The algebra of sets develops and describes the basic properties and laws of sets, the set-

theoretic operations of union, intersection, and complementation and the relations of

set equality and set inclusion. It also provides systematic procedures for evaluating
expressions, and performing calculations, involving these operations and relations.

The fundamental laws of set algebra

The binary operations of set union and intersection satisfy many identities.
Several of these identities or "laws" have well established names. Three pairs of laws, are
stated, without proof, in the following proposition.

PROPOSITION 1: For any sets A, B, and C, the following identities hold:

commutative laws:

 A∪B = B∪A
 A∩B = B∩A

associative laws:

 (A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )
 (A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C )

distributive laws:

 A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B ) ∩ (A ∪ C )
 A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ C )

Notice that the analogy between unions and intersections of sets, and addition and
multiplication of numbers, is quite striking. Like addition and multiplication, the
operations of union and intersection are commutative and associative, and
intersection distributes over unions. However, unlike addition and multiplication, union
also distributes over intersection.

The next proposition, states two additional pairs of laws involving three specials sets:
the empty set, the universal set and the complement of a set.

PROPOSITION 2: For any subset A of universal set U, the following identities hold:

identity laws:

 A∪∅ = A
 A∩U = A

complement laws:

 A ∪ A′ = U
 A ∩ A′ = ∅
The identity laws (together with the commutative laws) say that, just like 0 and 1 for
addition and multiplication, ∅ and U are the identity elements for union and intersection,
respectively.

Unlike addition and multiplication, union and intersection do not have inverse elements.
However the complement laws give the fundamental properties of the somewhat
inverse-like unary operation of set complementation.

The preceding five pairs of laws, the commutative, associative, distributive, identity and
complement laws can be said to encompass all of set algebra, in the sense that every valid
proposition in the algebra of sets can be derived from them.

The principle of duality

The above propositions display the following interesting pattern. Each of the identities
stated above is one of a pair of identities, such that, each can be transformed into the other
by interchanging ∪ and ∩, and also ∅ and U.

These are examples of an extremely important and powerful property of set algebra,
namely, the principal of duality for sets, which asserts that for any true statement about
sets, the dual statement obtained by interchanging unions and intersections,
interchanging U and ∅ and reversing inclusions is also true. A statement is said to be self-
dual if it is equal to its own dual.

Some additional laws for unions and intersections

The following proposition states six more important laws of set algebra, involving unions
and intersections.

PROPOSITION 3: For any subsets A and B of a universal set U, the following identities
hold:

idempotent laws:

 A∪A = A
 A∩A = A

domination laws:

 A∪U = U
 A∩∅ = ∅

absorption laws:

 A ∪ (A ∩ B ) = A
 A ∩ (A ∪ B ) = A
As noted above each of the laws stated in proposition 3, can be derived from the five
fundamental laws stated in proposition 1 and proposition 2. As an illustration, a proof is
given below for the idempotent law for union.

Proof:

A ∪ A = (A ∪ A) ∩ U by the identity law for intersection

= (A ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ A′) by the complement law for union

= A ∪ (A ∩ A′) by the distributive law of union over intersection

=A∪∅ by the complement law for intersection

=A by the identity law for union

The following proof illustrates that the dual of the above proof is the proof of the dual of
the idempotent law for union, namely the idempotent law for intersection.

Proof:

A ∩ A = (A ∩ A) ∪ ∅ by the identity law for union

= (A ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ A′) by the complement law for intersection

= A ∩ (A ∪ A′) by the distributive law of intersection over union

=A∩U by the complement law for union

=A by the identity law for intersection

Some additional laws for complements

The following proposition states five more important laws of set algebra, involving
complements.

PROPOSITION 4: Let A and B be subsets of a universe U, then:

De Morgan's laws:

 (A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′
 (A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′

double complement or Involution law:

 A′′ = A
 complement laws for the universal set and the empty set:

 ∅′ = U
 U′ = ∅

Notice that the double complement law is self-dual.

The next proposition, which is also self-dual, says that the complement of a set is the only
set that satisfies the complement laws. In other words, complementation is characterized
by the complement laws.

PROPOSITION 5: Let A and B be subsets of a universe U, then:

uniqueness of complements:

 If A ∪ B = U, and A ∩ B = ∅ then B = A′.

The algebra of inclusion

The following proposition says that inclusion is a partial order.

PROPOSITION 6: If A, B and C are sets then the following hold:

reflexivity:

 A⊆A

antisymmetry:

 A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A if and only if A = B

transitivity:

 If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C

The following proposition says that for any set S the power set of S ordered by inclusion
is a bounded lattice, and hence together with the distributive and complement laws
above, show that it is a Boolean algebra.

PROPOSITION 7: If A, B and C are subsets of a set S then the following hold:

existence of a least element and a greatest element:

 ∅⊆A⊆S
existence of joins:
 A ⊆ A∪B
 If A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C then A∪B ⊆ C
existence of meets:
 A∩B ⊆ A
 If C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B then C ⊆ A∩B

The following proposition says that, the statement "A ⊆ B ", is equivalent to various other
statements involving unions, intersections and complements.

PROPOSITION 8: For any two sets A and B, the following are equivalent:

 A⊆B
 A∩B = A
 A∪B = B
 A−B = ∅
 B′ ⊆ A′

The above proposition shows that the relation of set inclusion can be characterized by
either of the operations of set union or set intersection, which means that the notion of set
inclusion is axiomatically superfluous.

The algebra of relative complements

The following proposition, lists several identities concerning relative complements or set-
theoretic difference.

PROPOSITION 9: For any universe U and subsets A, B, and C of U, the following

identities hold:

 C − (A ∩ B ) = (C − A ) ∪ (C − B )
 C − (A ∪ B ) = (C − A ) ∩ (C − B )
 C − (B − A ) = (A ∩ C ) ∪ (C − B )
 (B − A ) ∩ C = (B ∩ C ) − A = B ∩ (C − A )
 (B − A ) ∪ C = (B ∪ C ) − (A − C )
 A−A = ∅
 ∅−A = ∅
 A−∅ = A
 B − A = A' ∩ B
 (B − A )' = A ∪ B′
 U − A = A′
 A−U = ∅

Principle of extension - a set is determined by its members rather than by any particular
way of describing the set. Thus, sets A and B are equal if and only if every element in A is
also in B and every element in B is in A; symbolically, x ∊ A implies x ∊ B and vice versa.
There exists, for example, exactly one set the members of which are 2, 3, 5, and 7. It does
not matter whether its members are described as “prime numbers less than 10” or listed
in some order (which order is immaterial) between small braces, possibly {5, 2, 7, 3}.
The positive integers {1, 2, 3, …} are typically used for counting the elements in a finite
set. For example, the set {a, b, c} can be put in one-to-one correspondence with the
elements of the set {1, 2, 3}. The number 3 is called the cardinal number, or cardinality, of
the set {1, 2, 3} as well as any set that can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with it.
(Because the empty set has no elements, its cardinality is defined as 0.) In general, a
set A is finite and its cardinality is n if there exists a pairing of its elements with the set {1,
2, 3, …, n}. A set for which there is no such correspondence is said to be infinite.
To define infinite sets, Cantor used predicate formulas. The phrase “x is a professor” is
an example of a formula; if the symbol x in this phrase is replaced by the name of a
person, there results a declarative sentence that is true or false. The notation S(x) will be
used to represent such a formula. The phrase “x is a professor at university y and x is a
male” is a formula with two variables. If the occurrences of x and y are replaced by names
of appropriate, specific objects, the result is a declarative sentence that is true or false.
Given any formula S(x) that contains the letter x (and possibly others), Cantor’s principle
of abstraction asserts the existence of a set A such that, for each object x, x ∊ A if and only
if S(x) holds. (Mathematicians later formulated a restricted principle of abstraction, also
known as the principle of comprehension, in which self-referencing predicates, or S(A),
are excluded in order to prevent certain paradoxes. See below Cardinality and transfinite
numbers.) Because of the principle of extension, the set A corresponding to S(x) must be
unique, and it is symbolized by {x | S(x)}, which is read “The set of all objects x such
that S(x).” For instance, {x | x is blue} is the set of all blue objects. This illustrates the fact
that the principle of abstraction implies the existence of sets the elements of which are all
objects having a certain property. It is actually more comprehensive. For example, it
asserts the existence of a set B corresponding to “Either x is an astronaut or x is a natural
number.” Astronauts have no particular property in common with numbers (other than
both being members of B).

Cartesian Product of Two Sets

If A and B are two non-empty sets, then their Cartesian product A × B is the set of all
ordered pair of elements from A and B.

A × B = {(x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B}

Suppose, if A and B are two non-empty sets, then the Cartesian product of two sets, A
and set B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a ∈A and b∈B which is denoted as
A × B.
Example;

1. If A = {7, 8} and B = {2, 4, 6}, find A × B.

Solution:

A × B = {(7, 2); (7, 4); (7, 6); (8, 2); (8, 4); (8, 6)}

The 6 ordered pairs thus formed can represent the position of points in a plane, if a and
B are subsets of a set of real numbers.
2. If A × B = {(p, x); (p, y); (q, x); (q, y)}, find A and B.
Solution:

A is a set of all first entries in ordered pairs in A × B.

B is a set of all second entries in ordered pairs in A × B.

Thus A = {p, q} and B = {x, y}

3. If A and B are two sets, and A × B consists of 6 elements: If three elements of A × B

are (2, 5) (3, 7) (4, 7) find A × B.

Solution:

Since, (2, 5) (3, 7) and (4, 7) are elements of A × B.

So, we can say that 2, 3, 4 are the elements of A and 5, 7 are the elements of B.

So, A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 7}

Now, A × B = {(2, 5); (2, 7); (3, 5); (3, 7); (4, 5); (4, 7)}

Thus, A × B contain six ordered pairs.

4. If A = { 1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 3}, then

Find: (i) A × B (ii) B × A (iii) A × A (iv) (B × B)

Solution:

A ×B={1, 3, 5} × {2,3} = [{1, 2},{1, 3},{3, 2},{3, 3},{5, 2},{5, 3}]

B × A = {2, 3} × {1, 3, 5} = [{2, 1},{2, 3},{2, 5},{3, 1},{3, 3},{3, 5}]

A × A = {1, 3, 5} × {1, 3, 5}= [{1, 1},{1, 3},{1, 5},{3, 1},{3, 3},{3, 5},{5, 1},{5, 3},{5, 5}]

B × B = {2, 3} × {2, 3} = [{2, 2},{2, 3},{3, 2},{3, 3}]

Note:

If either A or B are null sets, then A ×B will also be an empty set, i.e., if A = ∅ or

B = ∅, then A × B = ∅

A partially ordered set (or poset) is a set taken together with a partial order on it.
Formally, a partially ordered set is defined as an ordered pair , where is called
the ground set of and is the partial order of .

An element in a partially ordered set is said to be an upper bound for a

subset of if for every , we have . Similarly, a lower bound for a subset is an
element such that for every , . If there is an upper bound and a lower bound for
, then the poset is said to be bounded.

Ordered Pair
In the set theory, we learnt to write a set in different forms, we also learnt about
different types of sets and studied operations on sets and Venn diagrams. Also in co-
ordinate system we learnt about an ordered pair.
We studied ordered pair in co-ordinate system to locate a point. By the ordered pair (2,
5) we mean a pair of two integers, strictly in the order with 2 at first place called the
abscissa and 5 at second place called the ordinate.

The ordered pair (2, 5) is not equal to ordered pair (3, 2) i.e., (2, 5) ≠ (5, 2). Thus, in a
pair, the order of elements is important. An ordered pair consists of two elements that
are written in the fixed order. So, we define an ordered pair as:

• The pair of elements that occur in particular order and are enclosed in brackets are
called a set of ordered pairs.

• If ‘a’ and ‘b’ are two elements, then the two different pairs are (a, b); (b, a) and (a, b);
(b, a).

• In an ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component and b is called the second
component.
Suppose, if A and B are two sets such that a∈A and b∈B, then by the ordered pair of
elements we mean (a, b) where 'a' is called the Iˢᵗ component and 'b' is called the IIⁿᵈ
component of the ordered pair.
If the position of the components is changed, then the ordered pair is changed, i.e., it
becomes (b, a) but (a, b) ≠ (b, a).
Note:
Ordered pair is not a set consisting of two elements.

Equality of Ordered Pairs:

Two ordered pairs are equal if and only if the corresponding first components are equal and
corresponding second components are equal.

For example:

Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if a = c and b = d, i.e., (a, b) = (c, d). Find the values of x and
y, if (2x - 3, y + 1) = (x + 5, 7)

Solution:

By equality of ordered pairs, we have

2x - 3 = x + 5 and y + 1 = 7
⇒ 2x - x = 5 + 3 ⇒ x = 8 and y = 7 - 1 ⇒ y = 6

Note:
Both the elements of an ordered pair can be the same, i.e., (2, 2), (5, 5).
Two ordered pairs are equal if and only if the corresponding first components are equal
and second components are equal.

For example:
1. Ordered pairs (x, y) and (2, 7) are equal if x = 2 and y = 7.

2. Given (x - 3, y + 2) = (4, 5), find x and y.

Solution:

(x - 3, y + 2) = (4, 5)
⇒ x - 3 = 4 and y + 2 = 5
Then x = 4 + 3 and y = 5 - 2 or x = 7 and y = 3

3. Given (3a, 3) = (5a - 4, b + 1)

Solution:

(3a, 3) = (5a - 4, b + 1)
Then, 3a = 5a - 4 and 3 = b + 1
⇒ 5a - 3a = 4 and b = 3 - 1
⇒ 2a = 4 and b = 2
⇒ a = 4/2
⇒a=2