Composites Lecture Notes

EMG 2406 MATERIAL SCIENCE LECTURE NOTES
BY Dr. J. MUTUA
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEC 2018—APRIL 2019
CHAPTER 4: COMPOSITES:
Classification, fibre-reinforced-and particle-reinforced composites, fracture modes, processing, mechanical
behaviour, designing with composites. Introduction to construction materials; wood, concrete and asphalt.
Definition: A combination of two or more constituent materials with significantly different

physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level
within the bonded structure. This material systems result in a performance unattainable by
the individual constituents, and they offer the great advantage of a flexible design; i.e., one
can, in principle, tailor-make the material as per specifications of an optimum design.
Composite = Fibers + Matrix
In summary any material that satisfies the following three conditions is regarded as a
composite:
1. Can be manufactured (i.e., naturally occurring composites, such as wood, are excluded).
2. Consists of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct, suitably arranged or
distributed phases with an interface separating them.
3. Has characteristics that are not depicted by any of the components in isolation.
Composites exists either naturally or in synthesized forms.
Examples of natural composites:
 The coconut palm leaf- form of a cantilever using fiber reinforcements

 Wood – a form of fibrous composite (cellulose fibers in a lignin matrix)
 Bone – short/soft collagen fibers embedded in apatite (mineral matrix) etc.
Examples of synthesized composites:
 The carbon black in rubber,

 Portland cement or asphalt mixed with sand, and
 Glass fibers in a polymer matrix e.g., fiber-reinforced plastic
 Polymer fibers of one type in a matrix of a second polymer, e.g., an epoxy-Kevlar
 Ceramic in a metal matrix, e.g., a tungsten carbide in a cobalt binder to form a
cemented carbide cutting tool.
With the current demand for materials that are stiffer and stronger yet lighter and less costly,
the fields of aerospace, automobile, civil construction, and energy have resolved to exploit
the opportunities presented by individual materials constituting a composite to meet the
high-performance requirements.
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A brief comparison of block composites with conventional monolithic materials is highlighted
below;
This identifies the potential in composites with respect to a specific design property-
constraint.
The technological and commercial interest in composite materials derives from the fact
that their properties are not just different from their components but are often far superior.
Some of the possibilities include:
1. Composites can be designed that are very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight,
giving them strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios several times greater
than steel or aluminium. These properties are highly desirable in applications ranging
from commercial aircraft to sports equipment.
2. Fatigue properties are generally better than for the common engineering metals.
Toughness is often greater, too.
3. Composites can be designed that do not corrode like steel; this is important in
automotive and other applications.
4. With composite materials, it is possible to achieve combinations of properties not
attainable with metals, ceramics, or polymers alone.
5. Better appearance and control of surface smoothness are possible with certain
composite materials.
Some limitations of composites
1. properties of many important composites are anisotropic, which means the

properties differ depending on the direction in which they are measured;
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2. Many of the polymer- based composites are subject to attack by chemicals or solvents,
just as the polymers themselves are susceptible to attack
3. Composite materials are generally expensive, although the prices may drop as
volume increases
4. Certain manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials are slow and costly.
The premier composites that were extensively researched on were Glass fiber
reinforced resins. Even though these materials are very light and strong, their modulus
(stiffness) is not high enough to meet most design limits. This led to the emergence of the so-
called advanced fibers of extremely high modulus, for example, boron, carbon, silicon,
carbide, and alumina to solely reinforce resin, metal, and ceramic matrices.
Note
Fiber reinforced composites have been more prominent than other types of composites
because most materials are stronger and stiffer in the fibrous form than in any other form.
The properties of a composite depend on;
 Its components (matrix and reinforcements),

 The physical shapes of the components, and
 The way they are combined to form the final material.
Some composites combine high strength with light weight and are suited to applications
such as aircraft components, car bodies, boat hulls, tennis rackets, and fishing rods. Other
composites are strong, hard, and capable of maintaining these properties at elevated
temperatures, for example, cemented carbide cutting tools.
Nature and classification of composites
There are several ways in which composites can be classified. One possible classification
distinguishes between traditional and synthetic composites.
1. Traditional composites
These occur in nature or have been produced by civilizations for many years. Wood is a
naturally occurring composite material, while concrete (Portland cement plus sand or
gravel) and asphalt mixed with gravel are traditional composites used in construction.
2. Synthetic composites
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These are modern material systems normally associated with the manufacturing industries,
in which the components are first produced separately and then combined in a controlled
way to achieve the desired structure, properties, and part geometry. These synthetic
materials are the composites normally thought of in the context of engineered products
Another possible classification is based on the constituent matrix phase.
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
Include mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides and other cermets, as
well as aluminium or magnesium reinforced by strong, high stiffness fibers.
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
These are the least common category. Aluminium oxide and silicon carbide are materials that
can be imbedded with fibers for improved properties, especially in high temperature
applications.
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs).
Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in PMCs. Epoxy and polyester are
commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement, and phenolic is mixed with powders.
Thermoplastic molding compounds are often reinforced, usually with powders
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Components in a composite material
A composite material consists of two phases:
1. Primary phase- Matrix
The primary phase forms the matrix within which the secondary phase is imbedded into.
Functions of the matrix;
 It provides the bulk form of the part or product made of the composite
material.
 It holds the imbedded phase in place, usually enclosing and often concealing
it.
 When a load is applied, the matrix shares the load with the secondary phase,
in some cases deforming so that the stress is essentially born by the
reinforcing agent.
The matrix phase can be any of three basic material types. i.e., polymers, metals, or ceramics.
2. Secondary phase- Reinforcements
This consists the imbedded phase which is sometimes referred to as a reinforcing agent,
because it usually serves to strengthen the composite. The reinforcing phase may be in
the form of fibers (short fibers, continuous fibers), flakes, whiskers, or sheets, particles, or
various other geometries. In addition, they may can take the form of an infiltrated phase in a
skeletal or porous matrix. The phases are generally insoluble in each other, but strong
adhesion must exist at their interface(s).
The secondary phase may also be one of the three basic materials, or it may be an element
such as carbon, or boron. The possible combinations in a two-component composite material
can be organized as shown below;
We see that certain combinations are not feasible, such as a polymer in a ceramic matrix.
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Most reinforcements used in composites have a fibrous form because materials are stronger
and stiffer in the fibrous form than in any other form.
Tentative diameters range from less than 0.0025 mm to about 0.13 mm, depending on
material.
The use of fibers as high-performance engineering materials is based on three important

characteristics;
1. A small diameter with respect to its grain size or other microstructural unit. This
allows a higher fraction of the theoretical strength to be attained than is possible in a
bulk form. This is a direct result of the “size effect”; the smaller the size, the lower the
probability of having imperfections in the material. Figure XX shows that the strength
of a carbon fiber decreases as its diameter increases. Although this figure shows a
linear drop in strength with increasing fiber diameter, a nonlinear relationship is not
uncommon. Figure 1 should be taken only as a general trend indicator.
Fig. 1 Decrease in strength (σf ) of a carbon fiber with increase in diameter

(De Lamotte and Perry, 1970 )
2. A high aspect ratio (length/diameter, l/d ), which allows a very large fraction of the
applied load to be transferred via the matrix to the stiff and strong fiber.
3. A very high degree of flexibility, which is really a characteristic of a material that has
a low modulus or stiffness and a small diameter. This flexibility permits the use of a
variety of techniques for making composites with these fibers.
Fibers used in composites can either be continuous or discontinuous.
Continuous fibers are assumed to be very long therefore, in theory, they offer a continuous
path by which a load can be carried by the composite part. However, in reality, this is difficult
to achieve due to the fibrous material and processing challenges.
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Discontinuous fibers are short in length approximately (L/D≈100). Example of
discontinuous fiber are the whiskers- hair-like single crystals with diameters down to about
0.001 mm and very high strength.
Fiber orientation is another factor in composite parts. There are three possible cases, these
are illustrated in Figure 2:
a. One-dimensional reinforcement, in which maximum strength and stiffness are

obtained in the direction of the fiber;
b. Planar reinforcement, in some cases in the form of a two-dimensional woven fabric.
c. Random or three-dimensional in which the composite material tends to possess
isotropic properties.
Various materials are used as fibers in fiber-reinforced composites: metals, ceramics,

polymers, carbon, and boron. The most important commercial use of fibers is in polymer
composites. However, use of fiber-reinforced metals and ceramics is growing. Following is a
survey of the important types of fiber materials, with properties listed in Table 1:
Table 1 Typical properties of fibers used as reinforcements in composites
Fiber material Diameter Tensile Elastic Modulus

(mm) strength (GPa)
(MPa)
Metal: Steel 0.13 1000 206
Metal: Tungsten 0.013 4000 407
Ceramic: AL2O3 0.02 1900 380
Ceramic: SiC 0.13 3275 400
Ceramic: E-glass 0.01 3450 73
Ceramic: S-glass 0.01 4480 86
Polymer: Kevlar 0.013 3450 130
Element: Carbon 0.01 2750 240
Element: Boron 0.14 3100 393
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Glass: The most widely used fiber in polymers, the term fiberglass is applied to denote glass
fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP). The two common glass fibers are E-glass and S-glass. Often
used for secondary structure on aircraft, such as fairings, radomes, and wing tips.
E-glass is made from borosilicate glass. It is strong and low cost, but its modulus is less than
other fibers.
S-glass is stiffer, and its tensile strength is one of the highest of all fiber materials; however,
it is more expensive than E-glass.
Advantages of fiberglass are lower cost than other composite materials, chemical or galvanic
corrosion resistance, and electrical properties (fiberglass does not conduct electricity).
Fiberglass has a white color and is available as a dry fiber fabric or prepreg material.
Carbon/Graphite Carbon and graphite fibers are based on graphene (hexagonal) layer
networks present in carbon. Bonding between planes is weak. Disorder frequently occurs
such that only two-dimensional ordering within the layers is present. Carbon fibers are very
stiff and strong, 3 to 10 times stiffer than glass fibers. Carbon fiber is used for structural
aircraft applications, such as floor beams, stabilizers, flight controls, and primary fuselage
and wing structure.
Advantages include its high strength, low thermal expansion, and corrosion resistance.
Disadvantages include lower conductivity than aluminum; therefore, a lightning protection

mesh or coating is necessary for aircraft parts that are prone to lightning strikes.
Another disadvantage of carbon fiber is its high cost. Carbon fiber is gray or black in color
and is available as dry fabric and prepreg material.
Carbon fibers have a high potential for causing galvanic corrosion when used with metallic
fasteners and structures.
Boron: Boron fibers are very stiff and have a high tensile and compressive strength. The
fibers have a relatively large diameter and do not flex well; therefore, they are available only
as a prepreg tape product. An epoxy matrix is often used with the boron fiber. Boron fibers
are used to repair cracked aluminum aircraft skins, because the thermal expansion of boron
is close to aluminum and there is no galvanic corrosion potential. The boron fiber is difficult
to use if the parent material surface has a contoured shape. The boron fibers are very
expensive and can be hazardous for personnel. Boron fibers are used primarily in military
aviation applications.
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Kevlar®: Kevlar® is DuPont’s name for aramid fibers. Aramid fibers are light weight, strong,
and tough. Two types of Aramid fiber are used in the aviation industry. Kevlar® 49 has a
high stiffness and Kevlar® 29 has a low stiffness. An advantage of aramid fibers is their high
resistance to impact damage, so they are often used in areas prone to impact damage. The
main disadvantage of aramid fibers is their general weakness in compression and
hygroscopy. Service reports have indicated that some parts made from Kevlar® absorb up
to 8 percent of their weight in water. Therefore, parts made from aramid fibers need to be
protected from the environment. Another disadvantage is that Kevlar® is difficult to drill
and cut. The fibers fuzz easily and special scissors are needed to cut the material. Kevlar® is
often used for military ballistic and body armor applications. It has a natural yellow color
and is available as dry fabric and prepreg material. Bundles of aramid fibers are not sized by
the number of fibers like carbon or fiberglass but by the weight.
This is the most important polymer fiber; it is a highly crystalline aramid, a member of the
polyamide family. Its specific gravity is low, giving it one of the highest strength-to-weight
ratios of all fibers.
Ceramics- Silicon carbide (SiC) and aluminum oxide (Al 2O3 ) are the main fiber materials
among ceramics. Both have high elastic moduli and can be used to strengthen low-density,
low-modulus metals such as aluminum and magnesium.
Metal- Steel filaments, both continuous and discontinuous, are used as reinforcing fibers in
plastics. Other metals are currently less common as reinforcing fibers
Stress-strain behavior of constitutive elements and resultant composite
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In composites, the strength and stiffness depend on fiber orientation as well as fiber and
matrix properties.
Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue resistance, Young’s

Modulus, and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating strong, stiff, but brittle fibers into
a softer, more ductile matrix.
Functions of the matrix material
 Transmits the force to the fibers to bear most of the applied force.
 It provides protection for the fiber surface and minimizes diffusion of species such as
oxygen or moisture that can degrade the mechanical properties of fibers.
Many types of reinforcing materials are employed as discussed above.
Straw has been used to strengthen mud bricks for centuries.
Steel-reinforcing bars are introduced into concrete structures.
Glass fibers in a polymer matrix produce fiberglass for transportation and aero-space
applications.
Fibers made of boron, carbon, polymers, and ceramics provide exceptional
reinforcement in advanced composites based on matrices of polymers, metals,
ceramics, and even intermetallic compounds.
The Rule of Mixtures in Fiber-Reinforced Composites

As for particulate composites, the rule of mixtures always predicts the density of fiber-rein-
forced composites:
Where the subscripts m and f refer to the matrix and the fiber. Note that fm=1-ff .
In addition, the rule of mixtures accurately predicts the electrical and thermal conductivity
of fiber-reinforced composites along the fiber direction if the fibers are continuous and
unidirectional:
Where k is the thermal conductivity and σ is the electrical conductivity. Thermal or electrical
energy can be transferred through the composite at a rate that is proportional to the volume
fraction of the conductive material. In a composite with a metal matrix and ceramic fibers,
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the bulk of the energy would be transferred through the matrix; in a composite consisting of
a polymer matrix containing metallic fibers, energy would be transferred through the fibers.
NB. When the fibers are not continuous or unidirectional, the simple rule of mixtures may not
apply.
Modulus of Elasticity
The rule of mixtures is used to predict the modulus of elasticity when the fibers are
continuous and unidirectional. Parallel to the fibers, the modulus of elasticity may be as
high as;
The stress-strain curve for a fiber-reinforced composite. At

low stresses (region I), the modulus of elasticity is given by
the rule of mixtures. At higher stresses (region II), the
matrix deforms and the rule of mixtures is no longer
obeyed.
When the applied stress is very large, the matrix begins to
deform and the stress-strain curve is no longer linear (see
Figure alongside) Since the matrix now contributes little to
the stiffness of the composite, the modulus can be
approximated by Ec,||=ffEf.
1. When the load is applied perpendicular to the fibers, each component of the
composite acts independently of the other. The modulus of the composite is now
NB. Again, if the fibers are not continuous and unidirectional, the rule of mixtures does not
apply.
Worked Example 1
Derive the rule of mixtures for the modulus of elasticity of a fiber-reinforced composite when a
stress (σ) is applied along the axis of the fibers.
Solution;
The total force acting on the composite is the sum of the forces carried by each constituent:
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Worked Example 2
Derive the equation for the modulus of elasticity of a fiber-reinforced composite

when a stress is applied perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
Solution;
In this example, the strains are no longer equal; instead, the weighted sum of the
strains in each component equals the total strain in the composite, whereas the
stresses in each component are equal (iso-stress conditions):
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Strength of Composites
2. The tensile strength of a fiber-reinforced composite (TSc) depends on the bonding
between the fibers and the matrix. The rule of mixtures is sometimes used to
approximate the tensile strength of a composite containing continuous, parallel
fibers:
Where TSf is the tensile strength of the fiber and σm is the stress acting on the matrix when
the composite is strained to the point where the fiber fractures. Thus, Sm is not the actual
tensile strength of the matrix.
3. Other properties, such as ductility, impact properties, fatigue properties, and creep
properties, are difficult to predict even for uni-directionally aligned fibers.
Worked Example 3
Boron coated with SiC (or Borsic) reinforced aluminum containing 40 vol% fibers is an
important high-temperature, lightweight composite material. Estimate the density, modulus of
elasticity, and tensile strength parallel to the fiber axis. Also estimate the modulus of elasticity
perpendicular to the fibers
Solution
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Worked Example 4
Glass fibers in nylon provide reinforcement. If the nylon contains 30 vol% E-glass, what fraction
of the force applied parallel to the fiber axis is carried by the glass fibers?
Solution
Design of an Aerospace Composite
We are now using a 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (modulus of elasticity of 69 GPa (10 * 106 ps)
to make a 227 kg (500 Pounds panel on a commercial aircraft. Experience has shown that
each kg reduction in weight on the aircraft reduces the fuel consumption by 1853 Liters (500
gallons) each year. Design a material for the panel that will reduce weight, yet maintain the
same specific modulus, and will be economical over a 10-year lifetime of the aircraft
Solution
There are many possible materials that might be used to provide a weight savings. As an
example, let’s consider using a boron fiber-reinforced Al-Li alloy in the T6 condition. Both
the boron fiber and the lithium alloying addition increase the modulus of elasticity; the boron
and the Al-Li alloy also have densities less than that of typical aluminum alloys.
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The specific modulus of the current 7075-T6 alloy is
Manufacturing Fibers and Composites (for fiber reinforced composites)

Producing a fiber-reinforced composite involves several steps, including
1. Producing the fibers,
2. Arranging the fibers into bundles or fabrics, and
3. Introducing the fibers into the matrix.
STEP 1: Making the Fiber

Metallic fibers, glass fibers, and many polymer fibers (including nylon, aramid, and
polyacrylonitrile) can be formed by drawing processes and the spinnerette for polymer
fibers).
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Fig. x Methods for producing (a) boron and (b) carbon fibers
Boron fiber is produced by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) due to its brittleness. A
very fine, heated tungsten filament is used as a substrate, passing through a seal into
a heated chamber. Vaporized boron compounds such as BCl 3 are introduced into the
chamber, decompose, and permit boron to precipitate onto the tungsten wire (see
Figure x a). SiC fibers are made in a similar manner, with carbon fibers as the
substrate for the vapor deposition of silicon carbide.
Carbon fibers are made by carbonizing, or pyrolizing, an organic filament, which is
more easily drawn or spun into thin, continuous lengths (see Figure x b). The organic
filament, known as a precursor, is often rayon (a cellulosic polymer), polyacrylonitrile
(PAN), or pitch (various aromatic organic compounds). High temperatures
decompose the organic polymer, driving off all of the elements but carbon. As the
carbonizing temperature increases from 1000 °C to 3000 °C, the tensile strength
decreases while the modulus of elasticity increases. Drawing the carbon filaments at
critical times during carbonizing may produce desirable preferred orientations in the
final carbon filament.
Whiskers are single crystals with aspect ratios of 20 to 1000. Because the whiskers
contain no mobile dislocations, slip cannot occur, and they have exceptionally high
strengths. Because of the complex processing required to produce whiskers, their
cost may be quite high.
STEP 2: Arranging the Fibers

Exceptionally fine filaments are bundled together as rovings, yarns, or tows. In yarns,
as many as 10,000 filaments are twisted together to produce the fiber. A tow contains a
few hundred to more than 100,000 untwisted filaments Rovings are untwisted bundles
of filaments, yarns, or tows.
Often, fibers are chopped into short lengths of 1 cm or less (staples). These fibers are
easily incorporated into the matrix and are typical of the sheet-molding and bulk-
molding compounds for polymer-matrix composites. The fibers often are present in
the composite in a random orientation.
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Long or continuous fibers for polymer-matrix composites can be processed into mats
or fabrics. Mats contain non-woven, randomly oriented fibers loosely held together
by a polymer resin. The fibers can also be woven, braided, or knitted into two-
dimensional or three-dimensional fabrics. The fabrics are then impregnated with a
polymer resin. The resins at this point in the processing have not yet been completely
polymerized; these mats or fabrics are called prepregs.
When unidirectionally aligned fibers are to be introduced into a polymer matrix,
tapes may be produced. Individual fibers can be unwound from spools onto a
mandrel, which determines the spacing of the individual fibers, and prepregged with
a polymer resin.
STEP 3: Producing the Composite

Methods for producing composite parts depend on the application and materials used.
Short fiber-reinforced composites formed by mixing the fibers with a liquid or

plastic matrix, then using conventional techniques such as;injection molding for
polymer-base composites or casting for metal-matrix composites. Polymer matrix
composites can also be produced by a spray-up method, in which short fibers mixed
with a resin are sprayed against a form and cured.
Special techniques, however, have been devised for producing composites using continuous
fibers, either in uni-directionally aligned, mat, or fabric form. These includes;
1. hand lay-up
In this technique the tapes, mats, or fabrics are placed against a form, saturated with a
polymer resin, rolled to ensure good contact and freedom from porosity, and finally cured.
Fiberglass car and truck bodies might be made in this manner.
This is a slow and labor-intensive process, However, It is a cost-effective process since it
requires only simple tools and a small number of consumables.
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2. Spray-up
Spray-up is carried out using a dedicated spray pistol to apply a mixture of short fibers
and resin onto a mold. The fiber direction is more or less random. The thickness is controlled
by the duration of spraying a particular location. This technique is generally used for large
objects or to provide a coating for construction, marine or civil engineering applications.
3. Filament winding
This involves an application-specific production process suitable for making
cylindrical containers such as pressure vessels.
It offers the possibility to orientate the fibers, providing significant weight
advantages.
In the case of pressure vessels, the liquid/gas-tight inner layer (liner) is often used as
the mold. It can be problematic to remove the mold in the case of filament
winding. Soluble molds also exist
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4. Fiber placement
The standard practice in fiber placement techniques is to use a pre-preg or
thermoplastic tape or fiber bundle.
This is laid in the mold by a computer-controlled robot, without manual labor.
An advantage of this method is that fibers can be oriented in various directions within
the plane. This is difficult to achieve with other methods and almost impossible
without automation.
5. Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a combination of the verb 'to pull' and the noun 'extrusion'. Extrusion is
used widely to produce profiles. In extrusion processes, the material is compressed
by a mold in the shape of the profile cross-section. However, a fiber-reinforced
material cannot be pushed through a mold easily.
In pultrusion, the raw material is therefore pulled through the mold. The raw
material consists of a combination of fiber bundles and fiber mats (Continuous Strand
Mat), which are led through a resin bath and then through the mold.
The profile is cured at high temperatures (approximately 130 0C) in the mold
and then generally sawn off at a particular standard length. In principle it is possible
to make infinitely long profiles, but in practice pultrusion is a semi-continuous
process in which the profiles are sawn to length.
Pultrusion machine
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Sample pultrusion profiles
6. Molding techniques
Tapes and fabrics can also be placed in a die and formed by bag molding. High-pressure gases
or a vacuum are introduced to force the individual plies together so that good bonding is
achieved during curing. Large polymer matrix components for the skins of military aircraft
have been produced by these techniques. In matched die molding, short fibers or mats are
placed into a two-part die; when the die is closed, the composite shape is formed.
Fig. XX. Producing composite shapes in dies by (a) hand lay-up, (b) pressure bag molding,
and (c) matched die molding
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Producing Laminar Composites
Several methods are used to produce laminar composites, including a variety of deformation
and joining techniques used primarily for metals. These includes;
1. Bonding
2. Brazing
BONDING
a) Adhesive bonding.
Individual plies are often joined by adhesive bonding, as is the case in producing plywood.
Polymer-matrix composites built up from several layers of fabric or tape prepregs are also
joined by adhesive bonding; a film of un-polymerized material is placed between each layer
of prepreg. When the layers are pressed at an elevated temperature, polymerization is
completed and the prepregged fibers are joined to produce composites that may be dozens
of layers thick.
b) Deformation bonding
Most of the metallic laminar composites, such as claddings and bimetallics, are produced by
deformation bonding, such as hot- or cold-roll bonding. The pressure exerted by the rolls
breaks up the oxide film at the surface, brings the surfaces into atom-to-atom contact, and
permits the two surfaces to be joined. Explosive bonding also can be used. An explosive
charge provides the pressure required to join metals.
This process is particularly well suited for joining very large plates that will not fit into a
rolling mill.
c) Extrusion
Very simple laminar composites, such as coaxial cable, are produced by coextruding two
materials through a die in such a way that the soft material surrounds the harder material.
Metal conductor wire can be coated with an insulating thermoplastic polymer in this manner.
Fig. X2. Techniques for producing laminar composites: (a) roll bonding, (b) explosive
bonding, (c) co-extrusion, and (d) brazing.
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BRAZING
Brazing can join composite plates. The metallic sheets are separated by a very small
clearance and heated above the melting temperature of the brazing alloy. The molten brazing
alloy is drawn into the thin joint by capillary action.
Applications of Composites
 Advanced composites used for sporting goods (Tennis rackets, golf clubs, skis, ski
poles, and fishing poles often contain carbon or aramid fibers because the higher
stiffness provides better performance
Material Applications
Borsic aluminum Fan blades in engines, other aircraft and
aerospace applications
KevlarTM-epoxy and KevlarTM-polyester Aircraft, aerospace applications
(including space shuttle), boat hulls,
sporting goods (including tennis rackets,
golf club shafts, fishing rods), flak jackets
Graphite-polymer Aerospace and automotive applications,
sporting goods
Glass-polymer Lightweight automotive applications,
water and marine applications,
corrosion-resistant applications,
sporting goods equipment, aircraft and
aerospace components
Laminates/ microlaminates (Arall Insulation in motors, for gears, for
(aramid-aluminum laminate) and Glare printed circuit boards, and for decorative
(glass-aluminum laminate) items such as Formica® counter-tops
and furniture.
-used in the fuselage of the Airbus 380
Clad Metals (Alclad) *Aircraft construction, heat exchangers,
building construction, and storage tanks,
where combinations of corrosion
resistance, strength, and light weight are
desired.
BaTiO3 ceramics separated by Ag/Pd or Multilayer Capacitors
Ni electrodes
Bimetallics circuit breakers as well as thermostats
Summary
 Composites are composed of two or more materials or phases joined or
connected in such a way so as to give a combination of properties that cannot
be attained other-wise.
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 Virtually any combination of metals, polymers, and ceramics is possible. In
many cases, the rule of mixtures can be used to estimate the properties of the
composite.
 Composites have many applications in construction, aerospace, automotive,
sports, microelectronics and other industries.
 Particulate composites contain particles that impart combinations of
properties to the composite.
 Metal-matrix composites contain ceramic or metallic particles that provide
improved strength and wear resistance and ensure good electrical
conductivity, tough-ness, or corrosion resistance.
 Polymer-matrix composites contain particles that enhance stiffness, heat
resistance, or electrical conductivity while maintaining light weight, ease of
fabrication, or low cost.
 Fiber-reinforced composites provide improvements in strength, stiffness, or
high-temperature performance in metals and polymers and impart toughness
to ceramics.
 Fibers are introduced into a matrix in a variety of orientations. Properties can
be tailored to meet the imposed loads by orienting the fibers in multiple
directions.
 Laminar composites are built of layers of different materials. They are always
anisotropic.
 Sandwich materials, including honeycombs, are exceptionally lightweight
laminar composites, with solid facings joined to an almost hollow core
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
A number of important materials are used in the construction of buildings,
highways, bridges, and much of our country’s infrastructure
The most important of these materials: wood, concrete, and asphalt.
23
BY Dr. J. MUTUA
Producing Laminar Composites
24

Composites Lecture Notes

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Composites Lecture Notes

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EMG 2406 MATERIAL SCIENCE LECTURE NOTES

Definition: A combination of two or more constituent materials with significantly different

Composite = Fibers + Matrix

Composites exists either naturally or in synthesized forms.

Examples of natural composites:

 The coconut palm leaf- form of a cantilever using fiber reinforcements

 The carbon black in rubber,

Some limitations of composites

1. properties of many important composites are anisotropic, which means the

The properties of a composite depend on;

 Its components (matrix and reinforcements),

Nature and classification of composites

Another possible classification is based on the constituent matrix phase.

1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs).

A composite material consists of two phases:

1. Primary phase- Matrix

The use of ﬁbers as high-performance engineering materials is based on three important

Fig. 1 Decrease in strength (σf ) of a carbon ﬁber with increase in diameter

Fibers used in composites can either be continuous or discontinuous.

a. One-dimensional reinforcement, in which maximum strength and stiffness are

Various materials are used as fibers in fiber-reinforced composites: metals, ceramics,

Table 1 Typical properties of fibers used as reinforcements in composites

Fiber material Diameter Tensile Elastic Modulus

Disadvantages include lower conductivity than aluminum; therefore, a lightning protection

Stress-strain behavior of constitutive elements and resultant composite

Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue resistance, Young’s

The Rule of Mixtures in Fiber-Reinforced Composites

The stress-strain curve for a fiber-reinforced composite. At

Derive the equation for the modulus of elasticity of a fiber-reinforced composite

Design of an Aerospace Composite

Manufacturing Fibers and Composites (for fiber reinforced composites)

STEP 1: Making the Fiber

STEP 2: Arranging the Fibers

STEP 3: Producing the Composite

Short fiber-reinforced composites formed by mixing the fibers with a liquid or

Sample pultrusion profiles

Producing Laminar Composites

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