0in (2) of Example 5.1
ae suicint for A to gle rie to an Inner product on R?
‘Tho standard bass ofthe Euclidean n-space R has 8 special propery:
‘The bass vector re mutually orthogonal and are of length J. Ta this sens,
itiscaled the rectangular coordinate system fr R®. In ai nner product
‘space, a vector with lngth 1 is called a unit vector. Ix is nonzero vector
Iman inner produet space V, the vector Faye ao eon ‘The process of
obtaining aunt voctr from » nonzero wentar by multiplying by the averse
of ts length sealed w normalization. Thus, if thar is a ott of vectors
(or « basis) in an inner product space consisting of mutually erthogoaal
‘vectors, then the vectors ean be converted to unit vectors by normalizing
them without losing their mutual orthogonality.
Protlem 5.5 Normalize each ofthe following recta in the Bucldean space
Gre @ vat 13, 1/6).
Definition 8.5 A set of vectors x,y... x4 Ina inner product space
Vie said tobe orthonormal if
copia [8d (haat,
Aso (ay ay soy Xa} of voctrs is called an orthonormal basis fr VIE
it ise basis and orthonormal.
1 wil be shown later thet any ier product spaces an orthonormal
‘esis, just Ile the standard bass for the Bulidean n-space 170 CUAPTER 5. INNER PRODUCT SPACES
roblem §.6 Determine whether each of the felling sof vectors in ? is or
‘hogntl,orthonermal; or nether wth reepet to the Baldea nner
offs). {J} {f2}[5]}
© {tt E30) {Lina 38}
‘Theorem 8.6 1f {vy Vay +5 Va) 4 an orthonormal bass for an inner
product space V and’ i any vector in V, then
viva + Ge alva too 6
Proott For any vector © V, we can write x= n.vs-+29¥s t:--+2n¥m
‘6 linear combination of bala vetors, Howeve, foreach i= 1,
fw)
fave eave ve)
= Alva) tie aviy) totaal
Docaus {¥1, Vay ++ Wa} ie orthonormal a
Ina inner product space, the coordinata expression of a vector depends
on the coe of an ordered basis, and the inner product is just @ mattix
product ofthe coordinate vectors with repect toa erdered basis involving
some symmetric matri between them, a we have eee already,
‘Actually, we wll show in Theorem 5.1 nthe following setion that every
Jnner product space V bas an orthonormal basis sty a= (Vi, Vay «1 Yo)
‘Then the matrix representation A = fa] of the inner product with respect
{0 the orthonormal basis ls the identity matrix, since ay = (v4) = By
‘Ths for any veetor x= Sozivs and y = Dyvs la V,
Bz hew= Lem
‘This expresion lois Ike the dot product inthe Euclidean space R*, ‘Thos
any inner product on V can e writin just like the dot product in B®, if
{8 equipped with an orthonormal basis.
by) 54, ORTHOGONAL PROJECTIONS m
5.4 Orthogonal projections
Tet U be aaubepace ofa vector space V. Then by Corollary 3.18 there i
other subspace W of V rach thet V-= U1 @ W, so that any x € V has a
‘unique expression as x= ww for we UT and w € W. As an easy exerci,
‘ne can show that a funtion T= V > V defined by T(x) T(a+w) = wis
® linear transformation, whoee image I(T) = 7(V) isthe subspace U and
kernel Ker(P) is the subspace WV.
Definition 5.6 Let U and W be subspaces ofa vector space V. Alina?
‘tansiormation 7: V ~V ls alld the projection of V auto the subspace
V slong Wi = U@W end Thx) =u fore = usw eV OW.
[Note that for piven subupace U of V,thero exist many projections 7
‘depending on the choice ofa complementary subspace W of U. However,
if we Sx « complementary aubepace W of U, then projecton T ento Vis
tniguey determined and by definition T(x) = for any ue U and for any
Chote of W. nother words, P07 = T for any projection Tof V0
Example 6:7 Let U, V and W be the I-dimensional subspaces of the Bu
Clidean Dspace R? spanned by the vestors w= ey, W = 63, and ¥ = (1,1),
reepectively.
w
Tw)
‘Since the pare, w) and u,v) are linearly independent the space
1 can be expromed as the det eum in two ways: BE =U @W =U GV.
‘Thus a vector x= (2,1) €B? may be writen in two ways:
2(1,0)+ (01) « Tew
xeon (E9288 § vay nm CHAPTER 5. INNER PRODUCT SPACES
Let Ty and Ty danote the projections of R? onto W and V along U, respec-
tively: Then
. Tw(x) = (0.1) EV, and Ty(x) = (1,1) €W.
1 ako shows that projection of R? onto the subspace U (= the z-axis)
Aepends on 8 choice of complementary subepace of U. a
"The flowing shows an alggbraie characterization of «projection,
‘Theorem 8.7 A linear transformation T = V —+ V is projection onto &
subspace U ond only f P= T (= ToT, by deiiion).
Proof The neessiy is clear, because T'o = T for any profetion 7
Fore slicieny, let 1? = T. We want to show V = Im\(T) @ Ker(T)
sod T(u-+ w) = uw for u-t-w € I(T) @ Ker(T), Por the frst one, we
‘ed to prove Im(7) 0 Ker(T) = {0} and V = Tm(T) + Ker). Indeed, i
U6 im(F) Ker), then there is x € V such that T(x) = w and Ta) = 0,
But
T(x) = T%(x) = TT (x))
roves in(T). 0 Kent) = {0}. Net ta this alo shows Ta) = w fr
w¢ Im(T). Then, dim V = dim(Im(T)) + dim(Ker(T)) (see Remark (2) in
e618) pln = in) e(7). Now seen Tut) = Te)
feraay awe ln) Ke(t) 3
Lat: VV bea projection of V, so that V = Im(T) © Ker(T). Ie is
not diet to show that lm{ dy ~T) = Ker(T) and Ken(ldy-—T) = ina),
Corollary 5.8 A linear transformation T : V+ V is a projection if and
‘only ify ~T i a projection. Moreover, fT te th projection of V onto a
subspace U along W, then Id ~T isthe projection of V onto W along U.
Proof: It is enough to show that (dy ~) (dy =) = Idy —T, But
(dy ~7) 9(ldv -1) = (lay 1) (7-19) =1¢y 7, g
Proll 5.7 Let V =U @W. Let Ty dente th projection of Venta U along W,
and Ty dnote the projection of Vento W alg U. Prove te following. 54. ORTHOGONAL PROJECTIONS a
(0) For any x6 ¥, x= ToC) +Tw(0
(2) Tyotldy—TH) =0.
() Tyo =TwoTe =o
(4) For any proton T: V = V, In(Fdy ~1) = Ke() and Kerf =) =
I(r}:
Now, let V be an inner product space and let Ube « subspace of V.
‘Recall that there exist many kinds of projections of V onto U depending on
the choios of complementary rubspace W’ of U- However, nan lanes product
space V, there i particalar choice of W, called the ordhgonel complement
(6 0, slong which the projection onto Ui called the orthgonalprojetion.
‘Almect all projections weed in liner algebra are orthogonal projections
a an inner product space V, the orthogonality of two vectors can be
extended to subspeces of V.
Definition 6.7 Let U and W be subspaces ofan inner product space V.
(1) Two mbepaces U and W are sald to be orthogonal, wrttan by UL
Whit (usw) =O for each we U and we W.
(2) The set ofall vetoes in V that aro orthogonal to ovary vector in U is
calla the orthogonal complement of U, denote by US, ie,
Uta (ve: (yu) =O feral weU).
(One oan easily show that U Isa subspace of V, and v € Ui and only
if (vu) = O for every u € 6, whore Bis e basis fr U. ‘Therefor, clearly
WLU if and only fC OF.
Protlem 53 Shim: (1) IU LW, UW = {0}. (2) U GW Hf and ony f
whee
‘Theorem 6.9 Lat U be a subypoce of an inner product quce V. Then
(1) dim + dim = dim,
@ oh
(8) V=Ue@U4: that i, for each € V, there are unique vectors xy € U
and ys €US such that xy +x1. This cae the orthogonal
decomposition of V (or ofx) ty U m4 CHAPTER 5. INNER PRODUCT SPACES
Proof (1) Suppose that dimU =k. Choose «base (vy, oy vy fr U
sd ten extend oa (oy Vn Yen ny a) Vy wane n=
Si V Then = 5} 3504 € 0" ifand aly 0= fa) = Tey ay
1ig4 5 & where og = (0) The later equton form »Kamogentons
syle of incr equoins nv unlkxowns hat i precaly the ml
space ofthe fn oer trix B= (ay), which submatrix ofthe
‘East representation of the inaer product. Ths, by Theorem 5:5 th
own of B are nearly iependet, 00 B eof rank. Therefor, the ml
space has dimension nk, or dimU+ =n B= n~ div
(2) By deioition, every vector in Uinrthogonl to, 07 ¢ (U2)
On the oer hand, by (1), din(U4) =~ din = dm This proves
‘that (U+)+ =U.
(8) Fora basi (yn ve fer Uy ak ay bs (ag os Ya) fo
4 Sace UU = fo), Uh et vo Yn Yate on Ya) i oeatly
Independent, 20 i isa base for V. ‘Therefor, every vector = V has &
sunlque expression
xe Zoomer bys
Now tke xy = Chav €U and x4 = Thar bey € U4 To show unique:
rise, let = u + w be another expossan with w'¢ U and w © U2, Then
xp 2a ways CU NUE = (0), So, xy = wand xy. = W. a
Definition 5.8 Let V be an inner product spac, and let U be a subypace
of V so that V =U @UL, Than the projection of V onto U along U~ is
‘alled the orthogonal projection of V onto U, denoted Poly. Fer eV,
the component vector Projy(x) €U is called the erthogonsl projection
of x nto 0,
Example 6.8 Asin Brample 57, lot U, V and W be subspaces of the
Bulidean Dspace BR generated by the vectors u = e1,¥ = (1h 1), and
w = op, spectively. Then deely W = U* and V 2 UL. Hence, forthe
projections Ty aud Tw of given in Example 67, the projection Ty the
arthogonal projection, but the projection TV isnot, so that Tw = Projy
and Ty 9 Projy 5 54, ORTHOGONAL PROJECTIONS M5
‘Theorem 5.10 Let U be « subspace of an inner product space V, and let
XV. Then, the orthogonal projection Projy(x) of x satisfies
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