Professional Documents
Culture Documents
of Bulk Materials
• ____ resistivity
Definition of electrical __ ____of a_____
material____ ______
• Methods for making resistivity_____ _____of conductors, insulators, and
measurements
semiconductors ____ _____
• Key considerations for selecting equipment
_____ _____ for measuring resistivity
• Sources of measurement errors and ways to optimize resistivity measurements
____ _____
V=IR
____
Electrical Resistivity __ ____
= longitudinal _____
electrical ____ ______
resistance of a uniform rod of unit
_____ _____
length and unit cross-sectional area:
____ _____
A
R_____
_____
L
____ _____
Current Source ρ = resistivity (Ω-cm)
R = resistance: V/I (Ω)
Voltmeter
V A = cross-sectional area of
L
sample (cm2)
L = distance between two
A
leads of voltmeter (cm)
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Conduction Band
_____ _____ Conduction Band
Energy
____ _____
Energy Gap
Energy Gap
Valence Band
Valence Band
Valence Band
Measuring____
the __ ____ _____of____
Resistivity ______
Conductors:
_____ _____
Metals and Superconductors (very low resistance)
____ _____
_____ _____
Graphene and other
____ Nanomaterials
_____
(low voltage and low power - use same techniques)
____
Basic Test Procedure: __ ____ _____ ____ ______Voltmeter
_____ _____ V
1. Source current (I) through the
____ _____
sample using one pair of leads. L
_____ _____ w
2. Measure the voltage drop (V)____
across_____
t Sample
a second pair of leads a known
distance (L) apart.
2-Wire Method
____ 4-Wire
__ ____ _____ ____ Method
______
I I
_____ _____
____ _____
_____ _____
V V
____ _____
RLead RLead
RLead RLead
RSample
RSample
Measured Resistance: Measured Resistance:
VM/I = RSample + 2RLead VM/I = RSample
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Thermoelectric Voltages
Voltmeter
Copper Test Leads
____ __ ____ _____ ____ ______ Voltmeter
Metal A V _____ _____CopperMetal
Test Leads
A V
____ _____
_____ _____
____ _____ Sample
Sample – Metal B
T1 Metal B T2
____
Measurement __ ____
with Positive Polarity_____ ____ ______
Measurement with Negative Polarity
_____ _____
VEMF
____ _____ VEMF
_____ _____
I+ V____
M+ _____ I- VM-
R R
Johnson Noise
• Reduce by:
1. Reduce the measurement bandwidth –digital filtering (averaging readings) or
analog filtering
2. Reduce temperature of the device
3. Reduce the sample resistance (usually not practical)
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• ____ __ ____
Make a 4-wire measurement _____
to eliminate the____ ______ L
accuracy.
____ _____
Current Source
• _____ _____
Use an offset compensation technique to
eliminate voltage offsets and reduce
____noise:
_____
Current Reversal Method or Delta Method.
continued . . .
____
The resistance of an __ ____
insulator is _____ ____ ______
Sample
measured by: _____ _____ Resistance
I
____ _____
1. Applying a voltage to the sample R
for a specified time period _____
Voltage
_____
V A Ammeter
____
Source_____
LO
____
Volume Resistivity is a__ ____ of_____
measure the ____ ______
A
_____
leakage current directly through _____
a material.
____ _____ HI
Test Procedure for Volume Resistivity:
_____of _____
1. Place sample between 2 electrodes area (A). Electrode t
____ _____ Sample
2. Apply potential difference (V) between the 2 electrodes.
HI
Voltage
3. Wait specified time (60 seconds) and measure current (I) Source
using sensitive ammeter. LO
• Improper Measurement
____ __Instrumentation
____ _____ ____ ______
• Electrification Time
• Test Voltage
_____ _____
• Background Currents ____ _____
• Electrodes and Geometrical_____ _____
Considerations
• Electrostatic Interference ____ _____
• Humidity
At 60 s, current=
2.5x10-12
Test Voltage
Background Currents
Negative Voltage
Applied and
Exponential
Current Measured.
Electrodes
Center Electrode
Volume resistivity is a measure of the leakage
current through the material, between the top
electrode and center bottom electrode. The outside Model 8009 Resistivity Test Chamber
ring electrode is guard.
____is__
The Surface Resistivity ____ _____ ____
measured ______
by placing two electrodes on the_____ Electrodes
_____
surface of the test sample, applying 0V Guard
____ _____
a potential difference between them, Test
_____Sample
and measuring the resulting current. _____
____ _____ R
Notice the surface resistivity (R) is HI HI
measured between the bottom
Center Electrode and the Ring Ammeter A
Electrode.
LO LO
Shield
____ __ ____ _____ ____ ______
_____ _____
____ _____
HI _____ _____ HI
Ammeter ____ _____
Sample
Voltage
Source
LO
LO
____
1. Lead and contact __ ____
resistance _____ ____ ______
_____ _____
2. ____method
Voltage offsets (use current reversal _____to reduce)
_____ _____
3. Instrumentation ____ _____
4. Issues with high resistance materials
1 2 3 4
RC1 RC2 RC3 RC4 Only the voltage drop due to RS2 is
V
measured by the voltmeter.
RS1 RS2 RS3
Measure Voltage
Between 2 And 3
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____ probe
• Use a 4-point collinear __ ____ _____
that has ____
excellent ______
isolation between the
probes to avoid leakage current_____
errors _____
• Use a current source with high output _____ (1E14) to avoid loading
____impedance
errors
_____ _____
• Use a current source with a built-in guard to reduce the effects of shunt
capacitance ____ _____
• Use voltmeters with high input impedance (1E14 ohms)
• Use shielding to avoid errors due to electrostatic interference
• Use differential electrometer method to avoid issues of common mode
current
_____ _____
AC
____ _____
_____LO_____
Voltmeter Common
____ _____ Mode
Current
V RV
i
RIN
Contact AC When the resistance of the sample,
Resistance RS2, becomes on the same order of
HI LO
1 2 3 4
magnitude as the isolation spec
(input LO to chassis) of the current
RC1 RC2 RC3 RC4 source and voltmeter, then common
RS1 RS2 RS3 mode current will flow affecting the
measurement accuracy.
Sample Resistance
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X1 X1
Buffer Buffer
HI LO HI LO
1 2 3 4
RC1 RC2 RC3 RC4
____
• vdp configuration __for
is useful ____ _____ ____
measuring ______
very small samples _____ _____
Force
____ _____ Current
• Easy to measure Hall voltage using an _____
_____
electromagnet to apply the B field B
____ _____ 1
Hall Configuration
V5
____ __ ____ _____ ____ ______
1 2
V3
1
_____ _____
2 1 2 1 2
V7
4 3 4
____ _____
3 4 3 4 3
V1 _____ _____
____ _____
V6
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
V4 V8
4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3
V2
1
____
Use a switch matrix to __ ____ _____ ____ ______ Sample
_____ _____
Choose a switch system that will
not degrade the measurements.
____ _____ 1 2 3 4
1
Current
Source
Use offset compensation
technique – current reversals – to 2
• ____
Use electrostatic __ ____
shielding _____electrical
to minimize ____ ______
interference
– Shield the DUT and all sensitive
_____circuitry
_____
– Use shielded cabling
– Connect the shield to the low____
terminal_____
of the system
_____ _____
• Use guarding to reduce the effects of leakage current in system
– Guarded current source ____ _____
– Guarded voltmeters
– Use triax cable instead of coax cable
Wait at least
20 seconds
for a settled
measurement
Summary
Reference Materials
www.keithley.com
____ __ ____ _____ ____ ______
Low Level Measurements Handbook, 6th Edition
_____ _____
Application Notes: Hall effect,____ _____
van der Pauw
method, four-point collinear_____
probe method,
_____
insulator resistivity, low voltage measurements,
low current measurements, etc. ____ _____