Module 2: Annotated Bibliography 1

Module 2: Annotated Bibliography

Edward J. Albert

Coastal Carolina University

 Module 2: Annotated Bibliography 2

Abstract

The following is a compilation of articles. These articles discuss different theories that involve

learning. The brain is a complex system. It is so complex that scientist do not always agree in

the manner in which it functions. Multiple scientist have working theories; all of which have

limitations. However, if we can understand the cornerstone of these theories we can understand

how to help individuals learn.

#1: Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 71-77). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.

This section of the book talks about cognitive information processing. This is the study of
how human learners process information and hope to explain how the environment affects
the process. The computer model uses information as the input, and something learned is
the output which has become an accepted modern metaphor for learning. In order for the
process to work there must be some type of ‘input’ that is received by the sensory memory
(either visual or auditory). This is interpreted and moved to your working memory, which is
very limited as far as processing information. Finally, the new information (content) is
integrating with schema stored in long term memory. Once there, it is assumed it is never
lost because long term memory is never filled (p.75). This model does not need to flow the
same way every time, but is dependent upon data driven or conceptually driven processes.
This is dependent on the learning task, as well as how much background knowledge the
learner has (p.75). Furthermore, for instruction to be significant it must build upon prior
knowledge. Otherwise, the working memory has nothing to integrate with. This means that
instruction must be geared toward the learner’s background knowledge for maximum
success to occur.

#2: Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical Overview. Human Cognition (pp. 1-
27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

This article discusses the emergence of cognitive science. Cognitive science is the
scientific study of mental processes. It believes that the mind reflects only physical
processes of the brain (p. 7). This is conceived from the notions set forth in cognitive
neuroscience and cognitive psychology. The author understands the machine metaphor to
characterize CIP (cognitive information processing); however, dismisses the notion that the
mind is linear. The mind does not have the ‘hardware in place’ like a computer, stored in a
central location, nor does it learn like a programmed computer. Yet, it is built through a
more realistic network of neurons hosted by the brain which have input, output, and hidden
units. The hidden unit essentially connect the input and output units. The hidden units
transmit signals to each other through these units (p. 18). As the brain learns, these
connections strengthen which lead to faster processing. In the CIP model it is crucial to
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activate prior knowledge, but how is that prior knowledge gained as child? The sensory
units of the neural net model may help to explain this phenomena. Furthermore, the “neural
nets explain the underlying neural dynamics of the components of thought” (p22). One of
the implications of this model is that with proper feedback, we, as teachers, can strengthen
these connections between neurons. When that occurs learning will strengthen.

#3: Smith & Ragan (1999). Introduction to Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 1-
12). New York: Wiley.

Smith and Ragan introduce and breakdown the systematic process of Instructional Design,
also referred to as the “Common Model of Instructional Design”, in this article. That is, a
designed experience should lead to learning that is effective, efficient, and appealing
experiences for the learner (p3). They provided another way to think of the model:
analysis, selecting the instructional strategy, and evaluation. Meaning, what are the goals of
the learner, how are those goals best achieved, and a plan approached for evaluating
instructional material (p6). This would allow instructional designers to be more consistent in
their approach and achieve the desired outcome with more frequency. The designer can
reflect upon the experiences and then properly form a new plan when needed. However,
this approach does not need to be systematic and can be referred to as a “ball of worms” as
some processes may occur simultaneously (p8). However, both models, systematic and
concurrent, have flaws. The first one disregards that these phases do not need to occur in
a certain order, which could give the designer some needed flexibility. The latter may
provide too much flexibility and lead to design flaws. As the designer makes changes in any
one phase, they may forget or overlook a step in a previous phase. Meaning that the
instructional designer needs to be aware all phases to properly design instruction. Poor
design elements and lack of a goal will otherwise leave the learner left to their own devices
to be successful.

#4: Smith & Ragan (1999). Foundations of Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp.
13-29). New York: Wiley.

Smith and Ragan start out by discussing the major educational theories that have an
influence on design. They continue on to describe how learning theories (p 18), more
specifically cognitive learning theories, play a major role in design practices and help us to
understand how learning occurs. However, there tends to be more of a focus on the actual
learning processes and less on the environmental factors that can help shape it. The most
predominate theory out there is called information processing. Smith and Ragan are
concerned about the process and not the physical structure(s). Furthermore, there may not
be a specific place where a function occurs as they have not been located. For example,
there may not be a single place where memory is stored. This is called the “Multi-Store
Model” (p 20). The model states that as we gather information from our senses, we store
that in a group of structures (sensory register), then it forms our working memory which is
used to create long term memory. There is a continuous exchange of information between
the working and long term memory (p21). In order for this information to be stored it must
be meaningful. And to be meaningful, it must integrate with prior knowledge (p21). When
the information is meaningful it is also believed that it creates more neural pathways to help
recall the information. The information is then retrieved and passes through the response
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generator in order to be useful. There are other models of network-based theories that are
available (i.e. Mental Models). The key to successful learning then is to activate prior
knowledge. The more active the learner is and the more prior knowledge that is stimulated,
the more the learner will acquire.

#5 (additional): Mustafa, Hassan M. H.; Tourkia, Fadhel Ben; Ramadan, Ramadan

Mohamed (2017). An Overview on Evaluation of E-Learning/Training Response Time
Considering Artificial Neural Networks. Journal of Education and e-Learning Research, v4
n2 p46-62.

After reading Guenther’s Introduction and Historical Overview article (the second article we
were assigned), I became interested to learn more about neural networks. Artificial Neural
Network Models (ANNs) are being studied by a variety of different fields in the hope to
better understand learning. While there are different models that have their own key
elements, all of them essentially have the same processes that work on input, output, and
hidden units. These models showed that the Hebian learning rule is occurring. The Hebian
learning rule “states that two neurons can be strengthened if they are fired at the same
time” (http://penta.ufrgs.br/edu/telelab/3/hebbian_.htm). Research shows that as these
neurons communicate with each other, the timed response became faster. Educators,
scientists, psychologists, and others now have the potential to “fully understand how the
brain’s structure gives rise to perception, learning, and behavior, and consequently, they
can investigate well the learning process phenomenon” if they can understand how the
neuron synapse are connected within the brain (p47). The capabilities of the brain are
dependent upon how the nerves conduct electrical impulses. This is due to myelin sheaths.
The use of ANNs have been seen as highly effective and efficient for simulated educational
trainings. If we can get these neurons to create a network, then that will help the flow of
information. Hence, the learner will be able to make connections faster and understand the
material. However, I am not sure how to do that. In ANNs it is easy to program a model,
but how do you get the everyday person to have neurons firing simultaneously? How do you
create more neurons working together? Or even how to thicken the myelin sheath so that
electrical impulses can move faster? If these questions can be answered, then we could
help the struggling learner more effectively.