure & Construction, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge,
Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK; yr228@cam.ac.uk (Y.R.); ck209@cam.ac.uk (C.K.)
2 Arup Group Limited, London W1T 4BQ, UK; Frank.OLeary@arup.com (F.O.); Chris.Barker@arup.com (C.B.);
Duncan.Nicholson@arup.com (D.N.)
3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley, CA 94720-1234, USA
* Correspondence: soga@berkeley.edu; Tel.: +1-510-664-7534

Received: 17 November 2017; Accepted: 14 December 2017; Published: 19 December 2017

Abstract: The integrity of cast-in-place foundation piles is a major concern in geotechnical engineering.
In this study, distributed fibre optic sensing (DFOS) cables, embedded in a pile during concreting, are
used to measure the changes in concrete curing temperature profile to infer concrete cover thickness
through modelling of heat transfer processes within the concrete and adjacent ground. A field trial
was conducted at a high-rise building construction site in London during the construction of a 51 m
long test pile. DFOS cables were attached to the reinforcement cage of the pile at four different axial
directions to obtain distributed temperature change data along the pile. The monitoring data shows
a clear development of concrete hydration temperature with time and the pattern of the change
varies due to small changes in concrete cover. A one-dimensional axisymmetric heat transfer finite
element (FE) model is used to estimate the pile geometry with depth by back analysing the DFOS data.
The results show that the estimated pile diameter varies with depth in the range between 1.40 and
1.56 m for this instrumented pile. This average pile diameter profile compares well to that obtained
with the standard Thermal Integrity Profiling (TIP) method. A parametric study is conducted to
examine the sensitivity of concrete and soil thermal properties on estimating the pile geometry.

Keywords: distributed fibre optic sensing; pile; heat transfer; integrity testing; finite element

1. Introduction
Pile foundations have been in use for thousands of years [1] while concrete piles have become
particularly widespread in the last 50 years. However, the growing use of larger diameter and longer
piles has resulted in increased concern over the integrity and quality of cast-in-place foundation piles.
This is compounded by the difficulty of inspection due to the large depth, limited accessibility and
potential instability of shafts [2]. Moreover, the repair work of pile foundations is difficult and costly if
large defects occur [3–5]. Therefore, testing techniques for the integrity of bored pile are highly valued.
Traditional integrity testing methods includes cross-hole sonic logging (CSL), sonic echo (SE) testing,
radiation based gamma-gamma logging (GGL), and, more recently, thermal integrity testing methods
such as thermal integrity profiling or TIP [5–10].
Thermal integrity testing relies on measuring the amount of heat generated by a concrete element
during curing. For a pile, the heat generated and its dissipation rate at a given location are a function
of the concrete mix, the pile radius and the ground conditions. However, some defects such as poor
quality concrete, necking, bulging, voids or soil inclusions will cause local abnormalities in temperature
near the defect. Typically, an area in the concrete cover with temperature measurements lower than

Sensors 2017, 17, 2949; doi:10.3390/s17122949 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

 Sensors 2017, 17, 2949

temperature near the defect. Typically, an area in the concrete cover with te
lower than the overall cover average in the same ground layer would indic
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 2 of 21
volume and therefore a likely decrease in pile diameter. Inversely, higher te
an increased concrete volume such as a bulge [11,12]. Hence, temperature
the overall cover average in the same grounddepths intervals
layer would alonga reduction
indicate the reinforcement
in concrete cage and and
volume at various locations
provide thermal profiles from which
therefore a likely decrease in pile diameter. Inversely, higher temperature would indicate an increased the pile shape uniformity can be as
concrete volume such as a bulge [11,12]. Hence, measured
temperaturetemperature
measurementsto thatatexpected for theintervals
regular depths concrete mix used, the
conditions and the ground thermal properties.
along the reinforcement cage and at various locations around its circumference provide thermal profiles Furthermore, the method c
from which the pile shape uniformity can beconcentricity within thethe
assessed by comparing concreted
measured shaft since eccentricity
temperature to that would result in d
on opposite sides of the cage.
expected for the concrete mix used, the given pile-soil boundary conditions and the ground thermal
properties. Furthermore, the method can be used Distributed
to assess cage fibre concentricity
optic sensingwithin (DFOS) theis concreted
gaining prominence in the
monitoring
shaft since eccentricity would result in differences because ofon
in temperature several
opposite advantages
sides of the such as high spatial density of
cage.
Distributed fibre optic sensing (DFOS) is gaining prominence in the field of structural in
and reliability. It has been used successfully several applications
health
monitoring because of several advantages such as high spatial density of data, ease of installation and of thermal pile u
performance of ageing or new tunnels [13–15]; the behavior
and thermal
reliability. It has been used successfully in several load [16–19];
applications displacement
such as monitoring theof diaphragm of
performance walls induced by e
ageing or new tunnels [13–15]; the behavior of thermal pile under coupled mechanical and thermal of delamination
crack of concrete pavement [21]; initiation and propagation
load [16–19]; displacement of diaphragm concrete overlayby
walls induced [22]; and is now
excavation regularly
[20]; strain and usedcrack
as theofpreferred method
tests [23].
concrete pavement [21]; initiation and propagation of delamination of ultra-highperformance concrete
This study
overlay [22]; and is now regularly used as the preferred methodproposes to build onpile
for preliminary the load
standard
tests thermal
[23]. integrity metho
of distributed
This study proposes to build on the standard thermalfibre opticsmethod,
integrity sensingor asTIP,
an alternative
through the touse
conventional therma
of distributed fibre optics sensing as an alternative to conventional thermal probes inserted through approach has pr
access tubes or embedded thermal sensors [10]. This
access tubes or embedded thermal sensors [10]. discrete instrumentation
This approach because
has promising it provides
advantages overa discrete
high spatial density of d
instrumentation because it provides a high temperature
spatial density points can where
of data, be obtained alongof
thousands and around a curing concrete el
temperature
ease of installation of unobtrusive
points can be obtained along and around a curing concrete element, and because of the ease fibre optic cables and ofthe very low failu
addition it is proposed that the data are
installation of unobtrusive fibre optic cables and the very low failure rate of such sensors. In addition analysed in conjunction with heat t
it is proposed that the data are analysed in taking into account
conjunction with heat thetransfer
thermal process
properties of the ground
modelling takingstrata in an attemp
of the thermal integrity testing method.
into account the thermal properties of the ground strata in an attempt to improve the reliability of the
thermal integrity testing method. This paper presents a case study of a thermal integrity test carried out
pile in London test
This paper presents a case study of a thermal integrity using a DFOS
carried out technique knownconcrete
on a large bored as Brillouin Optical Tim
(BOTDR). BOTDR was used
pile in London using a DFOS technique known as Brillouin Optical Time Domain Reflectometryto derive temperature profiles along the pile d
(BOTDR). BOTDR was used to derive temperature the data were subsequently
profiles along the analysed
pile during by aconcrete
one-dimensional
curing axisymmetric h
and the data were subsequently analysed by a one-dimensional axisymmetric heat transfer finite from the therm
model. It is shown that the pile diameter profile evaluated
model profile
element model. It is shown that the pile diameter is in relatively
evaluatedgood from agreement
the thermalwith data conventional
and heat TIP results.
transfer model is in relatively good agreement conducted to examineTIP
with conventional theresults.
sensitivity of the concrete
A parametric studyand wassoil thermal prope
conducted to examine the sensitivity of the concrete and soil thermal properties in estimating the piletechnique.
profile using this DFOS-based thermal integrity testing
profile using this DFOS-based thermal integrity testing technique.
2. Measuring Principle of the Fibre Optic Sensing Technique Used in Th
2. Measuring Principle of the Fibre Optic Sensing TheTechnique
DFOS method Used usedin This in Study
this study is BOTDR, which is based
The DFOS method used in this studyscattering.
is BOTDR, In which
general,is itbased
relieson onspontaneous
the fact that Brillouin
when light travels throug
amount is backscattered due to small refractive-index
scattering. In general, it relies on the fact that when light travels through an optical fibre a small or density fluctuation
spectrum has
amount is backscattered due to small refractive-index variousfluctuations.
or density componentsThe including the Brillouin
backscattered light frequency peak
spectrum has various components including sensitive to density
the Brillouin changes
frequency caused
peaks, theby external
position of factors
which such
is as strain and t
Brillouin scattering arises
sensitive to density changes caused by external factors such as strain and temperature. from the interaction of the incident li
propagating
Brillouin scattering arises from the interaction densitylight
of the incident waveswave orphotons
acousticwith phonons. These acoustic vibrati
propagating
thermal agitation of atoms in silica
density waves or acoustic phonons. These acoustic vibrations are generated by the thermal agitation fibres and lead to density and refract
of atoms in silica fibres and lead to density and refractive-index fluctuations. As long as the amount of fluctuations is t
long as the amount of light that is scattered by thermal
light that is scattered by thermal fluctuationsfluctuations
is too small to in excite
the density
furtheroffluctuations
the medium, in the
the process
density of is known as sponta
[24]. The scattering is inelastic and the
the medium, the process is known as spontaneous Brillouin scattering [24]. The scattering is inelastic photons may lose or gain energ
and the photons may lose or gain energy (Stokes processes)andand create orprocesses)
anti-Stokes absorb phonons. Thisor
and create shift in photon energy cor
absorb
phonons. This shift in photon energy correspondsfrequency of the
to a shift in scattered
the frequency lightof wave called Brillouin
the scattered light wavefrequency shift. This
11 GHz from the incident light wave frequency
called Brillouin frequency shift. This shift is in the order of 10–11 GHz from the incident light wave at a wavelength of 1550 nm.
frequency at a wavelength of 1550 nm. The peak of this Brillouin peak frequency, ѵ ,, is proportional
value frequency, is proportional to th
g this DFOS-based thermal sensitive
integrity
monitoring
2. Measuring toPrinciple
density
testing
because changes
technique.
ofoftheseveral caused
Fibre by external
advantages
Optic Sensing such factors
as high
Technique such as strain
spatial
Used and temperature.
density
in This of
Studydata, ease of installation
Brillouin scattering arises from the
and reliability. It has been used successfully in several applications such interaction of the incident light wave photons with
as monitoring the
The DFOS method
propagating density used inorthis
waves study phonons.
acoustic is BOTDR, These which is based
acoustic on spontaneous
vibrations are generatedBrillouinby the
g Principle of the Fibre Optic SensingofTechnique
performance ageing or new Used in This
tunnels Studythe behavior of thermal pile under coupled mechanical
[13–15];
scattering.
thermal In general,ofitatoms
agitation relies in onsilica
the fact fibres that andwhen leadlight travelsand
to density through an optical fibre a small As
refractive-index
FOS method used inamount thisand
studythermal
is load [16–19];
BOTDR, which displacement
is based on of diaphragm
spontaneous walls induced
Brillouin by excavationfluctuations.
[20]; strain and
long is
as backscattered
the amount due
of to
light small
that refractive-index
is scattered by or
thermaldensity fluctuations.
fluctuations is Thesmall
too backscattered
to excitelight
further
n general, it reliesSensors crack
2017,
onspectrum
the 17, of
fact 2949concrete
that when pavement
light travels [21]; initiation
through an and propagation
optical fibre a of delamination of ultra-highperformance
small 3 of 21
has
fluctuations various
in the components
density of the including
medium, the
the Brillouin
process frequency
is known aspeaks, the
spontaneous position of
Brillouin which is
scattering
ackscattered due to small concrete overlayor
refractive-index [22];
densityand fluctuations.
is now regularly The used as the preferred
backscattered light method for preliminary pile load
sensitive
[24]. to density changes caused and by external factorsmay suchlose as strain and temperature.
testsThe
s various components including [23]. scattering
the Brillouin
is inelastic
frequency peaks,
the photons
the position of which
or gain
is
energy (Stokes and anti-Stokes
Brillouin
processes) scattering
andacoustic
create arises
or absorb from the
phonons. interaction
Thisrefractive of
shiftthermal the
in photon incident
energy light wave
corresponds photons with
to the velocity
density changes caused by This
external
of the
study
factors proposes
such
phonons,
as to build
strain
υ a ,on
and
and the phase
standard
temperature.
index, n,
integrity which depend
method, TIP,tothrough
or essentially a shift
on in the
the use
propagating
the localfrequency
temperature density
of the and waves
scattered
material or acoustic
light wave
density: phonons.
called These
Brillouin acoustic
frequency vibrations
shift. This are
shift generated
is in the by
order the
of 10–
n scattering arises thermal
from of distributed
theagitation
interaction fibre optics
of the sensing
incident as an
light alternative to conventional thermal probes inserted through
11 GHz from theofincident
atoms inlight
silicawave fibres andwave
frequency lead at aphotons
to density with
wavelength andofrefractive-index
1550 nm. The value fluctuations. As
of this Brillouin
density waves or acoustic access tubes
phonons. or
Theseembeddedacoustic thermal
vibrations sensors are2nυ [10].
generated This by approach
the has promising advantages over
long as
peak the amount
frequency, of light that is scattered ѵ ,= by thermal
a fluctuations
is spatial
proportional is too
to of small
thedata, to
velocity excite further
of thousands
the(1)acousticof
ation of atoms in silica discrete
fibres andinleadinstrumentation
to density because
andmedium, it provides
refractive-index a high
λ fluctuations. density where
fluctuations the density of the the process is known As as spontaneous Brillouin scattering
amount of light that[24]. temperature
is scattered by points can
thermal be obtained
fluctuations is along
too and to
small around
excite afurther
curing concrete element, and because of the
where λeaseThe scattering
is the wavelength is inelastic
of unobtrusive and
the incident light. the photons may lose or gain energy (Stokes and anti-Stokes
medium,ofthe
in the density of the processes) installation
and process
create is
or
of
known
absorb asphonons.
fibre optic
spontaneous This
cables and
Brillouin
shift in
the very low failure rate of such sensors. In
scattering
photon energy corresponds to a shift ininthe
The relationship
addition it is maybetween that
proposed this the frequency
data areand changes
analysed in in longitudinal
conjunction with strain
heat and temperature
transfer process modelling
attering is inelastic and the photons lose or gain energy (Stokes and anti-Stokes
thefrequency
fibretaking of the scattered
core/cladding
intoshift
account can be light wave called
approximated
the thermal properties by Brillouin
a linear frequency
function
of thetoground so shift.
that This shift is in the order of 10–
[25,26]:
nd create or absorb phonons.
11 GHz from This in photon
the incident light wave energy corresponds
frequency a shiftstrata
at a wavelength inofthe in an attempt to improve the reliability
1550 nm. The value of this Brillouin
f the scattered light wave of the thermal integrity testing method.
peakcalled Brillouin frequency shift. This
frequency, ∆ѵ ,= shift is in
∆ε +C theis∆Torder of 10– to the velocity of the acoustic
proportional
m the incident light wave frequency This at paper presents aofcase
a wavelength 1550 study
nm. The ofCaεvalue
thermal T integrity test carried out on a large bored
of this Brillouin
(2)concrete
pile in London using a DFOS technique known of aas Brillouin
acousticOptical Time Domain Reflectometry
ncy, where ∆ѵ ,is the change is proportional
in Brillouin frequency to the velocity due to thesimultaneous change in strain, ∆ε, and
(BOTDR). BOTDR was used to derive temperature profiles along the pile during concrete curing and
in temperature, ∆T. Cε and CT are referred to as the strain and the temperature coefficient of the
the data were subsequently analysed by a one-dimensional axisymmetric heat transfer finite element
Brillouin frequency shift, respectively. This relationship is valid for a wide range of temperature
model. It is shown that the pile diameter profile evaluated from the thermal data and heat transfer
and only deviates at very low or high temperatures [21,27].These coefficients depend on the material
model is in relatively good agreement with conventional TIP results. A parametric study was
composition and geometry of the optical fibre and for standard telecommunication single mode fibres,
conducted to examine the sensitivity of the concrete and soil thermal properties in estimating the pile
used with BOTDR, Cε and CT will vary slightly at around values of 500 MHz/% and 1 MHz/◦ C,
profile using this DFOS-based thermal integrity testing technique.
respectively, at the operating wavelength of 1550 nm. However, note that, once the optical fibre is
packaged into a cable, this value of the strain coefficient can only be achieved if the strain applied to the
2. Measuring Principle of the Fibre Optic Sensing Technique Used in This Study
cable jacket is fully transferred to the fibre through the cable layers. This need for good strain transfer
within cablesThe thatDFOS
are robust method enough usedto in this study
survive the harsh is BOTDR,
environment whichof is mostbased on spontaneous
industrial applications Brillouin
poses significant challenges in the design of specialist strain cables since standard telecommunication a small
scattering. In general, it relies on the fact that when light travels through an optical fibre
amount
cables cannot beisused.
backscattered
In any case, due to small
these cablesrefractive-index
should be calibrated or densitywithin fluctuations.
the range ofThe backscattered
strain expected light
spectrum has various components including the Brillouin
for the application they are to be used for. This can be achieved by using strain rigs in which the cable frequency peaks, the position of which is
sensitive
is elongated by a to density
known changes
strain and by caused
measuring by external factors frequency
the Brillouin such as strain under and temperature.
constant temperature
Brillouin scattering arises from the interaction
to derive the strain coefficient but also ensure that the relationship between strain and frequency of the incident light wave photons is with
propagating density waves or acoustic
linear, with no hysteresis, and that the strain transfer is uniform along the cable. phonons. These acoustic vibrations are generated by the
In thermal agitation ofsince
most applications, atoms in silica fibres
variations in either andtemperature
lead to density and refractive-index
or strain can cause the Brillouin fluctuations. As
frequency to change, as in Equation (1), it is necessary to distinguish between these two effects,excite
long as the amount of light that is scattered by thermal fluctuations is too small to if one further
fluctuations in the density of the medium, the
measures the Brillouin frequency change alone. One common solution to this problem, when using process is known as spontaneous Brillouin scattering
standard [24]. The scattering
BOTDR, is to use aisseparateinelastictemperature
and the photons may losecable
compensation or gain
placed energyadjacent(Stokesto theand anti-Stokes
strain
processes) and create or absorb phonons. This shift
cable. This cable is commonly of a gel-filled loose tube construction where the optical fibre is isolated in photon energy corresponds to a shift in the
frequencystrain
from mechanical of theeffects.
scattered Hence, lightinwave this loosecalledtube Brillouin
cable the frequency
frequency shift. This is
change shift is in the
a linear order of 10–
function
11 GHz from the
of the temperature variations only: incident light wave frequency at a wavelength of 1550 nm. The value of this Brillouin
peak frequency, ѵ
∆ = β∆T , is proportional to the velocity of the(3)acoustic

where, β, is a constant obtained through temperature calibration representing a lump coefficient

taking into account temperature effects as well as thermal expansion of the optical fibre in the loose
tube [28]. Hence, temperature changes, ∆T, can be calculated independently and substituted into
Equation (2) to obtain strain changes by measuring the central Brillouin frequency in both cables using
a spectrum analyser as described below. The frequency in both cables can be measured simultaneously
by splicing the cables into a single loop to avoid multiplexing through multiple channels. No strain
data is used in this study and the strain data obtained during pile load test data is presented in details
in Pelecanos et al. [23]. Hence, Equation (3) is used to solely calculate temperature changes during
concrete curing at every sampling point to construct temperature profiles. The properties of the
temperature cable used in this study are discussed in the next section.
BOTDR is a single ended technique where a light pulse is launched into one end of an optical
fibre and the power of the spontaneous Brillouin backscattering is measured from the same end using
a spectrum analyser. This power is measured in the time domain, by either heterodyne detection with
a coherent receiver or optical frequency discrimination method by using a rejection filter to eliminate
Rayleigh scattering signal [29]. In the heterodyne detection method, spectral filtering is achieved
conditions and the ground thermal properties. Furthermore, the method can be used to assess cage
concentricity within the concreted shaft since eccentricity would result in differences in temperature
on opposite sides of the cage.
Distributed fibre optic sensing (DFOS) is gaining prominence in the field of structural health
monitoring
Sensors 2017, 17,because
2949 of several advantages such as high spatial density of data, ease of installation 4 of 21
and reliability. It has been used successfully in several applications such as monitoring the
performance of ageing or new tunnels [13–15]; the behavior of thermal pile under coupled mechanical
by mixing
and thermal the
load backscattered light with an optical local oscillator before detection, or a microwave
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949[16–19]; displacement of diaphragm walls induced by excavation [20]; strain and 4 of 21
crack of concreteafter
local oscillator detection,
pavement followedand
[21]; initiation by propagation
narrow bandoffiltering.
delamination This of
allows a narrow spectral
ultra-highperformance
resolution
so that one
concrete sofrequency
overlay that oneand
[22]; frequency
component component of the
of the backscattered
is now regularly used as thebackscattered
signal besignal
can method
preferred can
analysed be
at aanalysed
time. The
for preliminary atBrillouin
pilea load
time.
The Brillouin
spectrum
tests spectrum can be reconstructed by changing the frequency
[23]. can be reconstructed by changing the frequency of the local oscillator in successive of the local oscillator in
successive
increments. increments.
This study proposes to build on the standard thermal integrity method, or TIP, through the use
The
Theamplitude
of distributed amplitude ofofeach
fibre optics each frequencyas ancomponent
frequency
sensing componentto
alternative isismeasured
measuredininthe
conventional thetime
timedomain
thermal and
andtherefore
domaininserted
probes therefore
through the
the
spatial
spatial
access position,
position,
tubes z, from the
, from the
or embedded where the
where the
thermal pulsed
pulsed
sensors light is
light
[10]. Thislaunched
is launched to the
approachtohas position where
the promising
position where scattered light
scatteredover
advantages is
light
generated,
is generated,
discrete cancan be determined
instrumentationbe determined
because usingit the
using following
the
provides following equation
a high spatial[30]:
equation [30]: of data, where thousands of
density
temperature points can be obtained along and around ct a curing concrete element, and because of the
ease of installation of unobtrusive fibre optic cables z ==and the very low failure rate of such sensors. In (4)
2n2
addition it is proposed that the data are analysed in conjunction with heat transfer process modelling
wherec is
where the
is the light
light velocity
velocity invacuum
a vacuum
in aproperties and and theistime
t isground the interval
time interval between launching the pulsed
taking into account the thermal of the strata in anbetween
attemptlaunching
to improvethe thepulsed light
reliability
light and receiving the scattered light at the end of the optical fibre. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the
ofand
thereceiving the scattered
thermal integrity testing light at the end of the optical fibre. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the
method.
Brillouin
Brillouin gain spectrum
gain spectrum and a frequency shift due to a change in temperature.
This paper presents aand casea frequency
study of a shift
thermaldueintegrity
to a change testin temperature.
carried out on a large bored concrete
pile in London using a DFOS technique known as Brillouin Optical Time Domain Reflectometry
(BOTDR). BOTDR was used to derive temperature profiles along the pile during concrete curing and
the data were subsequently analysed by a one-dimensional axisymmetric heat transfer finite element
model. It is shown that the pile diameter profile evaluated from the thermal data and heat transfer
model is in relatively good agreement with conventional TIP results. A parametric study was
conducted to examine the sensitivity of the concrete and soil thermal properties in estimating the pile
profile using this DFOS-based thermal integrity testing technique.

2. Measuring Principle of the Fibre Optic Sensing Technique Used in This Study
The DFOS method used in this study is BOTDR, which is based on spontaneous Brillouin
scattering. In general, it relies on the fact that when light travels through an optical fibre a small
amount is backscattered due to small refractive-index or density fluctuations. The backscattered light
spectrum has various components including the Brillouin frequency peaks, the position of which is
sensitive to density changes caused by external factors such as strain and temperature.
Brillouin scattering arises from the interaction of the incident light wave photons with
propagating density waves or acoustic phonons. These acoustic vibrations are generated by the
thermal agitation of atoms in silica fibres and lead to density and refractive-index fluctuations. As
long as the amount of light that is scattered by thermal fluctuations is too small to excite further
fluctuations in the density of the medium, the process is known as spontaneous Brillouin scattering
[24]. The scattering is inelastic and the photons may lose or gain energy (Stokes and anti-Stokes
processes) and create or absorb phonons. This shift in photon energy corresponds to a shift in the
frequency of Figure
Figure 1.1.Brillouin
Brillouin
the scattered gainwave
light
gain spectrum and
called
spectrum and frequency
Brillouin
frequency shiftcaused
frequency
shift caused byaaThis
shift.
by change inintemperature.
shift
change istemperature.
in the order of 10–
11 GHz from the incident light wave frequency at a wavelength of 1550 nm. The value of this Brillouin
For each position, the frequency ѵ , corresponding to the peak topower of the Brillouin spectrum
For each position, the frequency ѵ ,, corresponding
peak frequency, is proportional
to the peak power the of
velocity of the spectrum
the Brillouin acoustic
(central frequency), can be determined by fitting the spectrum with an appropriate function such as
(central frequency), can be determined by fitting the spectrum with an appropriate function such as a
a Lorentzian curve [31].
Lorentzian curve [31].
One important characteristic of distributed fibre optic sensing systems based on Brillouin
One important characteristic of distributed fibre optic sensing systems based on Brillouin
scattering is the spatial resolution. The spatial resolution is the smallest distance over which strain or
scattering is the spatial resolution. The spatial resolution is the smallest distance over which strain or
temperature can be measured with full accuracy. It is determined by the pulse width of the incident
temperature can be measured with full accuracy. It is determined by the pulse width of the incident
light. Narrowing the pulse width to improve resolution has limitations because a pulse width shorter
light. Narrowing the pulse width to improve resolution has limitations because a pulse width shorter
than the phonon lifetime, which is approximately 10 ns in silica fibres, will lead to a broadened
than the phonon lifetime, which is approximately 10 ns in silica fibres, will lead to a broadened Brillouin
Brillouin gain spectrum, a weaker Brillouin signal and a sharp drop in measurement accuracy [24].
gain spectrum, a weaker Brillouin signal and a sharp drop in measurement accuracy [24]. Hence the
Hence the spatial resolution of most commercial BOTDR is limited to between 0.5 and 1 m [31].
spatial resolution of most commercial BOTDR is limited to between 0.5 and 1 m [31]. Nevertheless
Nevertheless data points can be sampled at intervals as low as a few centimetres by altering the
data points can be sampled at intervals as low as a few centimetres by altering the sampling rate of
sampling rate of the instrument digitizer. This so called sampling resolution is not a physical
the instrument digitizer. This so called sampling resolution is not a physical parameter and does not
parameter and does not improve the spatial resolution but it can contribute to the spatial accuracy
improve the spatial resolution but it can contribute to the spatial accuracy and the detection of physical
and the detection of physical events, notably sharp strain or temperature transitions. It is also worth
noting that, although it is possible to carry measurements over several kilometres along a single
optical fibre with BOTDR, larger pulse width and therefore lower spatial resolution is needed over
such distances because of the loss in power due to increased attenuation.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 5 of 21

events, notably sharp strain or temperature transitions. It is also worth noting that, although it is
possible to carry measurements over several kilometres along a single optical fibre with BOTDR, larger
pulse width and therefore lower spatial resolution is needed over such distances because of the loss in
power due to increased attenuation.
A BOTDR was used in this study because it had been primarily specified to measure strain during
load testing but provided a rare opportunity to gather temperature data during concrete curing for a
large test pile. It is important, however, to stress that there are other distributed fibre optic measuring
systems that can be used to obtain temperature distribution in concrete elements, often with greater
precision and spatial resolution than BOTDR. This includes Brillouin scattering based double ended
systems such as Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis (BOTDA) [22] or Raman scattering based
systems known as distributed temperature sensing (DTS) systems [32,33]. Commercial DTS systems
can only measure temperature but with higher accuracy and precision than Brillouin scattering based
systems. They, however, suffer from complex calibrations procedures, which require corrections when
optical losses occur through splices, connectors or macrobends [34].

3. Test Site and Instrumentation

3.1. Test Pile

The project considered in this paper is located on the Isle of Dogs in East London (UK). It consists
of a 60 storey tall tower with a two level basement. Two London Underground (LU) running tunnels
passing beneath the site about 13 m below the deepest excavation level, to which the building was
allowed to transfer just minimal load resulting in a stiff piled raft solution being employed which
transferred the building load to the large diameter piles either side of and between the tunnels. As the
building load was effectively spanning the 11 m exclusion zone around the tunnel, column loads of
up to 95 MN had to be accommodated. Such was the magnitude of the column loads that cast-in-situ
bearing piles founded in the Chalk stratum with diameters up to 2.4 m and 61 m long were required.
The novel nature of this pile type posed significant design and construction risk and therefore it was
decided that a preliminary test pile was required to mitigate this risk.
The test pile was constructed to closely match the methodology that would later be used for the
working piles. As the working piles would be required to drill past the LU tunnels during engineering
hours, when trains were no longer running and personnel could access the tunnels for monitoring
purposes, it was decided to construct the test pile over two days. This therefore removed any necessity
to reduce the shaft resistance parameters for the working piles due to the additional time required to
construct the pile. The preliminary test pile was a 1.5 m diameter bored pile to a toe level of −44.5 mOD
(50.9 m below ground level-bgl) and reinforcement cage diameter of 1350 mm, as shown in Figure 2a.
The pile was constructed under bentonite support fluid. Due to the time required to construct the pile
strict control was maintained over the bentonite properties. The reinforcement cage was assembled in
four sections spliced together using couplers as they were lowered into the shaft. Construction of the
pile took 47 h from first drilling below the permanent casing to completion of the placement of 90 m3
of concrete. The top 13 m of superficial soil is made ground. It is underlain by Lambeth Group, with a
thickness of 11 m, followed by 15 m of Thanet Sand. The lowest layer is chalk.
The pile was load tested using two No. 670 mm diameter bi-directional Osterberg load cells
located around 6 m above the pile toe. The pile was tested using Osterberg cells due the large forces
that were expected to be required to fail the pile (up to 87.5 MN). During the load test, the O-cells
expanded bi-axially and reached a maximum force load of 30.9 MN in each direction (61.8 MN in total).
The pile was monitored both during concrete curing and during subsequent load testing. The analysis
in this paper focuses on the temperature data collected during concrete curing. The interpretation of
the bi-directional O-Cell load test data is presented in Pelecanos et al. [23].
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 6 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 6 of 21

Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 6 of 21

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Geometry and instrumentation of the test pile: (a) plan view, (b) cross-section.
Figure 2. Geometry and instrumentation of the test pile: (a) plan view; (b) cross-section.
(a) (b)
3.2. Pile Instrumentation
Figure 2. Geometry and instrumentation of the test pile: (a) plan view, (b) cross-section.
3.2. Pile Instrumentation
A BOTDR DFOS instrumentation scheme was installed alongside conventional thermal integrity
A BOTDR
3.2. DFOS
Pilesensors
testing instrumentation
Instrumentation
(TIP) scheme
and standard loading testwas installed alongside
instrumentation conventional
to measure thermal
temperature, integrity
strain and
displacement
testing sensors during concrete curing and pile loading.
A BOTDR DFOS instrumentation scheme was installed alongside conventional thermal integrity and
(TIP) and standard loading test instrumentation to measure temperature, strain
displacement during
testing sensors concrete
(TIP) curing loading
and standard and piletest
loading.
instrumentation to measure temperature, strain and
3.2.1. Distributed Fibre Optic Sensing
displacement during concrete curing and pile loading.
3.2.1. Distributed Fibre
Both strain and Optic Sensing
temperature single mode optical fibre cables to be used with a BOTDR analyser
3.2.1. Distributed Fibre Optic Sensing
were installed ontemperature
the pile. The strain
Both strain and singlecable,
modewhich
opticalconsisted of a four-core
fibre cables to be used reinforced ribbon cable
with a BOTDR analyser
manufactured by Fujikura (Tokyo, Japan), was used to measure strain during the load test and is not
Both strain
were installed on theand temperature
pile. The strain single mode
cable, optical
which fibre cables
consisted of to be used with
a four-core a BOTDR ribbon
reinforced analysercable
discussed further since this study focuses on temperature during concrete curing. A detailed
were installed
manufactured on the pile.
by Fujikura The strain
(Tokyo, cable,
Japan), waswhich
used consisted of a four-core
to measure reinforced
strain during the ribbon cable
load test and is
description of the strain cable and its calibration is given in Kechavarzi et al. [28]. The temperature
manufactured
not discussed by
further Fujikura
since (Tokyo,
this study Japan), was
focuses used
on to measure
temperature strain during
during the
concrete load test
curing.andAis not
detailed
cable used in this study and shown in Figure 3 consisted of a standard gel-filled loose tube
discussed further since this study focuses on temperature during concrete curing. A detailed
description of the strain cable
telecommunication cable distributed
and its calibration
by Excelis(Birmingham,
given in Kechavarzi
UK). The et al.
6 mm[28].diameter
The temperature
cable was cable
description of the strain cable and its calibration is given in Kechavarzi et al. [28]. The temperature
used constructed
in this studyofand shown
a PVC in Figure
gel-filled loose3 tube
consisted
hostingof afour
standard
250 µmgel-filled loosefibres,
single mode tube telecommunication
surrounded by
cable used in this study and shown in Figure 3 consisted of a standard gel-filled loose tube
cablearamid
distributed by Excel
yarns and
telecommunication (Birmingham,
a plastic
cable distributed byUK).
outer sheath.
ExcelThe 6 mm diameter
(Birmingham, UK). The cable
6 mmwasdiameter
constructed
cableof a PVC
was
gel-filled loose tube
constructed of ahosting four 250
PVC gel-filled single
µmtube
loose modefour
hosting fibres,
250surrounded
µm single mode by aramid yarns and aby
fibres, surrounded plastic
outeraramid
sheath.yarns and a plastic outer sheath.

Figure 3. Construction details of the temperature cable (with permission from Kechavarzi et al. [28]).

Figure 3. Construction details of the temperature cable (with permission from Kechavarzi et al. [28]).
Figure 3. Construction details of the temperature cable (with permission from Kechavarzi et al. [28]).
 2017, 17,
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949
2949 7 of 21

The cable was calibrated in the laboratory over a range of temperature representative of the
The
conditions cable
found wason calibrated
site to obtain in the
the value
laboratory over acould
of β, which rangethenof temperature representative
be used in Equation of the
(2) to calculate
conditions found on site to obtain the value of β, which could then be
temperature changes from frequency shifts measured in the field. Approximately 10 m of cable was used in Equation (2) to calculate
temperature
coiled looselychanges
in a water frombath frequency shifts measured
(Grant Instruments in the field.
Ltd., Shepreth, UK,Approximately
model T100-ST18) 10 mand of cable was
Brillouin
coiled loosely in a water bath (Grant Instruments Ltd., Shepreth, UK,
central frequency changes measured using the BOTDR described below over the temperature range model T100-ST18) and Brillouin
central
of 5–85frequency
°C for one changes
heating measured usingcycle.
and cooling the BOTDR described
The overall below over
relationship the temperature
between temperature range of
and
5–85 ◦ C for during
one heating and cooling cycle.with
The overall relationship between temperature
frequency the cycle was linear coefficient of determination R of 0.998and andfrequency
β = 1.16
during the cycle was linear with coefficient of determination R 2
of 0.998 and β = 1.16 MHz/ ◦ C.
MHz/°C.
The
The temperature
temperaturecable cable sections
sections used for analysis
used in this
for analysis instudy consisted
this study of two cable
consisted of twoloopscableinstalled
loops
on four opposite sides along the pile. Their position is indicated in Figure
installed on four opposite sides along the pile. Their position is indicated in Figure 2b. The bottom2b. The bottom section of the
reinforcement cage was instrumented on the ground prior to lowering it into
section of the reinforcement cage was instrumented on the ground prior to lowering it into the drilled the drilled shaft. For each
loop,
shaft.half
For of
eachtheloop,
cablehalf
wasofpre-coiled
the cable onto two cable reels.
was pre-coiled The cable
onto two middle of the
reels. The loop was first
middle of the attached
loop was to
the bottom link of the cage and then both cable reels uncoiled along the entire
first attached to the bottom link of the cage and then both cable reels uncoiled along the entire length length of the bottom
cage
of theand attached
bottom cagetoandtheattached
rebars with cable
to the ties. with
rebars The cable
cable reels
ties. with the remainder
The cable reels withofthe theremainder
cables were of
secured to the top of the bottom cage. The bottom cage was lowered into
the cables were secured to the top of the bottom cage. The bottom cage was lowered into the borehole the borehole and when the
reels were reachable,
and when the reels werethey were removed
reachable, theyfromwere theremoved
cage andfrom placed
theon reeland
cage stands positioned
placed on reelon both
stands
sides of the on
positioned pileboth
(Figure
sides4).ofOnce the (Figure
the pile second 4).cage section
Once the had
secondbeen spliced
cage to the
section hadbottom cage section,
been spliced to the
the
bottom cage section, the cables were uncoiled from the reels and fastened tightly to the outside ofcage
cables were uncoiled from the reels and fastened tightly to the outside of the reinforcement the
using cable tiescage
reinforcement on reinforcement
using cable ties links
onas the cage was links
reinforcement gradually
as thelowered.
cage was The cable was
gradually sufficiently
lowered. The
robust
cable wasnot to collapse under
sufficiently robustthe pressure
not exerted
to collapse by the
under theties and create
pressure unwanted
exerted by therestriction
ties and of the
create
fibres. This installation process is shown in Figure 4.
unwanted restriction of the fibres. This installation process is shown in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Lowering
Lowering of
of reinforcement cages and
reinforcement cages and installation
installation of
of fibre
fibre optic
optic cables.
cables.

The above procedure was repeated with the subsequent cage sections. Outside the pile, the
The
cables above
were procedure
routed was repeated
to a monitoring with the
cabin where theysubsequent
were spliced cage sections.
together Outside
to form the pile,cable
a continuous the
cables were routed to a monitoring cabin where they were
allowing for a single connection point to the spectrum analyser. spliced together to form a continuous cable
allowing
The for a singleanalyser
spectrum connection point
used in to thestudy
this spectrum
was analyser.
a Neubrescope NBX-5000 BOTDR Analyser
The spectrum analyser used in this study
manufactured by Neubrex (Hyogo, Japan). The measurement was a Neubrescope NBX-5000
precision BOTDR Analyser
or repeatability of the
manufactured by Neubrex (Hyogo, Japan). The measurement precision or repeatability
analyser (twice the standard deviation of the noise), for the measured distance and the spatial of the analyser
(twice the standard
resolution used, was deviation
specifiedofas
the±2noise), for repeatability
°C. This the measuredor distance andwas
precision the tested
spatialin
resolution
situ overused,
two
was specified as ± 2 ◦ C. This repeatability or precision was tested in situ over two lower sections of
lower sections of approximately 40 m each for cables T-3 and T-4 one month after concrete curing.
approximately 40 mthe
This assumed that each for cables
ground T-3 and T-4
temperatures at one month
depth lower after
thanconcrete curing.
10 m would notThis assumed
change that the
significantly
over a day. The precision obtained over 30 consecutive measurements was ±2.6 °C, which is close to
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 8 of 21

ground temperatures at depth lower than 10 m would not change significantly over a day. The precision
obtained over 30 consecutive measurements was ±2.6 ◦ C, which is close to the specified value obtained
under ideal laboratory conditions. The spatial resolution, the minimum distance over which a change
in temperature need to occur to be detected with full accuracy, was 0.5 m. The sampling resolution, the
distance between two data points calculated from the time interval between two consecutive sampling
points digitised by the instrument, was 0.05 m. This provided data points every 0.05 m (or a total of
4000 data points over the four different axial sides of the pile) though each of them was affected by
temperature changes over the spatial resolution of 0.5 m. The acquisition time for each data set was 7
to 8 min, representing the time needed to average 216 measurements in order to obtain the required
precision. The analyser was operated continuously from the monitoring cabin within the specified
temperature operating range of 10–35 ◦ C.

3.2.2. Other Instrumentation

In addition to the distributed fibre optics, the test pile was instrumented with vibrating wire strain
gauges and extensometers. This supplemented the continuous strain data provided by the fibre optics
along the pile depth. These data, which broadly agreed with that provided by the DFOS method, are
presented in Pelecanos et al. [23] and are not discussed further in this paper.
The pile was also instrumented by the contractor with Thermal Integrity Profiling (TIP) wires,
consisting of cables with thermistors installed in series, to test the integrity of the pile concrete.
This method was chosen in preference to Crosshole Sonic logging to avoid the cage becoming overly
congested with the required access tubes. The principle of the method is described briefly in Section 1.
The cables with sensors were pre-attached to the reinforcement cage sections using cable ties and
connected together when the cage sections were being spliced as the cage was lowered into the shaft.
A total of six sensors arrays were as installed at various cross-sectional locations around the pile.
Each array had sensors spaced 0.30 m apart starting at the top of the pile all the way down to the toe.
Three of the arrays were partially faulty or did not record data for the first three days of curing and
are not considered here. Following concrete pouring, the arrays we connected to data loggers and
temperature recorded every 15 min. At specific times (usually 24 or 48 h after concrete placement) the
temperature profiles are converted into shaft diameters at every measurement location based on the
knowledge that temperature usually varies linearly with distance within the concrete cover (cover
thickness) where the sensors are located. It is the understanding of the authors that this commercial
method uses concrete logs to derive an average shaft diameter that, when compared with the average
shaft temperature, provides a constant from which changes in temperature can be converted into
changes in diameter [35].

4. Data Analysis and Interpretation

4.1. Field Data

The analysis in this paper focuses on temperature data collected during concrete curing.
Concreting of the pile was carried out on 31 January 2014 between 09:25 and 14:20 by tremie placement.
According to the concrete log, a total volume of 90 m3 was casted. DFOS data collection was initialised
at 15:48 with 7–8 min intervals between readings over a two-week period ending on 14 February 2014.
The temperature at 15:48 was chosen as the baseline, the temperature data presented in this paper
represent temperature changes relative to this baseline.
Figure 5 shows temperature change profiles along the entire shaft length from the four cables
at four stages. At the beginning, 4 h after the start of the measurements and therefore 5.3 h after
concrete placement, the temperature had drops by about 2 to 5 ◦ C along the shaft. This is possibly
due to the temperature of concrete coming into equilibrium with the ground temperatures before the
initiation of hydration and heat generation. The concrete mix was heavily retarded through the use of
admixtures, which would have delayed the setting time of the concrete and thus the commencement
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 9 of 21

of hydration. Between 4 and 14 h, the bottom of the pile started to heat up. The lower concrete was
poured up to 5 h earlier than the top giving the hydration process some lead-time over the rest of the
pile. At 1.4 days, the temperature profiles reach the maximum temperature values which had increased
by about 2017, 17,◦ C
Sensors14–20 compared to the baseline. Between 12 and 20 m, the temperature at locations
2949 9 of 21 of
Cables T-4 and T-1 is about 2–4 ◦ C lower than that at locations of cables T-3 and T-2. On the other hand,
locations of Cables T-4 and T-1 is about 2–4 °C lower than that at locations of cables T-3 and T-2. On
the trend is just opposite between 35 and 42 m. After that, the temperature reduces steadily towards
the other hand, the trend is just opposite between 35 and 42 m. After that, the temperature reduces
initial temperatures. During the hydration process, the pile does not see a uniform temperature along
steadily towards initial temperatures. During the hydration process, the pile does not see a uniform
its length, which along
temperature indicates that the
its length, concrete
which volume
indicates is concrete
that the not uniform either.
volume is not uniform either.

Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC)

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 0

10 10

20 20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

30 30

40 40

50 50

60 60
Cable T-1 Cable T-2
Cable T-1 Cable T-2
Cable T-3 Cable T-4

(a) (b)
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 0

10 10

20 20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

30 30

40 40

50 50

60 60
Cable T-1 Cable T-2 Cable T-1
Cable T-2
Cable T-3 Cable T-4 Cable T-3
(c) (d)
Figure 5. Longitudinal temperature profiles at (a) 4 h (b) 14 h (c) 1.4 days (d) 14 days.
Figure 5. Longitudinal temperature profiles at (a) 4 h (b) 14 h (c) 1.4 days (d) 14 days.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 10 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 10 of 21

Figure
Figure 66 shows
shows the the change
change in in temperature
temperature over over the
the two-week
two-week monitoring
monitoring period
period for
for two
two cross
cross
sections
sections of the temperature cables at depths of 15 and 35 m. The observed trend showed aa drop
of the temperature cables at depths of 15 and 35 m. The observed trend showed drop in
in
temperature over the first two hours to about 4 ◦ C below the initial temperature, as discussed earlier.
temperature over the first two hours to about 4 °C below the initial temperature, as discussed earlier.
The
The drop
drop was
was followed
followed by by aa steep
steep increase
increase inin the
the temperature
temperature for for the
the next
next 18
18 hh after
after which
which the
the rate
rate
of heating began to drop. The maximum temperature at the depths shown was 17 ◦ C warmer than
of heating began to drop. The maximum temperature at the depths shown was 17 °C warmer than
the
the initial
initial temperature
temperature and and was
was observed
observed between
between 30 30 and
and 4040 hh from
from the
the initial
initial reading.
reading. TheThe different
different
peak temperatures between the cables in each plot show that the pile did not see
peak temperatures between the cables in each plot show that the pile did not see a uniform maximum a uniform maximum
temperature ◦ C despite the rate of heating
temperature on oneach
eachcross
crosssection. The
section. difference
The ranged
difference between
ranged 3 and35and
between 5 °C despite the rate of
being similar across the cables. Closer to the top of the pile, the
heating being similar across the cables. Closer to the top of the pile, the T-1/T-4 T-1/T-4 side is cooler.side
However, at
is cooler.
lower depths the T-1/T-4 side is warmer. Steady cooling began after about 40
However, at lower depths the T-1/T-4 side is warmer. Steady cooling began after about 40 h with theh with the temperature
gradually
temperature reducing
gradually for reducing
the remainder
for theofremainder
the test. At ofthe
the end
test.of
Atthe
thetwo-week
end of themonitoring period the
two-week monitoring
temperature of the pile at these two locations was close to 5 ◦ C above the initial condition and had not
period the temperature of the pile at these two locations was close to 5 °C above the initial condition
reached
and had equilibrium.
not reached equilibrium.

20 Cable T-1
Temperature (ºC)

15 Cable T-2
10
5
0
-5
0 100 200 300 400
Time (h)
(a)
20
Temperature (ºC)

Cable T-1
15
10
5
0
-5
0 100 200 300 400
Time (h)
(b)
Figure 6. DFOS
Figure 6. DFOS temperature development over
temperature development over time
time at
at two
two depths:
depths: (a)
(a) 15
15 m;
m; (b)
(b) 35
35 m.
m.

4.2. Finite Element Model

4.2. Finite Element Model
As described above, there are four temperature readings on every cross sections at 0.05 m
As described above, there are four temperature readings on every cross sections at 0.05 m intervals
intervals along the four FO cables on the shaft length and therefore close to 4000 data sets of
along the four FO cables on the shaft length and therefore close to 4000 data sets of temperature-time
temperature-time curves. Each temperature profile is dependent on the combination of factors of
curves. Each temperature profile is dependent on the combination of factors of hydration heat and
hydration heat and the heat transfer between the pile and soil, as shown in Figure 7. These
the heat transfer between the pile and soil, as shown in Figure 7. These temperature curves can be
temperature curves can be computed by a thermal finite element (FE) analysis. If the temperature
computed by a thermal finite element (FE) analysis. If the temperature curve from the FE analysis can
curve from the FE analysis can match the DFOS data, it indicates that the assumed pile geometry in
match the DFOS data, it indicates that the assumed pile geometry in the FE model is close to the real
the FE model is close to the real situation. If not, by adjusting cover thickness (position of the pile/soil
situation. If not, by adjusting cover thickness (position of the pile/soil interface as shown in Figure 8),
interface as shown in Figure 8), the FE model can be optimised by dichotomy to better match the
the FE model can be optimised by dichotomy to better match the DFOS temperature data. Using
DFOS temperature data. Using this method, the cover thickness can be predicted at four locations on
this method, the cover thickness can be predicted at four locations on every cross sections at 0.05 m
every cross sections at 0.05 m intervals along the whole pile.
intervals along the whole pile.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 11 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 11 of 21

Figure 7.7.Conceptual
Figure Conceptualrelationship between
relationship DFOS
between temperature
DFOS and pile
temperature andradius on a typical
pile radius on a cross section.
typical cross
section.
During thermal integrity testing, heat conduction is the major form of heat transfer. The fundamental
During thermal
law governing integrityfor
heat conduction testing, heat conduction
this problem is the first lawis the major form of commonly
of thermodynamics, heat transfer. The
referred
fundamental law governing heat conduction for this problem is the
to as the principle of conservation of energy. The pile length is very large in comparison with the first law of thermodynamics,
commonly referred
dimensions to as the
of the structure principle
in the other two of conservation of energy.
horizontal directions. The away
Hence, pile length
from the is pile
veryends,largethein
comparison
heat transferwith the dimensions
is assumed to happen of the structure
in the horizontalin the other two
direction horizontal
only. directions.
On the other hand,Hence,
the thermalaway
from the pile ends, the heat transfer is assumed to happen in the
boundary condition at pile ends would have influence on the thermal behaviour of pile during the horizontal direction only. On the
other hand,
curing stage.the As thermal
can be seen boundary
in Figure condition
5c, as theat pile ends would
temperature have influence
of hydration reachesonitsthe thermal
maximum,
behaviour
large of pile during
temperature the curing
gradients stage. As can
have developed at thebe seen
upper inand
Figure
lower5c, as the temperature
boundaries. These ofarehydration
larger at
reaches
the upperitsboundary
maximum, largeoftemperature
because the cold winter gradients have developed
air temperature. This heatattransfer
the upper and in
influence lower
the
boundaries.
vertical These
direction are larger
violates at the upperof
the assumption boundary because of
1D axisymmetric heatthetransfer
cold winter
in theair temperature.
horizontal This
direction.
heat influence
This transfer influence in the
is significant vertical
within direction violates
approximately the assumption
one diameter of the topofand 1Dbottom
axisymmetric
of the deep heat
transfer in the horizontal direction. This influence is significant within
foundation pile [10]. Hence, the FE analysis was conducted on the dataset between 2 and 49 m depth. approximately one diameter
of theIntop and bottom
addition, due toofthetheaxial
deepsymmetry,
foundation thepile [10].
finite Hence,model
element the FEfor analysis
thermal was conducted
integrity testing oncan
the
dataset between 2 and 49 m depth.
be simplified as a 1D model, as shown in Figure 8. This assumption was confirmed by conducting a
3D FE Inanalysis
addition, due
for to the pile
selected axialgeometries
symmetry,(results
the finite notelement
shown). model
The FE formodel
thermal integrity
includes testing
pile elementcan
be simplified
and soil element, as aand1D hydration
model, as heatshown in Figure
source 8. This
is applied onassumption
every nodeswas confirmed
of the pile elementsby conducting
to simulatea
3D hydration
the FE analysisheat for production.
selected pileThe geometries
pile/soil (results
interfacenot shown).
location (or The FE model
concrete cover includes
thickness)pile element
is adjusted
and
in soil
the FEelement,
analysisand hydration
to match heat source
the predicted is applied change
temperature on everywithnodes theof the pile
DFOS data.elements to simulate
the hydration heat production. The pile/soil interface location (or
Hydration heat plays a crucial role in the temperature development of early-age concreteconcrete cover thickness) is adjusted
[36,37].
in the FE analysis to match the predicted temperature change with
It has significant effects on material properties, and hence influences the life-time performance the DFOS data.
Hydration
of concrete. Prosenheat plays a crucial
et al. [38] role in the temperature
use isothermal microcalorimeter development
to study of early
early-age concrete
hydration [36,37].
reactions
during the hydration of cement. Following Prosen et al.’s experiment, Bentz [39] developed of
It has significant effects on material properties, and hence influences the life-time performance a
concrete. Prosen et al.
three-dimensional [38] use and
hydration isothermal microcalorimeter
microstructure model for to Portland
study early hydration
cement. reactions
However, during
they did
the propose
not hydration of cement.
explicit formulasFollowing
of hydration Prosen heatet production.
al.’s experiment, On the Bentz
other[39]hand, developed
De Schutter a three-
and
dimensional hydration and microstructure model for Portland cement.
Taerve [40,41] developed a classical general hydration model based on the results of their isothermal However, they did not
propose
and explicit
adiabatic formulastests.
hydration of hydration heat production.
In this hydration model, On thethe
heat other hand, Derate
production Schutter and Taerve
is expressed as a
[40,41] developed a classical general hydration model based on
function of the actual temperature and the degree of hydration. Pane and Hansen [42] modified the results of their isothermal and
adiabatic hydration tests. In this hydration model, the heat production
De Schutter’s method for blended cements. Moreover, they demonstrated a similar trend between rate is expressed as a function
of the
the actualoftemperature
degree reaction andand the degree
bound water of hydration.
content. The Pane
workand Hansen [42]
of Gruyaert modified
et al. [43] alsoDeindicates
Schutter’s a
method for blended cements. Moreover, they demonstrated a similar trend between the degree of
reaction and bound water content. The work of Gruyaert et al. [43] also indicates a good match
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 12 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 12 of 21

between
good matchreaction
betweendegrees
reactionanddegrees
the hydration degrees determined
and the hydration by BSE-image
degrees determined analysis. analysis.
by BSE-image Another
model ofmodel
Another concrete hydration
of concrete heat is developed
hydration in an engineering
heat is developed software
in an engineering High Performance
software Paving
High Performance
Software
Paving (HIPERPAV)
Software of the Federal
(HIPERPAV) Highway
of the Federal Administration
Highway (FHWA)(FHWA)
Administration [44]. Similar
[44].toSimilar
the model by
to the
De Schutter
model [40], this[40],
by De Schutter hydration heat production
this hydration model model
heat production is alsoisaalso
function of temperature
a function andand
of temperature the
degree
the of hydration
degree of hydration[37,44,45]. The
[37,44,45]. Theresults show
results showthat
thatthe
theHIPERPAV
HIPERPAV temperature
temperature model produced
produced
accurate predictions
accurate predictionsof ofthe
thein-place
in-placetemperature
temperaturedevelopment
developmentof ofhydrating
hydratingconcrete.
concrete.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. 1D
1D axisymmetric
axisymmetric heat
heat transfer
transfer finite
finite element
element model.
model.

In this
In this study,
study,the
thehydration
hydrationheat
heatmodel
model by by De
DeSchutter
Schutter [40]
[40] is
is used
used to
to interpret
interpret the
the temperature
temperature
profilesduring
profiles duringthethe curing
curing stage
stage to assess
to assess thegeometry.
the pile pile geometry.
The thermalThe analysis
thermal needs
analysis
to beneeds to be
performed
performed for four sides on every cross section. The model has explicit and simple
for four sides on every cross section. The model has explicit and simple mathematical expression. mathematical
expression.
The The heat
heat evolution of evolution of cementby
cement is obtained is the
obtained by the superposition
superposition of the heatof
of the heat productions productions of
the Portland
the Portland
reaction. The reaction.
evolutionThe evolution ofproperties
of mechanical mechanical in properties in early-age
early-age cement cementusing
is described is described using
functions of
functions of the degree of
the degree of hydration [40]: hydration [40]:

P( ) = q , ∙ ∙ sin(α π)a −∙ bα e t −[∙ eRE ( T1c − T1r )] (5)

P(t) = qmax,20 ·c·[sin(αt π)] ·e ·e (5)
where a, b and c are the material constants controlling the distribution of hydration heat production;
where
α is thea, bdegree
and c are the material
of reaction, constants
defined controlling
as the fraction ofthethedistribution
heat of hydration of hydration heatbeen
that has production;
released;αEt
is
is the apparent activation energy of the P-reaction, R is the universal gas constant, q , E is
the degree of reaction, defined as the fraction of the heat of hydration that has been released; is the
the
apparent activation energy of the P-reaction,
maximum heat production rate of the S-reaction at 20 °C,R is the universal gas constant,
is the temperature q is the maximum
of concrete (K), and
max,20
◦
heatisproduction
the reference rate (293 K).at 20 C, Tc is the temperature of concrete (K), and Tr is the
of the S-reaction
temperature
reference
Tabletemperature
1 shows the(293 K). components used to construct the test pile. According to De Schutter
concrete
[40], the cement (Type 1) is thecomponents
Table 1 shows the concrete only sourceused to construct
of hydration heattheintest
thispile.
typeAccording to De
of concrete, Schutter
which takes[40],
up
the cement (Type 1) is the only source of hydration
about 13% by weight. Hence, the total released heat Q heat in this type of concrete, which
and maximum heat production takes up about
rate
13%
q by ,
weight. Hence,
equals 13% thevalues
of the total released
by pureheat Qmax
cement and 1).
(Type maximum
The other heat production
parameters arerate
theqsame equals
max,20as those
13% of the values by pure cement (Type 1). The other parameters
derived from experimental data by De Schutter [40], as listed in Table 2. are the same as those derived from
experimental data by De Schutter [40], as listed in Table 2.
Table 1. Concrete components.
Table 1. Concrete components.
Weight (Saturated Surface Dry) Proportion
Material Type
(kg/m3) Surface Dry)
Weight (Saturated Constituent
Material Type Proportion Constituent
CEM I 301 3 )
(kg/m 70%
Cement CEM II/B-V
Pulverised CEM
fuedlI ash 129
301 30%
70%
Cement CEM II/B-V
Pulverised
10 to 20 mm fuedl ash 129
565 30%
32%
Limestone
4 to10
10tomm 20 mm 380
565 21%
32%
aggregates
Limestone aggregates 0 to44tomm10 mm 380
840 21%
47%
0 to 4 mm 840 47%
High-range water
Admixture High-range 0.75% --
Admixture reducer 0.75% --
water reducer
Water -- 161 --
Water Total weight -- 161
2376 - - --
Total weight 2376 --
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 13 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 13 of 21

Table 2.
Table 2. Parameters
Parameters of
of hydration
hydration model.
model.

Parameters Qmax (J/g) , (J/gh) a b c E (kJ/mol) R (kJ/mol·K)

Parameters Qmax (J/g) qmax ,20 (J/gh) a b c E (kJ/mol) R (kJ/mol·K)
Value
Value
35.1
35.1
1.01
1.01
0.667
0.667
3.0
3.0 2.62.6 33.5 33.5
0.00831 0.00831

A 1D axisymmetric finite element model with total radial length of 10 m is developed. Table 3
A 1D axisymmetric finite element model with total radial length of 10 m is developed. Table 3 lists
lists the thermal parameters of the soil used in this finite element model. All these parameters are
the thermal parameters of the soil used in this finite element model. All these parameters are selected
selected from the reasonable range by Garber [46], DECC [47] and Kim et al. [48]. The average of all
from the reasonable range by Garber [46], DECC [47] and Kim et al. [48]. The average of all the DFOS
the DFOS temperature data at all depths during curing is plotted against time to build a reference
temperature data at all depths during curing is plotted against time to build a reference curve (dot data
curve (dot data in Figure 9), which represents the temperature changes over an average pile concrete
in Figure 9), which represents the temperature changes over an average pile concrete cover or radius.
cover or radius. This average pile radius, which is used in the finite element model, is calculated as
This average pile radius, which is used in the finite element model, is calculated as 735 mm from the
735 mm from the volume of casted concrete obtained from the concrete log. Using the model
volume of casted concrete obtained from the concrete log. Using the model parameters adopted in this
parameters adopted in this study, the computed temperature curve from the FE analysis is plotted
study, the computed temperature curve from the FE analysis is plotted against the data as shown in
against the data as shown in Figure 9. The modeled curve closely matches with the average
Figure 9. The modeled curve closely matches with the average temperature DFOS data which adds
temperature DFOS data which adds confidence in using the parameters listed in Tables 2 and 3.
confidence in using the parameters listed in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 3. Values of thermal properties.
Table 3. Values of thermal properties.
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) Specific Heat Capacity (KJ/ )
Thermal 3
Made ground 1.8Conductivity (W/mK) Specific
2800 Heat Capacity (KJ/m )
Made ground
Lambeth group 1.6 1.8 2400 2800
Lambeth group 1.6 2400
Thanet
Thanet sand
sand 1.6 1.6 2400 2400
Chalk
Chalk 1.4 1.4 2400 2400
Pile 1.0 2200
Pile 1.0 2200

20 Monitoring data
15 FE analysis
Temperature (ºC)

10

-5

-10
0 100 200 300 400
Time (h)

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Calibration
Calibration of
of finite
finite element
element model.
model.

4.3. FE Back Analysis Results

4.3. FE Back Analysis Results
The same FE model was used to carry out a series of back analysis to calculate the temperature
The same FE model was used to carry out a series of back analysis to calculate the temperature
changes at the four locations over all the cross section spaced at 0.05 m intervals along shaft length.
changes at the four locations over all the cross section spaced at 0.05 m intervals along shaft length.
The aim of this back analysis is to find the concrete cover thickness by varying the pile radius of the
The aim of this back analysis is to find the concrete cover thickness by varying the pile radius of the
model (soil/pile interface position) and matching the computed temperature curve to the DFOS data
model (soil/pile interface position) and matching the computed temperature curve to the DFOS data
at every given location. For example, the temperature curves of cable T-1 at four different depths are
at every given location. For example, the temperature curves of cable T-1 at four different depths are
shown in Figure 10. The symbols are the measured temperature data, whereas the solid line is the
shown in Figure 10. The symbols are the measured temperature data, whereas the solid line is the
computed temperature curve that was matched to the data by varying the concrete cover thickness.
computed temperature curve that was matched to the data by varying the concrete cover thickness.
The trend showed a sharp increase in temperature change over the first two days from −5 °C to about
The trend showed a sharp increase in temperature change over the first two days from −5 ◦ C to
15–17 °C. After 48 h, the temperature decreased gradually to 5 °C above the initial temperature,
indicating that the heat conduction is still occurring.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 14 of 21

about 15–17 ◦ C. After 48 h, the temperature decreased gradually to 5 ◦ C above the initial temperature,
indicating that the heat conduction is still occurring.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 14 of 21

20 20
FO data FO data
15 FE analysis 15 FE analysis
Temperature (ºC)

Temperature (ºC)
10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (h) Time (h)
(a) (b)

20 20
FO data FO data
15 FE analysis 15 FE analysis
Temperature (ºC)

Temperature (ºC)

10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (h) Time (h)
(c) (d)
Figure 10. Temperature
Figure 10. changesmeasured
Temperature changes measuredwith
withCable
CableT-1
T-1atat different
different depth:
depth: (a)(a)
1010
m;m;
(b)(b)
20 20
m;m;
(c) (c)
30 30
m;
m; (d)
(d) 40 m.
40 m.

Figure 11 shows the predicted pile radius in the four different axial directions. The results show
Figure 11 shows the predicted pile radius in the four different axial directions. The results show
that notable differences in radius are observed within two regions along the pile. Between 14 and 24
that notable differences in radius are observed within two regions along the pile. Between 14 and 24 m,
m, the radius at locations of Cables T-4 and T-1 on the northeast half of the pile is 30 mm less than
the radius at locations of Cables T-4 and T-1 on the northeast half of the pile is 30 mm less than that at
that at locations of cables T-3 and T-2 on the opposite southwest side. Between 35 and 42 m, however,
locations of cables T-3 and T-2 on the opposite southwest side. Between 35 and 42 m, however, the
the trend is opposite; the radius on the northeast side is greater than that on the southwest side. This
trend is opposite; the radius on the northeast side is greater than that on the southwest side. This may
may indicate cage misalignment within these regions.
indicate cage misalignment within these regions.
Figure 12 shows a 3D pile shape according to the predicted radius values discussed above. The
Figure 12 shows a 3D pile shape according to the predicted radius values discussed above.
radius value between the four axial different directions and longitudinal intervals are calculated by
The radius value between the four axial different directions and longitudinal intervals are calculated
linear extrapolation. The largest pile radius is about 0.78 m and the smallest is about 0.68 m. The red
by linear extrapolation. The largest pile radius is about 0.78 m and the smallest is about 0.68 m. The red
colour indicates an expanded pile radius (larger than the average 0.735 m radius) and the yellow
colour indicates an expanded pile radius (larger than the average 0.735 m radius) and the yellow
colour a contracted pile radius (smaller than 0.735 m). It shows that the pile radius varies along the
colour a contracted pile radius (smaller than 0.735 m). It shows that the pile radius varies along the
pile, especially between 10 and 20 m depth, where it ranges from 0.69 to 0.76 m.
pile, especially between 10 and 20 m depth, where it ranges from 0.69 to 0.76 m.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 15 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 15 of 21

Radius (mm)
600 700 800 900 T-1
Cable
0
Cable T-2

Cable T-3

10 Cable T-4

20
Depth(m)

30

40

50

60

Figure 11. Predicted pile radius in four different axial directions along pile length.
Figure 11. Predicted pile radius in four different axial directions along pile length.

Thermal integrity profiling (TIP) tests were carried out by means of thermal wire cables which
Thermal
provided anotherintegrity profiling
measure of the(TIP) tests were
pile shape carried out The
for comparison. by means of thermal
effective diameterwire cables
profile which
estimated
provided another measure of the pile shape for comparison. The effective diameter
from the proposed thermal integrity testing method (black curve) by averaging the diameter data profile estimated
from the proposed
obtained with the fourthermal
DFOS integrity
cables istesting
close tomethod (black
the values curve) by
obtained averaging
with the threethe
TIPdiameter data
sensor chains
obtained with
(dot curve) 48 hthe fourconcrete
after DFOS cables is close
placement, as to the values
shown obtained
in Figure 13. Thewith the three
relatively TIPmatch
good sensorbetween
chains
(dot curve) 48 h after concrete placement, as shown in Figure 13. The relatively good
the data from the two testing methods provides confidence in thermal integrity testing using DFOS match between
the
anddata fromanalysis.
FE back the two Thetesting
mainmethods provides
difference between confidence
TIP and inthethermal
methodintegrity testing
used in this using
paper liesDFOS
in the
and FE back analysis. The main difference between TIP and the method used
measuring and interpretation methods. The differences observed may be due to the influence in this paper lies in of
thea
measuring and interpretation methods. The differences observed may be due to
variety of soil thermal properties and thermal boundary conditions, which are not considered in thethe influence of a
variety of soil thermal
interpretation of the TIPproperties
data. and thermal boundary conditions, which are not considered in the
interpretation of the TIP data.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 16 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 16 of 21
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 16 of 21

Made
MadeGround
Ground

Lambeth
LambethGroup
Group

Thanet
ThanetSand
Sand

Chalk
Chalk

Figure 12. Predicted pile shape.

Figure 12. Predicted pile shape.
Figure 12. Predicted pile shape.

0
0

10
10

20
20
(m)
Depth(m)

30
30
Depth

40
40

50
50

60
60
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Estimated diameter (m)
Estimated diameter (m)

TIP testing DFOS thermal testing

TIP testing DFOS thermal testing

Figure 13. Pile diameter obtained by different test methods.

Figure
Figure 13. 13. Pile
Pile diameterobtained
diameter obtained by
by different
differenttest
testmethods.
methods.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 17 of 21

4.4. Impact of Selection of Thermal Properties on the Predicted Pile Radius

The thermal conductivities of soil and concrete vary and hence it is necessary to assess the
sensitivity of this thermal property as pile radius is evaluated by conducting back analysis. A series of
parametric studies is performed to investigate the effect of thermal conductivity on the performance of
the proposed thermal integrity testing. As listed in Table 4, the thermal conductivity values of both
soil and concrete are either halved or doubled from the original dataset. The same DFOS temperature
data are used but the position of the pile-soil interface (concrete cover thickness) is adjusted to fit the
modelled temperature values to the measured data. For a given set of thermal conductivity values,
the analysis starts by finding the optimized parameters used in the hydration model as described in
Section 3.2 and the values for the model are given in Table 5.

Table 4. Thermal conductivities for parametric study.

Thermal Conductivity (TC) (W/mK) Made Ground Lambeth Group Thanet Sand Chalk Pile
TC of Soil × 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.0
TC of Soil × 2 3.6 3.2 3.2 2.8 1.0
TC of Concrete × 0.5 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.4 0.5
TC of Concrete × 2 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.4 2.0

Table 5. Parameters of hydration model for parametric study.

Case Qmax (J/g) qmax,20 (J/gh) a b c E (kJ/mol)

TC of Soil × 0.5 30 1.2 0.8 3.0 2.6 33.5
TC of Soil × 2 40 0.8 0.6 3.0 2.6 33.5
TC of Concrete × 0.5 32 0.9 0.667 3.0 2.6 33.5
TC of Concrete × 2 38 1.1 0.667 3.0 2.6 33.5

In the first parametric study, the thermal conductivity of the soil is varied. As shown in Figure 14a.
By decreasing the soil thermal conductivity, the profile of the estimated pile diameter deviates more
compared to that estimated from the original data set. Lower thermal conductivity of soil indicates
slower heat transfer between the pile and soil, and hence reduce the effects of pile integrity on the
diffusion of hydration heat in this problem. Instead, the whole pile heats up with a more uniform
temperature distribution along depth. Hence, with the assumed larger fluctuation in pile diameter (the
black dot line in Figure 14a, the DFOS still shows the same temperature variation with the other two
cases with larger soil thermal conductivity. For this reason, it can be concluded that the temperature
cable is less sensitive to the change of concrete cover if the thermal conductivity of soil is lower.
In the second series of parametric study, the thermal conductivity of the pile is varied. As shown
in Figure 14b, the effect of pile thermal conductivity is large when analysing the thermal integrity
testing data. When concrete has relatively large thermal conductivity, the distribution of temperature
within the pile is more uniform and hence DFOS temperature is less sensitive to the change in concrete
cover. Therefore, increased thermal conductivity of concrete leads to a larger variety in the pile radius
to match the same temperature profile from the in-situ test.
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 18 of 21

Normal TC Normal TC
TC of Soil × 0.5 TC of Concrete × 0.5
TC of Soil × 2.0 TC of Concrete × 2.0
0 0

10 10

20 20

Depth(m)
Depth(m)

30 30

40 40

50 50

60 60
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Predicted diameter (m) Predicted diameter (m)

(a) (b)

Figure 14. Changes in pile diameter with variation of: (a) thermal conductivity of soil; (b) thermal
conductivity of concrete pile.

5. Conclusions
The need for better integrity testing methods in bored concrete pile construction is evident from a
review of literature and industry practice. Thermal integrity testing, which uses the heat generated
by hydrating concrete as a measure of integrity, is a promising relatively new technique. This paper
proposes the use of DFOS, or other distributed fibre optics method such as DTS, and a simple numerical
model as an alternative approach to assess the integrity of the concrete cover of concrete elements.
The proposed method was tested on a long pile in the field. The following conclusions are derived:

1. DFOS captures early thermal data very well and is capable of being a standalone system in
future14.installations.
Figure Thediameter
Changes in pile use of temperature
with variationasof:
measures of pile
(a) thermal integrityofshows
conductivity potential
soil; (b) thermal to
localise anomalies.
conductivity of concrete pile.
2. The advantages of using DFOS to investigate integrity over other techniques are: (i) its capacity
to provides a high spatial density of data and (ii) its ease of installation and (iii) a very low sensor
failure rate.
3. Finite element back analysis is able to quantify the relationship between temperature curve and
pile radius. The predicted average pile diameter profile is shown to be close to that obtained with
the conventional TIP results, providing some validity to the proposed thermal integrity testing
and data interpreting method.
4. The selection of thermal conductivity values for concrete and soil can have large effects on
evaluating pile profile from DFOS-based temperature curve data. It is therefore necessary to have
Sensors 2017, 17, 2949 19 of 21

a good dataset of thermal properties for both concrete and soil in order to ensure the proposed
thermal integrity testing method produces good estimate of pile geometry.

Acknowledgments: The authors thank the EPSRC and Innovate UK for funding this research through the
Cambridge Centre for Smart Infrastructure and Construction (CSIC) Innovation and Knowledge Centre (EPSRC
grand reference number EP/L010917/1). The authors also acknowledge the assistance of Vivien Kwan,
Purnawarman Musa, Yue Ouyang and Peter Knott. The data presented in this paper are available at the University
of Cambridge data repository. (https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/).
Author Contributions: K.S. and C.K. conceived and designed the experiments; Y.R. performed the numerical
analysis; F.O., C.B. and D.N. contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; Y.R., C.K., F.O. and K.S. wrote
the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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