Introduction to Electrodynamics David J. Griffiths Reed College Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458Liar of Congress Caton in Fabian Dat ‘Gatos, Dai (Di ete) Iota tocerdymames/ Das) Gets Sade nom Ips iigapisreeences and ink, ISaNO-13 808506 Teer Tle ocean 1589 Syeda oes Executive Baitor: Aion Reeves Production itor: Kim Delas ‘Manufacturing Manager: Trudy Pisciot! An Directoe: Jane Come Cover Designer: Brace Keselaar Fdicovial Assan Glan Keil Composition: PreTEX, Ine © 1989, 1989, 1981 by remice Mal ne. Upper Sade River, New Hersey 07458 Alig reserved. No pr of tis book may be reproduce in ay form by any means, ‘without permission in iting from te publisher. Reprinted with comectons Sepember, 1999 Printd inthe United States of America looe7 6s ISBN O-13-80532b-X Prentice-Hall lternational (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Ausala Py, Limit, Sdaey Prentice-Hall Canada ne, Toronto Premice-Hal Hispanoumerican, SA, Mexico Cty Prentice Hal of India Private Limited New Delhi rence Hall f Span, Ine, Tyo Premie-Hall Asia Pte. La, Singapore [sitra Preace Hal do Bris Lit Ri de fncineContents Preface Advertisement 1 Vector Analysis Vector Algebra 1.1.1 Vector Operations 1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component Form 1.13 Triple Product L14 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors L13 How Vectors Transform Differential Caleulus 1.2.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives 1.22 Gradient 1.2.3. The Operator V 1.2.4 The Divergence 1.2.5 The Curl 1.26 Product Rules 1.2.7 Second Derivatives Integral Calculus : 13.1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals, 13.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 1.3.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients 1.3.4 The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences 1.3.5 The Fundamental Theorem for Curls 1.3.6 Integration by Parts Curvilinear Coordinates 14.1 Spherical Polar Coordinates 1.42. Cylindrical Coordinates ‘The Dirac Delta Function LS.1 The Divergence of #/7? 15.2. The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function . 10 B B 16 7 19 20 ry 24 28 2» 31 37 38 38 8 45 45 461.5.3. The Three-Dimensional Delta Function 1.6 The Theory of Vector Fields 1.6.1 ‘The Helmholtz Theorem 1.6.2 Potentials Electrostaties 2.1 The Electric Field 2.11 Introduction 2.12 Coulomb's Law . 2.1.3 The Blectric Field 2.14 Continuous Charge Distributions . 2.2. Divergence and Curl of Electrostatic Fields 22.1 Field Lines, Flux, and Gauss’s Law 222 The Divergence of E 2.2.3 Applications of Gauss’s Law 2.24 The Curl of E 2.3 Electric Potential. ‘ 2.3.1 Introduction to Potential 2.3.2 Comments on Potential 23.3 Poisson's Equation and Laplace’s Equation 2.34 The Potential of Localized Charge Distribution 2.3.5 Summary: Electrostatic Boundary Conditions 24 Work and Energy in Blectrostatics 24.1 ‘The Work Done to Move a Charge 24.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution 24.3 ‘The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution 2.44 Comments on Electrostatic Energy : 25: Conductors 25.1 Basie Properties 9.5.2 Induced Charges eae 25.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor 254 Capacitors Special Techniques 3.1 Laplace's Equation 3.L1 Introduction 3.1.2 Laplace’s Equation in One Dimension 3.1.3 Laplace's Equation in Two Dimensions 3.1.4 Laplace's Equation in Three Dimensions 3.1.5 Boundary Conditions and Uniqueness Theorems, 3.1.6 Conductors and the Second Uniqueness Theorem 3.2. The Method of Images... 2... 3.2.1 The Classic Image Problem 3.2.2 Induced Surface Charge CONTENTS 50 2 32 3 58 58 38 59 60. 61 65 65 9 70 16 n n ” 83 83 87 90 90, 91 93 95 96, 96 98 102 108 110 10 110 mL 12 1a 116 18 121 2 123CONTENTS 3.23 Force and Energy 3.24 Other Image Problems 3.3. Separation of Variables 3.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates 3.32. Spherical Coordinates 3.4 Multipole Expansion : 3.4.1 Approximate Potentials at Large Distances 3.4.2 The Monopole and Dipole Terms : 3.4.3 Origin of Coordinates in Multipole Expansions, 3.44 The Electric Field of a Dipole 4) Blectrie Fields in Matter 4.4 Polarization 4.11 Dielectrics 4.1.2 Induced Dipoles 4.1.3 Alignment of Polar Molecules 4.14. Polarization 4.2 The Field of a Polarized Object 4.2.1 Bound Charges 4.22. Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges. 42.3. The Field Inside a Dielectric 43. The Electric Displacement 43.1 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics 432 A Deceptive Parallel. 4.3.3. Boundary Conditions 44° Linear Dielectries : : 44.1 Susceptibility, Permitivity, Dielectric Constant 44.2 Boundary Value Problems with Linear Dielectrics 44.3 Energy in Dielectric Systems 444 Forces on Diclectries 3 Magnetostatics S.A The Lorentz Force Law 5.1.1 Magnetic Fields 5.1.2. Magnetic Forces 5.13 Currents 5.2. The Biot-Savart Law 5.2.1 Steady Currents 5.2.2 The Magnetic Field of a Steady Current 5.3. The Divergence and Curl of B 53.1 Straight-Line Currents 5.3.2 The Divergence and Curl of B 5.33. Applications of Ampere’s Law 5.34 Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostaties 123 124 127 127 137 146 146 149 151 153 160 160 160 160 163 166 166 166 170 173 175 175 178 178 19 I 186 191 193 202 202 202 204 208 215 215 215 221 21 22 25 23254 61 62 63 64 Magnetie Vector Potential SA.I The Vector Potential 54.2 Summary; Magnetostaic Boundary Conditions 5.4.3. Multipole Expansion of the Vector Potential ‘Magnetic Fields in Matter Magnetization . 6.1.1 Diamagnets, Paramagnets, Ferromagnets 6.1.2 Torques and Forces on Magnetic Dipoles 6.1.3 Effect of a Magnetic Field on Atomic Orbits 6.1.4 Magnetization “The Feld of a Magnetized Object 62.1 Bound Currents 62.2 Physical Imerpretation of Bound Currents 6.23 The Magnetic Field Inside Matter ‘The Auxiliary Field H 63.1 Ampére’s law in Magnetized Materials 632 A Deceptive Parallel. 63.3 Boundary Conditions Linear and Nonlinear Media. 6.4.1 Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability 64.2. Ferromagnetism : 7 Blectrodynamies a 72 Eleciromotive Force 711 Ohm's Law 7.1.2 Electromotive Force. 7.1.3 Motional emf Electromagnetic Induction 7.2.1 Paraday’s Law 722 The Induced Electric Field 7.2.3. Inductance 7.2.4 Energy in Magnetic Fields Maxwell's Equations 73.1 Electrodynamics Before Maxwell 7.3.2 How Maxwell Fixed Ampére's Law . 733° Maxwell’s Equations 734 Magnetic Charge 7.35 Maxwell's Equations in Matter 73.6 Boundary Conditions CONTENTS 234 234 240 242 255 255 285 255 260 262 263 263 266 268 269 23 23 274 4 78 285 285 285 292 294 301 301 305 310 317 32 321 323 326 327 328 331CONTENTS 8 Conservation Laws 81 ‘Charge and Energy 8.1.1 The Continuity Equation 8.1.2 Poynting’s Theorem Momentum 8.2.1 Newton's Third Law in Electrodynamics 82.2 Maxwell's Stress Tensor 823 Conservation of Momentum 82.4 Angular Momentum Electromagnetic Waves on 92 93 94 95 ‘Waves in One Dimension 9.1.1 The Wave Equation 9.1.2 Sinusoidal Waves 9.13 Boundary Conditions: Reflection and Transmission 9.14 Polarization cee Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum 9.2.1 The Wave Equation for E and B 9.22 Monochromatic Plane Waves 9.2.3 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic W Electromagnetic Waves in Matter 9.3.1 Propagation in Linear Media 9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence . 9.3.3. Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence . Absorption and Dispersion 94.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors , 94.2. Reflection at a Conducting Surface 94.3 ‘The Frequency Dependence of Permitiivity iuided Waves 9.5.1 Wave Guides : 952 TE Waves ina Rectangular Wave Guide 95.3 The Coaxial Transmission Line Potentials and Fields 10.1 The Potential Formulation 10.1.1. Scalar and Vector Potentials 10.1.2 Gauge Transformations 10.1.3 Coulomb Gauge and Lorentz" Gauge 10.2. Continuous Distributions 10.2.1. Retarded Potentials 10.2.2 _Jefimenko's Equations 10.3 Point Charges 10.3.1 Lignard-Wiechert Potentials 10.32 The Fields of a Moving Point Charge 345 345 346 349) 349, 351 355 358 364 364 367 370 373 375 378 376 380 382 382 384 386, 392 392 396, 398 405 405 408, aul 416 416 416 419 421 422 422 427 429 429 435,LL Radiation 11.1. Dipole Radiation 11.1.1 Whatis Radiation? 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source 11.2 Point Charges 11.2.1. Power Radiated by a Point Charge 11.2.2 Radiation Reaction 11.2.3 “The Physical Bass ofthe Radiation Reaction 12. Electrodynamics and Relativi 12.1 The Special Theory of Relativity 12.1.1 Einstein's Postulates 12.1.2 The Geometry of Relativity 12.13 The Loreate Transformations 12.1.4 The Structure of Spacetime 122 Relativistic Mechanics 12.2.1. Proper Time and Proper Velocity 12.2.2. Relativistic Energy and Momentum 12.2.3. Relativistic Kinematics 12.24 Relativistic Dynamics 123 Relativistic Electrodynamics 12.3.1, Magnetism asa Relativistic Phenomenon 12.3.2. How the Fields Transform 12.3.3 The Field Tensor 12.34 Electrodynamics in Tensor Notation 12.3.5. Relativistic Potentials A Vector Caleulus in Curvilinear Coordinates AL Introduction A2 Notation AB. Gradient A4 Divergence AS Cutt AG Laplacian B_ The Helmholtz Theorem C Units Index CONTENTS 443 443 443, 444 451 454 460 460 465 469 477 an 47 483, 493 500 507 507 509 su 516 522 537 Sar 347 547 547 54s. 549, 552 554 355 S58 562Preface This isa textbook on electricity and magnetism, designed for an undergraduate course at the junior or senior level. It can be covered comfortably in two semesters, maybe even with room t0 spare for special topies (AC circuits, numerical methods, plasma physics, transmission lines, antenna theory, etc.) A one-semester course could reasonably stop ater Chapter 7. Unlike quantum mechanics or thermal physics (for example), there is 8 fairly general consensus with respect tothe teaching of electrodynamics; the subjects 10 be included, and even their order of presentation, are not particularly controversial, and textbooks differ mainly in style and tone. My approach is perhaps less formal than most; [ think tis makes dificult ideas more interesting and accessible. For the third edition T have made a large number of small changes, inthe interests of clarity and grace, Ihave also modified some notation to avoid inconsistencies or ambiguities. ‘Thus the Cartesian unit vectors , j, and & have been replaced with X, 9, and 2, so that all Xectors are bold, and all unit vectors inherit the letter of the corresponding coordinate (This also frees up kto be the propagation vector for electromagnetic waves.) Ithas always bothered me to use the same letter r for the spherical coordinate (distance from the origin) and the cylindrical coordinate (distance from the = axis). A common alternative for the latter isp, bu that has more important business in electrodynamics, and after an exhaustive seatch I settled on the underemployed letter s: I hope this unoethodox usage will not be confusing Some readers have urged me to abandon the script letter the vector from a source point to the field point r) in favor of the more explicit r — x’. But this makes many equations disiractingly cumbersome, especially when the unit vector is involved. I know from my ‘own teaching experience that unwary students are tempted to read as it certainly makes the integrals easier! I have inserted a section in Chapter | explaining this notation, and I hope that will help. f you area student, please take note: 2 =r —2", whichis mor the same asr, Ifyou're a teacher, please war your students to pay close attention to the meaning of 4 [think i's good notation, but it does have to be handled with care. ‘The main structural change is that Ihave removed the conservation laws and potentials from Chapter 7, creating two new short chapters (8 and 10). This should more smoothly accommodate one-semester courses, and it gives a tighter focus to Chapter 7. have added some problems and examples (and removed a few that were not effective). And T have included more references tothe accessible literature (particularly the American Journal of Physies), Trealize, of course, that most readers will not have the time or ineli-x PREFACE nation to consult these resources, but I think it is worthwhile anyway, if only to emphasize that electrodynamics, notwithstanding its venerable age, is very much alive, and intriguing new discoveries are being made all the time. I hope that occasionally a problem will pique your curiosity, and you will be inspired to Took up the reference—some of them are real ‘gems. As in the previous editions, I distinguish two kinds of problems, Some have a specific pedagogical purpose, and should be worked immediately alter reading the section to which they pertain; these I have placed at the pertinent point within the chapter. (In a few cases the solution to a problem is used later in the text; these are indicated by a bullet (e) in the left margin.) Longer problems, or those of a more general nature, will be found at the end ofeach chapter. When T teach the subject I assign some of these, and work a few of them in class. Unusually challenging problems are flagged by an exclamation point (2) in the ‘margin. Many readers have asked that the answers to problems be provided at the buck of the book; unfortunately, just as many are strenuously opposed. 1 have compromised, supplying answers when this seems particularly appropriate. A complete solution manual is available (to instructors) from the publisher. have benefitted from the comments of many colleagues—I cannot list them all bere. But I would like to thank the following people for suggestions that contributed specifically to the third edition: Burton Brody (Bard), Steven Grimes (Ohio), Mark Heald (Swarth- ‘more), Jim MeTavish (Liverpool), Matthew Moelter (Puget Sound), Paul Nachman (New Mexico State), Gigi Quartapelle (Milan), Carl A. Rotter (West Vitginia), Daniel Schroeder (Weber State), Juri Silmberg (Ryerson Polytechnic), Walther N. Spjeldvik (Weber State), Larry Tankersley (Naval Academy), and Dudley Towne (Amherst), Practically everything 1 know about electrodynamics —certainly about teaching electrodynamics—I owe to Edward Purcell David J. GriffithsAdvertisement What is electrodynamics, and how does it fit into the general scheme of physics? Four Realms of Mechanics In the diagram below Ihave sketched out the four great realms of mechanics ii Mechanics | Quantum Mechanics (Newton) | (Bohr, Heisenberg, | Feynman, special Relativity | Quantum | (Einstein) Newtonian mechanics was found to be inadequate in the early years of this century—it's all right in “everyday life.” but for objects moving at high speeds (near the speed of light) itis incorrect, and must be replaced by special relativity (introduced by Einstein in 1905): for objects that are extremely small (near the size of atoms) it fails for different reasons and is superseded by quantum mechanics (developed by Bohr, Schrikdinger, Heisenberg and many others, in the twenties, mostly). For objects that are both very fast and very small (as is common in modern particle physics), a mechanics that combines relativity and quantum principles is in order: this relativistic quantum mechanics is known as quantum field theory—it was worked out in the thirties and forties, but even today it cannot claim to be a completely satisfactory system. In this book, save for the last chapter, we shall work exclusively in the domain of classical mechanics, although electrodynamics extends with unique simplicity to the other three realms. (In fact, the theory is in most respects ‘automatically consistent with special relativity, for which it was, historically, the main stimulus.)ii ADVERTISEMENT Four Kinds of Forces Mechanics tclls us how a system will behave when subjected to a given force, There are Just four basic forces known (presently) to physics: 1 list them in the order of decreasing strength: 1. Song 2. Electromagnetic 3. Weak 4, Gravitational ‘The brevity of this list may surprise you. Where is friction? Whereis the “normal” force that keeps you from falling through the floor? Where are the chemical forces that bind ‘molecules together? Whereis the force of impact between two colliding billiard balls? The answer is that all these forces are electromagnetic. Indeed, itis searcely an exaggeration to say that we live in an electromagnetic world—for virtually every force we experience in everyday life, withthe exception of gravity, is electromagnetic in origin, ‘The strong forces, which hold protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus, have extremely short range, so we do not “feel” them, in spite of the fact that they are a hhundred times more powerful than electrical forces. The weak forces, which account for certain kinds of radioactive decay, are not only of short range: they are far weaker than electromagnetic ones to begin with. As for gravity itis so pitifully feeble (compared to all ‘ofthe others) that itis only by virtue of huge mass concentrations (like the earth and the sun) that we ever notice it at all. The electrical repulsion between two electrons is 10% times as large as their gravitational attraction, and if atoms were held together by gravitational {instead of electrical forces, a single hydrogen atom would be much larger than the known Not only are electromagnetic forces overwhelmingly the dominant ones in everyday life, they are also, at present, the only ones that are completely understood. There is, of ‘course, a classical theory of gravity (Newton's law of universal gravitation) and arelativistic ‘one (Einstein’s general relativity), but no entirely satisfactory quantum mechanical theory of gravity has been constructed (though many people are working on it). At the present time there is a very successful (if cumbersome) theory for the weak interactions, and a strikingly attractive candidate (called ehromodynamies) for the strong interactions. All these theories draw their inspiration from electrodynamics; none can claim conclusive experimental verification at this stage. So electrodynamics, a beautifully complete and suecessful theory, has become a kind of paradigm for physicists: an ideal model that other theories strive to emulate ‘The laws of classical electrodynamics were discovered in bits and pieces by Frankli Coulomb, Ampére, Faraday, and others, but the person who completed the job, and packaged all in the compact and consistent form it has today, was James Clerk Maxwell. The theory is now a litle over a hundred years old‘he Unification of Physical Theories In the beginning, electricity and magnetism were entirely separate subjects. The one dealt ‘with glass rods and cat's fur, pith balls, batteries, currents, electrolysis, and lightning: the other with bar magnets, iron filings, compass needles, and the North Pole, But in 1820 Cersted noticed that an electric current could deflect a magnetic compass needle. Soon afterward, Ampére correctly postulated that ail magnetic phenomena are due to electric charges in motion. Then, in 1831, Faraday discovered that a moving magnet generates an electric current. By the time Maxwell and Lorentz put the finishing touches on the theory, cloctricity and magnetism were inextricably intertwined. They could no longer be regarded as separate subjects, but rather as two aspects of a single subject: electromagnetism, Faraday had speculated that light, too, iselectrical in nature. Maxwell's theory provided spectacular justification for this hypothesis, and soon optics—the study of lenses, mirrors, prisms, interference, and diffraction—was incorporated into electromagnetism, Hertz, who presented the decisive experimental confirmation for Maxwell’s theory in 1888, put it this Way: “The connection between light and clectrcity is now established ,.. In every flame, in every luminous particle, we seo an electrical process .... Thus, the domain of electricity extends over the whole of nature. It even affects ourselves intimately: we perceive that we possess ... an electrical organ—the eye.” By 1900, then, three great branches of physics, electricity, magnetism, and optics, had merged into a single unified theory. (And it was soon apparent that visible light represents only a tiny “window” in the vast spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, from radio though microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet, to x rays and gamma rays.) Einstein dreamed ofa further unification, which would combine gravity and electrody- namics, in much the same way as electricity and magnetism had been combined a century earlier. His unified field theory was not particularly successful, but in recent years the same impulse has spawned a hierarchy of increasingly ambitious (and speculative) unification schemes, beginning in the 1960s with the electroweak theory of Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam (which joins the weak and electromagnetic forces), and culminating i the 1980s with the superstring theory (which, according to its proponents, incorporates al four forces ina single “theory of everything”). At each step in this hierarchy the mathematical difficulties ‘mount, and the gap between inspired conjecture and experimental test widens: nevertheless, it is clear that the unification of forces initiated by electrodynamics has bocome a major theme in the progress of physies. The Field Formulation of Electrodynamics The fundamental problem a theory of electromagnetism hopes to solve is this: I hold up bunch of electric charges here (and maybe shake them around)—what happens to some other charge, over there? The classical solution takes the form of afield theory: We say that the space around an electric charge is permeated by electric and magnetic fields (the electromagnetic “odor,” as it were, of the charge). A second charge, in the presence ofthese fields, experiences a force; the fields, then, transmit the influence from one charge to the ‘other they mediate the interaction,xiv ADVERTISEMENT When a charge undergoes acceleration, a portion of the field “detaches” itself, in a sense, and travels off atthe speed of light, carrying with it energy, momentum, and angular ‘momentum. We call this electromagnetic radiation. Its existence invites (if not compels) tu to regard the ficlds as independent dynamical entities in their own tight, every bit as “real” as atoms or baseballs. Our interest accordingly shifts from the study of forces between charges to the theory of the fields themselves. But it takes a charge to produce an electromagnetic field, and it takes another charge to detect one, so we had best begin by reviewing the essential properties of electric charge. Electric Charge 1. Charge comes in two varieties, which we call “plus” and “minus,” because their effects tend to cancel (if you have +q and —g atthe same point, electrically itis the same as having tno charge there at all). This may seem too obvious to warrant comment, but [encourage you to contemplate other possibilities: what if there were 8 of 10 different species of charge? (In chromodynamics there are, in fact, three quantities analogous to electric charge, each ‘of which may be positive or negative.) Or what if the two kinds did not tend to cancel?” ‘The extraordinary fact is that plus and minus charges occur in exactly equal amounts, to fantastic precision, in bulk matter, so that their effects are almost completely neutralized, ‘Were it not for this, we would be subjected to enormous forces: a potato would explode violently ifthe cancellation were imperfect by as litle as one part in 10", 2. Charge is conserved: it cannot be created or destroyed-—what there is now has always been, (Apluschargecan “annihilate” anequal minus charge, buta plus charge cannot simply B| isthe area of the parallelogram generated by A and B (Fig, 1.8). If ‘wo vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero, In particular, AxA=0 for any vector A. Problem 1.1 Using the definitions in Eqs. 11 and 1.4, and appropriate diagrams, show that the dot product and cross produet are distributive, 8) when the three vectors are coplanar; bin the genera case. Problem 1.2 Is the cross product associative? (AxBy <4 x BxO), Iso, prove it if not, provide a counterexample, 1.12. Vector Algebra: Component Form In the previous section I defined the four vector operations (addition, scalar muhiplication, dot product, and cross product) in “abstract” form—that is, without reference to any partic= tular coordinate system. In practice, itis often easier to set up Cartesian coordinates x, y, 2 and work with vector “components.” Let &, 9, and # be unit vectors parallel to the x, y, and 2 axes, respectively (Fig. 1-9(a)). An arbitrary vector A can be expanded in terms of these basis veetors (Fig. 1.9(b)): ASARHAG HAD1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA Figure 1.9) ‘The numbers Ay, Ay, and A., are called components of A; geometrically, they are the projections of A along the three coordinate axes, We can now reformulate each of the four vector operations as a rule for manipulating components: AG B= (AR 4 AS + AD) + (BA + BY + BA) = (Ag + BOR + (Ay + BS + (As + Bo. a ( Rule: To add vectors, add like components GA = GAR + AY) + (ADE 8) i) Rule: To multiply by a scalar; multiply each component. Because, and # are mutually perpendicular unit vectors, eee ‘ 0 a9) Accordingly, A-B = (Ayt+ Ayf + Ard): (Br + By + BB) = ABs + AB, +A (1.10) (i) Rates To calculate the dot product, multiply like components, and add In particular AASAD LAL AR Aa F RR aap (Thisis, if you like, the three-dimensional generalization of the Pythagorean theorem.) Note that the dot product of A with any unit vector is the component of A along that direction (thus A+ = Ay AG = Ay, and AZ =A.6 CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS Simitarly,! g a2) ‘Therefore, AB = (ARHAS +A) x (BR + BG + BA ai) (AyBe ~ A-By)R 4 (AcBy ~ AQB2S + (Ay By ~ Ay BoA. ‘This cumbersome expression can be written more neatly as a determinant Ay aay By iv) Rule: Tu calculate the eross product, form the determinant whose frst row is whose second row is A (in component form), and whose third row is B. Example 1.2 Find the angle between the face diagonals ofa cube. Solution: We might as well use a cube of side 1, and place it as shown in Fig. 1.10, with one {comer atthe origin. The fice diagonals A and B ASIR4OFs1e B=ORHIV HIE 0.0.1) a g x 0.1.0) 50,0) Figure 1.10 These signs pertain to igh handed cooeinate system (¥-anis ou ofthe page, ano the ht ‘or an routed version thereat) In ehonde syste (ans daw the signs are reversed: & x9 fon. We shal use ight handed systems excise.1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA 7 So, in component form, AB ‘On the other hand, in “abstract” Form, O+0-141 A-B = ABcos6 = V2v2cos# = 2088. “Therefore, cost = 1/2, or 9 = 60" (Of course, you can get the answer more easily by drawing in a diggonal across the top ofthe cube, completing the equilateral wiangle. But in cases where the geomelry isnot so simple, this device of comparing the abstract and component forms ofthe dot product can be a very clficient means of finding angles. Problem 1.3 Find the angle between the body didgonals ofa cube. Problem 1.4 Use the cross product tind the cdmponens ofthe unit vector peependicular tothe plane shown in Fig. 111 1.1.3 Triple Products Since the cross product of two vectors is itself a vector, it can be dotted or crossed with a third vector to form a triple product. @ Scalar triple product: A - (Bx C). Geometrically, [A (B x €)| is the volume of the patallelepiped generated by A, B, and C, since |B > C| is the area of the base, and |A.cos6| is the altitude (Fig. 1.12). Evidently, As(B x ©) =B.(Cx A) = C-(A xB), ls) for they all correspond to the same figure. Note that “alphabetical” order is preserved—in view of Eq. 1.6, the “nohalphabetical” triple products, A-(CxB)=B(AxC)=C.BxA), Figure 1.11 Figure 1.128 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS hhave the opposite sign. In component form, Ay Ay Az ABxO)=| Be BB. 16) Gc [Note thatthe dot and cross ean be interchanged: ABxO (Ax B)-C (this follows immediately from Eq, 1.15); however, the placement of the parentheses is critical: (A.B) x C is a meaningless expression—you can't make a cross product from a sealar and a vector. i) Vector triple product: A x (B x C). The vector triple product can be simplified by the so-called BAC-CAB rule: Ax (Bx C) = B(A-C) — CAB), aay Notice that (AxB) x= -AB-C) + BAC) is an entirely different vector. Incidentally, all higher vector products can be similarly reduced, often by repeated application of Eq. 1.17, so itis never necessary for an expression {0 contain more than one cross product in any term. For instance, Cx (A xB) (AxB)(CxD) = (A-OB-D)— (A. DVB-C) Ax(Bx(CxD) = BA-(C xD) (ABYC xD), ans) Problem 1. Prove the BAC-CAB rule by writing out both sides in component form. Problem 1.6 Prove that TA x Bx ©) + Bx (Cx ANF IC x (Ax BI =O, Under what conditions does A x (B x C) =(A x B) x C2 1.1.4 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by listing its Cartesian coor dinates (x, y,z). ‘The vector to that point from the origin (Fig. 1.13) i called the position vector rexittyytee (1.19)1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA 9 source point \ etd point Figure 1.13 Figure 1.14 1 will reserve the letter r for this purpose, throughout the book. Its magnitude, rae 1.20) is the distance from the origin, and a2n is a unit vector pointing radially outward, ‘The infinitesimal displacement vector, from (4,2) 0+ dx, ytdy, 24 da)is d= dri +dy§ + dea, (1.22) (We could call this dr, since that’s what itis, but it is useful to reserve a special letter for infinitesimal displacements.) Inelectrodynamics one frequently encounters problems involving rwo points—typically. 4 source point, r’. where an electric charge is located, and a field point, r, at which you are calculating the electric or magnetic field (Fig. 1.14). It pays to adopt right from the start some short-hand notation for the separation veetor from the source point to the field point. I shall use for this purpose the script leter a: aere (1.23) Its magnitude is ay and a unit vector in the direction from r’ to ris aoe (125) o> orl10 CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS In Cartesian coordinates, B= WHE, 1.26) (ext -YP HER, (27) = BANE YIP E28 Ve—xP $0 ¥P FGF (from which you can begin to appreciate the advantage of the script-+ notation), a a a OO ‘Problem 1.7 Find the separation vector fom the source point (2,8,7)40 the field point (4.6.8) Determine its magnitude (2), and construct the unit vector (1.28) 1.1.5 How Vectors Transform ‘The definition of a vector as “a quantity with a magnitude and direction” is not altogether satisfactory: What precisely does “ditectjon’” mean?® This may seem a pedantic question, ‘but we shall shortly encounter a species of derivative that looks rather like a vector, and ‘we'll want to know for sure whether it is one. You might be inclined to say that a vector is anything that has three components that combine properly under addition. Well, how about this: We have a barrel of fruit that contains Ny pears, Ny apples, and N. bananas. ISN = Nui + Nig + N-Z a vector? It has three components, and when you add another barrel with My pears, M, apple, and Mz bananas the result is (Ny +My) pears, (My + My) apples, (Nz + Mz) bananas. So it does add like a vector. Yet it’s obviously not a vector, in the physicis’s sense ofthe word, because it doesnt really have a direction, What exactly is wrong with it? ‘The answer is that N does not transform property when you change coordinates, The coordinate frame we use fo describe positions in space is of course entirely arbitrary, but there i a specifi geometrical transformation law for converting vector comportents from one frame to another, Suppose, for instance, the, F, Zsystemis rotated by angle @ relative tox, y,z, about the comimon x = ¥ axes. From Fig. 1.15, Ay=Acos#, A: = Asind, while Acosd = A cos(6 — ¢) = A(cos# cos + sind sing) cospAy + sings, Asin = A sin(@ — $) = A(sin8 cos — cos sind) singAy + cos GA: is section canbe skipped without os of continuity.1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA " Figure 1.15 ‘We might express this conclusion in matrix notation: Fy) _( ese sing (Ay (Q)= (2m 8) (2): a More generally, for rotation about an arbimary axis in three dimensions, the transfor- mation law takes the form (2)-( 1.30) ‘or, more compactly, a3 where the index 1 stands for x2 for, and 3 for z. The elements ofthe matrix R canbe ascertained, fora given rotation, by the same sr of geometrical arguments a5 we used for 8 rotation about the x axis, Now: Do the components ofN uansform inthis way? Of course not—it doesnt matter what coordinates you use to represent postions in space thee is tl the same number of apples in the barrel, You cant convert a pear into a banana by choosing a different st of xe, but you can tem A into Ay. Formally then ectr Is any sero three components that transforms inthe same manner axa displacement when you change coordinates. As allays, displacement isthe mode! forthe behavior of all vectors. By the way, a (second.rank) tensor isa quantity with nine componeots, Ty, Tay T Tysons Te, which transforms with no factors of 8 Tay = Rex(ReyTex + RayTay + RocTee) 4 Ray(Rex Tyr + ReyTyy + Rese) Rec ReeTex + Rey Toy + Re2 CHAPTER I. VECTOR A VALYSIS, or, more compactly, 13 y= OD Ra RT (1.22) fetter In general, an mth-rank tensor has m indices and 3 components, and transforms with n factors of R. In this hierarchy, a vector is a tensor of rank 1, and a scalar isa tensor of rank Problem 1.8 (a) Prove that the two-dimensional rotation matrix (1.29) preserves dot products. (That i, show diat AyBy + AB: = AyBy + A:Be.) (&) What constraints must the elements (Rj) ofthe three-dimensional rotation mattx (1.30) satisfy in ord to preserve the length of A (fo all vectors A)? Problem 1.9 Find the transformation matrix R that describes a rotation by 120° about an axis from the origin through the point (1,1, 1). The rotation is clockwise as you Took dawn the axis toward the origin, Problem 1.10 (@) How do the componenis ofa vector transform under a translation of coordinates (F Peyna tas, Fig. 1160)? () How do the components ofa vector transform under an inversion of coordinates ya ny,2= 2, Fig. 1166)? (6) How does the cross product (1.13) of two vectors transform under inversion? [The cross product of two vectors is properly called a pseudovector because of this “anomalous” be- havior] Is the cross product of two pseudovectors a vector, oF a pseudovector? Name two Pseudovector quantities in classical mechanics, (4) How does the scalar tripe product of tree vector transform under inversions? (Sueh an ‘object is called a pseudoscalar)1.2. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 2B 1.2 Differential Calculus 1.2.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives Question: Suppose we have a function of one variable: f(x). What does the derivative, 4 ffdx, 60 for us? Answer: Ittells us how rapidly the function f(x) varies when we change the argument x by atiny amount, dx ay 1) ax 133 (@) on In words: If we change x by an amount dr, then f changes by an amount df; the derivative is the proportionality factor. For example, in Fig. 1.17(a), the function varies slowly with x, and the derivative is correspondingly small. In Fig. 1.17(b), f inereases rapidly with x, and the derivative is large, as you move away from x = 0. Geometrical interpretation: The derivatived fd. isthe slope ofthe graph of f versus. df f ty ® Figure 1.17 1.2.2. Gradient ‘Suppose, now, that we have a function of shree variables—say, the temperature T(x, y,) ina room. (Start out in one comer, and set up a system of axes; then for each point (x, v. 2) in the room, T gives the temperature at that spot.) We want to generalize the notion of “derivative” to functions like T°, which depend not on one but on three variables Now a derivative is supposed to tell us how fast the function varies, if we move a little distance, But this time the situation is more complicated, because it depends on what direction we move: If we go straight up, then the temperature will probably inerease fairly rapidly, but if we move horizontally, it may not change much at all. In fact, the question “How fast does T vary?” has an infinite number of answers, one for each direction we ‘might choose to explore. Fortunately, the problem is not as bad asit looks, A theorem on partial derivatives states 7 (es (Z)o+(2) ar aaa)4 CHAPTER |, VECTOR ANALYSIS This tells us how changes when we alter al three variables by the infinitesimal amounts dx, dy,dz. Notice that we do nor require an infinite number of dervatives—shvee will suffice: the partial derivatives along each ofthe three coordinate directions. Equation 1.34 is reminiscent of a dot product ae es) eg eaven acs ar = Sree To 4 Ze) (dx tdyy + dea) = Ta. (135) where fe or ee (136) is the gradient of T. VT’ is a vector quantity, with three components; itis the generi derivative we have been looking for. Equation 1.35 is the three-dimensional version of Eq. 1.33. Geometrical Interpretation ofthe Gradiem: Like any vector, the gradienthas magnitude and direction, To determine its geometrical meaning, let’s rewrite the dot product (1.35) in abstract form: aT = VT -dl = |VTIidlicose, «37 where # is the angle between VT and dl. Now, if we fix the magnitude [dl and search around in various directions (that is, vary 0), the maxinum change in T evidentally occurs ‘when @ = 0 (for then cos# = 1). That is, fora fixed distance [dil, dT is greatest when 1 ‘move in the same direction as VT. Thus: The gradient VT points in the direction of maximum increase of the function 7 Moreover: The magnitude |VT| gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction. Imagine you are standing on a hillside, Look all around you, and find the direction ‘of steepest ascent. ‘That is the direction of the gradient. Now measure the slope in that direction (rise over run). That is the magnitude of the gradient. (Here the function we're talking about is the height of the hill, and the coordinates it depends on are positions— latitude and longitude, say. This function depends on only two variables, not hree, but the geometrical meaning of the gradient is easier to grasp in two dimensions.) Notice from [Bq, 1.37 that the direction of maximum descent is opposite to the direction of maximum ‘ascent, while at right angles (@ = 90°) the slope is zero (the gradient is perpendicular 10 the contour lines). You can conceive of surfaces that do not have these properties, but they always have “kinks” in them and correspond to nondifferemtiable functions, What would it mean for the gradient to vanish? If VT = 0 at (x,y. 2), then dT = 0 for small displacements about the point (x, y, 2). This is, then, a stationary point of the function T(x, y.2). It could be a maximum (a summit), a minimum (a valley), a saddle1.2. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 15 point (a pass), or a “shoulder” ‘This is analogous to the situation for functions of one variable, where a vanishing derivative signals a maximum, a minimum, or an inflection, In particular, if you want to locate the extrema of a function of three variables, set its gradient equal (0 zero, Example 13 Find the pradient ofr = V2)? + 2 (the magnitude ofthe position vecton, Solution; are Vem Hanya e =a - Peerae Vetere Veer ee Does this make sense? Well it says thatthe distance from the origin increases most rapidly in the radial direction, and that its rae of inctease in that direction is I.just What you'd expect Problem 1.11 Find the gradients of the Following functions @ fay deere ee. Soy =A, (©) Fe y.2) =e sin(y) ine) IBe + 28y +12), here y isthe distance (in miles) north «the distance eat of South Hadley (a) Where isthe top ofthe hill Ioated? (6) How high is the butt? (6) How steep iste lope in feet per mie at point mile north and one mie eas oF South Haley? In what detion is the slope steepest a that pot? + Problem 1.13 Let be she separation veto from fixed pit 9, and eb length. Show hat V2) = (Vay = 4 (©) What isthe general formal for We"? 2')tothe point (x,y, 2),16 CHAPTER I, VECTOR ANALYSIS Problem 1.14 Suppose that / is function of two variables (y and 2) only. Show thatthe gradient Vf = (84/29) + (/4c)% transforms as a vector under rotations. Eq. 1.29. (Hint (ap /08) = (AF/Ay)(A¥/9¥) + (BF/42)(02/ 9), and the analogous formula for 2//02. We know that = y eos -+esing and z = ~ysing +zcosd; “solve” these equations for y and tas functions of F and 2) and compote the needed derivatives dy /@, 8/93, et] 1.2.3. The Operator V ‘The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector, V, “multiplying” a scalar T: vr=(has2 aad) an (For once 1 write the unit vectors to the lef, just so no one wil think this means 08 /2x, and so on—which would be zero, since x is constant.) ‘The term in parentheses is called “del 2.39) Of course, del is nor a vector, in the usuil sense. Indeed. its without specific meaning until we provide it with a function to act upon. Furthermore, it does not “multiply” 7; rather, is an instruction to differentiate what follows. To be precise, then, we should say that V is vector operator that acts upon T', not a vector that multiplies T. With this qualification, though, V mimics the behavior of an ordinary vector in virtually every way; almost anything that can be done with other vectors can also be done with V. if ‘we merely translate “multiply” by “act upon.” So by all means take the vector appearance of ¥ seriously: itis a marvelous piece of notational simplification, as you will appreciate if ‘you ever consult Maxwell’ original work on electromagnetism, written without the benefit ofv. Now an ordi wary vector A can multiply in three ways: 1. Multiply a sealara : Aa; 2. Multiply another vector B, via the dot product: A: B; 3, Multiply another vector via the cross product: Ax B. ‘Correspondingly, there are three ways the operator W can act: 1. Ona scalar function 7 : WT (the gradient): 2. Ona vector function v, via the dot product: W -v (the divergence); 3. On a vector function v, via the cross product: V x v (the curl). We have already discussed the gradient. In the following sections we examine the other ‘wo vector derivatives: divergence and curl1.2. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 7 1.2.4 The Divergence From the definition of V we construct the divergence: (1.40) Observe that the divergence of a vector function v is itself a scalar V + v. (You can't have the divergence of a scalar: that's meaningless.) Geometrical Interpretation: ‘The name divergenceis well chosen, for V-vis ameasure ‘of how much the vector v spreads out (diverges) from the point in question. For example, the vector function in Fig. 1.18a has a large (positive) divergence (ifthe arrows pointed in, it would be a large negative divergence), the function in Fig. 1.18b has zero divergence, and the function in Fig. 1.18¢ again has @ postive divergence. (Please understand that ¥ here is afienetion—there'sa different vector associated with every point in space. In the diagrams, NU AA IN AY @ o | Figure 118,18 CHAPTER 1, VECTOR ANALYSIS of course, [can only draw the arrows at a few representative locations.) Imagine standing atthe edge of a pond, Sprinkle some sawdust or pine needles on the surface. IF the material spreads out, then you dropped it at point of positive divergence: if it collects together, ‘you dropped it at a point of negative divergence. (The vector function v in this mode! isthe velocity of the water—this isa two-dimensional example, but it helps give one a “feel” for what the divergence means. A point of positive divergence is source, or “faucet”; a point of negative divergence is a sink, or “drain.”) Example 1.4 ‘Suppose the functions in Fig, 1.18 are Yo Calculate their divergences. Solution: rit y§tekw a 3 Vow = 4 OES As anticipate, tis function has a positive divergence a ay +04 a a HOF FO HED as expected. ed OT ROe 40+ Problem 1.15 Calculate the divergence ofthe following vector lunctions: Problem 1-16 Sketch the vector function and compute ts divergence. The answer may surprise you. ..can you explain it? Problem 1.17 In wo dimensions, show that dhe divergence transform as scalar under rte tions, [ints Use Eq, 1.29 to determine ty and V, and the method of Prob, 1.14 to calculate ‘the derivatives. Your aim is to show that 0 /@¥ + 8T,/82 = Buy/By + Av/ 211.2. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 19 1.2.5 The Curl From the definition of V we construct the curl: g a Vxv = | afar ajay aja ee = (BB) 5B r) a Notice that he curl of vector function vis, ike any cross produc, vector, (You cannot have the curl ofa ela; that's meaningless) Geometrical Inerpretaton: The ne cul is als well chosen, fr Vx vi measure of how much the vector ¥ “curs around the pon in guesion.‘Thus the thre functions in Fig. 118 all have zero cal (as you can easily check fr yousel). whereas ihe felons ee iio ln ee ral would siggest. Imagine (again) you are Standing athe ee ofa pond. Fat sll Paddewhel (cork with ochpicks pointing out radially Would oy iit sat orotate, then you placed tata point of nonzero cur A whirpoa would be& region of ange cur Example 1.5 Suppose the function sketched in Fig, 1.198 is vo oy +.09, and that in Fig. 1.196 is p= xf, Calculate their curs, Solution: oe 2) i Vxvw=| ofa ajay aye “yor 0 and20 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ANALYSIS Asexpected these curlspointin the +: direction. (Incidentally, they both have zero divergence, ‘as You might guess from the pictures: noting is “spreading out... ust “curls around.”) Problem 1.18 Calculate the curls of the vector Functions in Prob. 1.1. Problem 1.19 Construct a vector function that has zero divergence and zero curl everywhere, (A constant will do the job, of course, but make it something alittle more interesting than that!) 1.2.6 Product Rules ‘The calculation of ordinary derivatives is facilitated by a number of general rules, such as the sum rule: dae usm 28, the rule for multiplying by a constant a a apa ae) “* ae the product rue: | na dg a ge ae ae and the quotient rule: i(s) ae \e ‘Similar relations hold for the vector derivatives. Thus, Viste=V/4Ve, V-(A+B)=(V-A)+(V-B), Vx (A+B) =(V x A) 4(V xB), and. VUP)=AVS, Ve GA)=R(V-A), Vx RAV = REV XA), a8 you can check for yourself. The product rules are not quite so simple. ‘There are two ‘ways to construct a scalar as the product of two functions: fg (product of two scalar functions), A-B (dot product of two vector functions), nd two ways to make a vector: FA (scalar times vector), Ax B (cross product of two vectors)1.2, DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS a Accordingly, there are six product rules, «wo for gradients @ Vif) =JSVe+eVs ai VA: B) =A x (V &B) +B x (V XA) +(A-VIB4(B- VDA, two for divergences: ii) VU = SV MFA), Ww) V-(A x B)=B-(V x A)—A-(V xB), and two for curls: w Vx (fA) = f(V KAYAK (VS), wi) Vx (AX B) = (B-V)A—(A- VB + ACVB) — BCVA). You will be using these product rules so frequently that I have put them on the inside front cover for easy reference. The proofs come straight from the produet rule for ordinary derivatives. For instance, Vegh) = Buran BUA + 2uAy ax (acest) (a ee Ears) (Vf) A+ f(V-A), Itis also possible to formulate three quotient rules: v (4) = 8 A 7) 8 A XADEAX(Y, vx(4) BP XAD+AX (WH) & e However, since these can be obtained quickly from the corresponding product rules, I haven't bothered to pat them on the inside front cover.2 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ANALYSIS Problem 1.20 Prove product rules (i), (i), and (v). Problem 1.21 (@) IFA and B are two vector functions, what does the expression (A.- ¥)B mean? (That is, \what ae its x,y, and : components in terms of the Cartesian components of A,B, and V2) (b) Compute ( V)F, where # isthe unit vector defined in Bq 1.21, (6) For the functions in Prob. 1.15, evaluate (Yq V)vo, Problem 1.22 (For masochists only) Prove proict rule (i) and (vi), Refer Prob. 1.21 for the definition of (A V)B, Problem 1.23 Derive the three quotient cules, Problem 1.24 (2) Check product rule (iv) (by calulating each term separately) forthe functions ASskb2yft3d B=3yk—2K§, (©) Do the same for product rule (i. (€) The same for rue (vi), 1.2.7. Second Derivatives ‘The gradient, the divergence, and the curl are the only first derivatives we can make with V: by applying V vice we can construct five species of second derivatives, ‘The gradient VT isa vector, so we can take the divergence and curl of i (1) Divergence of gradient: V (VT). 2)Curl of gradient: ¥ (V7). The divergence V - visa sealar—all we can do is take its gradient: ) Gradient of divergence: ¥(¥ -¥). The curl V x vis. vector, so we can take its divergence and curl: (4) Divergence of eur: V (Wx ¥). (5) Curlof curt: V x (V x ¥). This exhausts the possiblities, and in fact not all of them give anything new. Les ‘consider them one at atime: a veqvry (42)DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 23 ‘This object, which we write V°7' for shor, is called the Laplacian of 7; we shall be studying it in great detail later on. Notice that the Laplacian of a scalar T is a sealar, Occasionally, we shall speak of the Laplacian of a vector, V?v. By this we mean a vector quantity whose x-component is the Laplacian of vy, and so on: ORE Pay y+ (Vw 43) ‘This is nothing more than a convenient extension of the meaning of V2, (2) The curl of a gradient is always ero: vx (vr 0, «4s This is an important fact, which we shall use repeatedly; you can easily prove it from the definition of V, Eq. 1.39. Beware: You might think Eq. 1.44 is “obviously” true—isn’t it just (V x V)T, and isn’t the cross product of any vector (inthis case, V) with itself always zero? This reasoning is suggestive but not quite conclusive, since V is an aperator and does ultiply” in the usual way. The proof of fi. 1.44, in fact, hinges on the equality of eros derivative ae A a a (53) (=) i If you think I'm being fussy, test your intuition on this one: (VT) x (VS), Is that always 2er0? (It would be, of course, if you replaced the V"s by an ordinary vector.) (3) V(V-v) for some reason seldom occurs in physical applications, and it has not been aiven any special name of its own—it’s just the gradient of the divergence. Notice that VV -y) is nor the same as the Laplacian of a veojor: V2v = (WV: Vv # VV -¥), (4) The divergence of a cur, like the cur! of a gradient, is always zero VW xy) =0. 1.46) You can prove this for yourself. (Again, there is a fraudulent short-cut proof, using the vector identity A «(Bx C) = (A x B)-C) (5) As you can check from the definition of V: Vx (Vx WWW) 7y. aan, So curl-of-curl gives nothing new; the first term is just number (3) and the second is the Laplacian (of a veetor. (In fact, Eq. 1.47 is often used to define the Laplacian of a vector, in preference to Bq. 1.43, which makes specific reference to Cartesian coordinates.) Really, then, there are just two kinds of second derivatives: the Laplacian (which is of fundamental importance) and the gradien-of-divergence (which we seldom encounter) Dincurviliear ooedinates, whore unit vectors themselves dependon poson, they oo must be differentated (soe eet LAD.24 CHAPTER I, VECTOR ANALYSIS ‘We could go through a similar ritual to work out shird derivatives, but fortunately second derivatives suffice for practically all physical applications, A final word on vector differential calculus: It all flows from the operator V, and from taking seriously its vector character. Even if you remembered only the definition of V, you should be able, in principle, to reconstruct all the rest Problem 1.25 Calculate the Laplacian ofthe following functions: Or (6) Te = sin gy c0832 (Wy seh 4 Bee 9 Dee Problem 1.26 Prove that the divergence ofa cu is always zero. Check it for function va in Prob LIS. Problem 1.27 Prove that the curl of a gradient is always zero, Check it for function (b) in Prob. LIL 3 Integral Calculus 1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals Inclectrodynamics we encounter several different kinds of integrals, among which the most ‘important are line (or path) integrals, surface integrals (or flux), and volume integrals, (a) Line Integrals. A Tine integral is an expression of the form [ra eo) he where vis a vector function, is the infinitesimal displacement vector (Eq. 1.22), and the integral isto be carried out along a prescribed path from point a to point b (Fig. 1.20). If the path in question forms a closed loop (that is, fb = a), I shall put a circle on the integral sien gua (149) ‘At each point on the path we take the dot product of v (evaluated at that point) with the displacement dl to the next point on the path. To a physicist, the most familiar example of 2 ine integeal is the work done by a force F: W = [Fd Ordinarily, the value of a Tine integral depends critically on the particular path taken from a to b, but there is an important special class of vector functions for which the fine integral is independent of the path, and is determined entirely by the end points, It will be ‘our business in due course to characterize this special class of vectors. (A force that has this property is called conservative.)1.3. INTEGRAL CALCULUS 28 Figure 1.20 Figure 1.21 Example 1.6 Calculate the line integral ofthe funetion ¥ = y2 + 2r¢y + 1)§ feom the point a = (1, 1,0) tothe point = (2,2, 0), along the paths (1) and (2) in Fig. 121. Whats f-dl forthe foop that goes from a ob along (1) and tums toa along (2)? Solution: As always, dl = dei +dy§ +d: Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the “horizontal” segment dy oa veal 1 ‘On the “ential” stetch dr = iy =ay3. 2+ Ndy = 404 dy, 0 fvdl=4 RQ + Idy = 10, By path (), then, [va yd “Meanwhile, om path (2) ly and. Pd + 2+ Ndr [va (The strategy here it get everything in terms of one variable; 1 could just a8 well have eliminated in favor of y.) For the loop that goes ou (1) and back (2), then, fraan-i26 CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS: (©) Surface Integrals. A surface integral i an expression ofthe form [ves (1.50) Is again some vector function, and da, perpendicular to the surface (Fg. 1.22). There are, ofcourse, vo directions Perpendicular to any surface, so the sign of a surface integral is intrinsically ambiguous. If ie surface is closed (forming a “balloon”), in which case I shall again put a circle on the integral sign fou then tradition dictates that “outward” is positive, but for open surfaces it's arbitrary. I'v describes the flow of aud (mas per unit area per unit time), then J v-da represents the total mass por unit time passing through the surface—hence the altemative name, “ux.” ‘Ordinarily, the value ofa surface integral depends on the particular surface chosen, but there isa special cass of vector functions for which itis independent ofthe surface, and is determined entirely by the boundary line. We shall soon be ina positon o charaeterize this special cass a) aa, ‘ t pi 1/0, y > xy Vf Figure 1.22 Figure 1.23 Example 1.7 ~ Calculate the surface integral of y = 2x24 (x +2) $+ y(@? —3) over five sides (excluding the bottom) of the cubical box (side 2)in Fig. 1.23, Let “upward and outward” be the positive lection, a indicated by the arrows. Solution: Taking the sides one at atime: x =2, da=dydek, veda1.3. INTEGRAL CALCULUS n (4 Qdrde, 99 2 frase forna [ia lo lo wdvdz§. vedas —( + 2)dxd, ~ frau fra addy ae fava lb Io 6+ 0412-124 wy dxdy. 0 Evidently the total Bux is Poe" stace (©) Volume Integrals, A volume integral is an expression of the form [ire ash by where T is a scalar function and dr is an infinitesimal volume element. In Cartesian coordinates, = dr Iedy dz. (1.52) For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to point), then the volume integral would give the total mass. Occasionally we shall encounter volume Integrals of vector functions: frde= fortes rnade as fudcrs [narra fede 059 because the unit vectors are constants, they come outside the integral. Example 1.8 Calculate the volume integral of 7 = xy2? over the prism in Fig. 1.24 Solution: You can do the three integrals in any onder. Let's do fist: trans From 010 (1 — ys then y (it goes from 0101); and final rarer wPydy = Od) =¥28 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ANALYSIS L x Figure 1.24 Problem 1.28 Calculate the line integral of the function v = x28 + 2c -+ y22 from the ‘origin tothe point (1.1) by thee different routes: (2) (0,0,0) > (1,0,0) > (1,1,0) > (11,05 (©) 0.0,0) > 0.0.1) > @.1.1) > 1D: (6) The diteot straight line (4) Whats the line integral around the closed loop tat goes out along path (a) and back along path (by? Problem 1.29 Calculate the surface integral ofthe function in Ex. 1.7, over the bottom of the box. For consistency let “upward” be the postive direction, Does the Surface integral depend ‘only on the boundary line fr this function? What i the total flux over the closed surface of the box including the bottom)? [Nore: For the clased surface the positive direction is “outward.” and hence “down.” fr the bottom face. Problem 1.30 Calculate the volume integral of the function 7 = z? over the tetrahedron with ‘comers at (0.0.0), (1.0.0), (01.0), and (00,1), 1.3.2. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Suppose (x) is a function of one variable, The fundamental theorem of calculus states: . [ fee 10-1 (134) In case this doesn’t look familiar, let's write it another way: ’ f Foydr =f) - fa), where df/dx = F(x). The fundamental theorem tells you how to integrate F(x): you think up a function f(x) whose dérivative is equal to F.1.3, INTEGRAL CALCULUS Et) Geometrical Interpretation; According to Bq. 1.33, df = (df fdx)dx is the infinitesi- ‘mal change in f when you go from (x) to (x + dx). The fundamental theorem (1.54) says that if you chop the interval from a to b (Fig. 1.25) into many tiny pieces, dx, and add up the increments df from each little piece, the result is (not surprisingly) equal to the total change in f: f(6)— f(a). In other words, there are two ways to determine the total change in the function: either subtract the values at the ends or go step-by-step, adding up all the tiny increments as you go. You'll get the same answer either way. Notice the basic format of the fundamental theorem: the integral of a derivative over dan interval is given by the value of the function at the end points (boundaries). In vector calculus there are three species of derivative (gradient, divergence, and curl), and each has its own “fundamental theorem,” with essentially the same format, I don't plan to prove these theorems here; rather, Ishall explain what they mean, and try to make them plausible, Proofs are given in Appendix A. fe) s0o| fia) ae ee Figure 1.25 Figure 1.26 1.3.3, The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients Suppose we have a scalar function of three variables T(x, », 2). Starting at point a, we ‘move a small distance dl (Fig. 1.26). According to Eg, 1.37, the funetion T will change by an amount aT = (VT) -dh, Now we move a litle further, by an additional small displacement dls; the ineremental change in T will be (V7) dlp. In this manner, proceeding by infinitesimal steps, we make the journey to point b, Ateach step we compute the gradient of T'(at that point) and dot it into the displacement dl... this gives us the change in .. Evidently the toral change in T in going from a to b along the path selected is Pon Tb) = Tray. 3 (1.5)30 CHAPTER 1, VECTOR ANALYSIS ‘This is called the fundamental theorem for gradients; like the “ordinary” fundamental theorem, it says that the integral (here a ine integral) ofa derivative (here the gradient) is given by the value of the function at the boundaries (a and b). Geometrical Interpretation: Suppose you wanted to determine the height of the Eiffel ‘Tower. You could climb the stairs, using a ruler to measure the rise at each step, and adding, them all up (that's the let side of Eq, 1.55), or you could place altimeters at the top and the bottom, and subtract the two readings (that's the right side); you should get the same answer either way (that’s the fundamental theorem), Incidentally, as we found in Ex. 1.6, line integrals ordinarily depend on the path taken from a to b. But the right side of Eq. 1.55 makes no reference to the path—only to the end points. Evidently, gradients have the special property chat their line integrals aro path independent Corollary 1: J.?(VT) - dls independent of path taken from at b. §(¥T)- dl = 0, since the beginning and end poinss due idemial, and hence Tb) ~ Ta) =O. Corollary Example 19 Let T = xy2, and take point a tobe the origin 0,0, 0) and B the point (2, 1,0). Check the fundamental theorem for gradients Solutlon: Although the integral is independent of path, we must pick a specific path in order toevaluateit. Les goout along the + axis (step) and then up (stp i) (Fig. 1.27). As always, i= dei 4 dy§ 4d2a, VT = °K 4 2ey§ (@y=0; dl=dxk, VT-dl=y2dr = 0.50 [xra (iy = 2: dl = dy§, VI -dl=2xydy = dydy, 901.3. INTEGRAL CALCULUS a Evidently the total line integral is 2. Is chs consistent withthe fundamental theorem? Yes: T(b) ~ Ta) =2-0=2. Now, just to convince you that the answer is independent of path, let me ealeulate the same negra along path i (the straight line from a to b): (iy = $x. dy = $d. VP dt = dx + 2eydy = 4 dx,s0 2 erate [38a [is Problem 1.31 Check the fundamental theorem for gradients, using points a = (0,0,0), b = (1, 1, 1), and the three paths in Fig 1.28 (2) 0.0.0) + (1.0.0) > (1.1.0) > G1. Ds ©) 0.0.0) + 0.0,1) > 0.1.1) +. () the parabolic path 2 = x2; y = Ds or 3 Figure 1.28 1.3.4 The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences ‘The fundamental theorem for divergences states that: fonda $vd.| & (1.56) In honor, 1 suppose of its great importance, this theorem has at least three special names: Gauss’s theorem, Green’s theorem, or, simply, the divergence theorem, Like the other “fundamental theorems.” it says thatthe integral ofa derivative (in this case the divergence) ‘over a region (in this case a volume) is equal to the value of the function at the boundary2 CHAPTER I, VECTOR ANALYSIS. (in this case the surface that bounds the volume), Notice that the boundary term is itself an integral (specifically, a surface integral). This is reasonable: the “boundary” of a line is {just ovo end points, but the boundary of a volume is a (closed) surface. Geometrical Interpretation: Mt represents the flow of an incompressible fiuid, then the flux of v (the right side of Eq. 1.56) is the total amount of fluid passing out through the surface, per unit time. Now, the divergence measures the “spreading out” of the vectors from a point—a place of high divergence is like a “faucet,” pouring out liquid. If we have lots of faucets in a region filled with incompressible Muid, an equal amount of liquid will be forced out through the boundaries of the region. In fact, there are two ways we could determine how much is being produced: (a) we could count up all the faucets, recording hhow much each puts out, or (b) we could go around the boundary, measuring the flow at ‘each point, and add it all up. You get the same answer either way: faves witin ine votune) = f ow out ough the src) ‘This, in essence, is what the divergence theorem says, Example 1.10 (Check the divergence theorem using the Function + Qty FP HOVE and the unit cube situated atthe origin (Fig, 1.29) Solution: In this ease and1.3. INTEGRAL CALCULUS 33 —_ f ‘So much forthe lft side of the divergence theorem. To evaluate the surface integral we must ‘consider separately the sx sides of the cube: o fou Byidently, a « fom=[ [lorreaa=t ww [va +f [ eace ® foot ff [lesa fora ff frases 0 So the total fax is veda= f= $a d-fote0= 5 a8 expected. +298 Problem 1.32 Test the divergence thoorem for the funetion v = (xy) + (2y2) ‘Take as your volume the cube shown in Fig. 1.30, with sides of length 234 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ANALYSIS Figure 1.30 1.3.5 The Fundamental Theorem for Curls ‘The fundamental theorem for curls, which goes by the special name of Stokes’ theorem, states that (1s?) Asalways, the integral of a derivarive (here, the curl) over a region (here, a patch of surface) is equal tothe value of the function at the boundary (here, the perimeter of the patch), As inthe ease ofthe divergence theorem, the boundary term is itself an integral—specifically, a closed line integral Geometrical Interpretation: Recall thatthe curl measures the “twist” of the vectors v3 region of high cur is a whiripool—if you put a tiny paddle wheel there, it will rotate. Now, the inzegral of the curl over some stirface (or, more precisely, the flux of the curl through that surface) represents the “total amount of swir,” and we can determine that switl just as well by going around the edge and finding how much the flow is following the boundary ig. 1.31), You may find this a rather forced interpretation of Stokes’ theorem, but it's & helpful mnemonic, if nothing else. You might have noticed an apparent ambiguity in Stokes’ theoremt: concerning the ‘boundary line integral, which way are we supposed to go around (clockwise or counter clockwise)? IF we go the “wrosig” way we'll pick up an overall sign error, The answer is that it doesn't maiter which way you go as long as you are consistent, for there is a com- pensating sign ambiguity in the surface integtal: Which way does da point? For a closed surface (as inthe divergence theorem) da points inthe direction ofthe orward normal: but for an open surface, which way is “out?” Consistency in Stokes’ theorem (as in all such matters) is given by the right-Hand rule: If your fingers point in the direction of the line integral, then your thumb fixes the direction of da (Fig. 1.32) Now, there are plenty of surfaces (infinitely many) that share any given boundary line ‘Twist a paperclip into a loop and dip itin soupy water, The soap film constitutes a surface, ‘with the wire loop as its boundary. If you blow on it, the soap film will expand, making a larger surface, with the same boundary. Ordinarily, a flux integral depends critically on what surface you integrate over, but evidently this is no? the case with curls, For Stokes"13, INTEGRAL CALCULUS 35 ta « > Figure 1.32, theorem says that /(V x v) «dais equal tothe Tine integral of v around the boundary, and the later makes no reference to the specific surface you choose Corollary 1: f(V x ¥)- da depends only on the boundary line, nt ‘on the particular surface used, Corollary 2: f¢¥ x ¥)-da=0 foray closed surface, since the ‘houndary line, lke the mouth of a balloon, shrinks down o-apoint, and hence the right side of Eq. 1.57 vanishes. ‘These corollaries are analogous to those for the gradient theorem. We shall develop the parallel further in due course. Example 1.11 Suppose v= (2 + 3y*)9 + (4y22)2. Check Stokes’ theorem for the square surface shown in Fig. 1.3. Solution: Here Vx vader -2k42c% and daadydes Gy Ai36 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ANALYSIS in saying Tine inogral. We could as well write clockwise.) Since + = O for this surface, [orxv-a EL dy da points inthe x dieecton, we are com ng ourselves toa counterclockwise 4, but then we would be obliged to go Pdydz = ¢. Now, what about the line integral? We must break this up into four segments (x50, 2=0, vem=ay2uy, vedl=4z Gi) x= 0, yy, ww So checks A point of strategy notice how Ihandled step ii. There fsa tempt egos Joedln flea frdis fls2az [vedl= [03924 Jvedl= fod: jontowritedt -ay$ here, since the path goes to the left. You can getaway with this, you insist, by running the imegral from 0 —> 1. Personally. prefer to say dl = de& 4 dy9 + dz always (never any ‘minus signs) and let the limits of the integral take cae ofthe direction. Problem 1.38 Tes Stokes’ theorem forthe function v = (xy) $4 (2¥2) $+ ex) 2, using the triangular shaded area of Fig. 1.34 Problem 1.34 Check Corollary | by using the same function and boundary Hine as ia Bx. 1.11, but integrating over the five sides ofthe cube in Fig. 1.35. The back of the cube is open. ‘hy e Figure 1.34 ‘iy Figure 1.3513. INTEGRAL CALCULUS 37 1.3.6 Integration by Parts ‘The fechnique known (awkwardly) as integration by parts exploits the product rule for derivative que-5()+e(Z) Integrating both sides, and invoking the fundamental theorem: [guamsls [s(ai)ae [(z)om [s(Bac-=fe( Dare nl as) ‘That's integration by parts. It pertains to the situation in which you are called upon (© integrate the product of one function (f) and the derivative of another (g); it says you can transfer the derivative from g to fat the cost of a minus sign and a boundary term. Example 112 Evaluate the integral [oe Solution: The exponential can be expressed as a derivative ‘We can exploit the product rules of vector calculus, together with the appropriate fun- damental theorems, in exactly the same way. For example, integrating, V-(fA = fA FAVS) ‘over a volume, and invoking the divergence theorem, yields [v-gaae fre Ware Pawpdr= f prods, [ro war = [apace f tarde 59)38 CHAPTER I, VECTOR ANALYSIS: Here again the integrand is the product of one function (f) and the derivative (in this case the divergence) of another (A), and integration by parts licenses us to transfer the derivative from A to f (where it becomes a gradient), atthe cost of a minus sign and a boundary term (in this case a surface integral) ‘You might wonder how often one is likely to encounter an integral involving the product, ‘of one function and the derivative of another: the answeris surprisingly often, and integration by parts turns out to be one of the most powerful tools in vector calculus Problem 1.38 (@) Show da [prada [irs pians f saa (1.60) Is fp (6) Show ta [eoxnan[acoxmerfacna am h, hy Is 1.4 Curvilinear Coordinates 14.1. Spherical Polar Coordinates ‘The spherical polar coordinates (7,0, p) of a point P are defined in Fig. 1.36; r is the distance from the origin (the magnitude of the position vector), 6 (the angle down from the axis) is called the polar angle, and ¢ (the angle around from the x axis) i the azimuthal angle. Their relation to Cartesian coordinates (x, y, 2) can be read from the figure: x=rsindcoss, y=rsin® sing, 10s. (1.62) Figure 1.361.4. CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 39 Figure 1.36 also shows three unit vectors, #6, pointing in the ditection of increase of the coresponding coordinates. They constitute an ozthogonal (mutually perpendicular) basis set (just like &, 9, 2), and any vector A can be exptessed in terms of them in the usual way: A= Apt + 9b + Ags. (1.63) Ar, As, and Ag are the radial, polar, and azimuthal components of A. In terms of the CCaresian unit vectors, sin 0 cos + sind sing} + cos’, cos cos i + cos sin pf — sind Z, (1.64) = sin g% + 60865, ere as you can easily check for yourself (Prob, 1.37). Ihave put these formulas inside the back ‘cover for easy reference, But there i a poisonous snake lurking here that better warn you about: #8, and @ are associated witha particular point P, and they change direction as P moves around, For ‘example, F always points radially outward, but “radially outward” can be the x direction, the y direction, or any other direction, depending on where you are. In Fig. 1.37, A = j and 1B = —§, and yet Aoth of them would be written as in spherical cootdinates. One could take account of this by explicitly indicating the point of reference: F(0. 6), 6(0. 0), 6(0, ). but this would be cumbersome, and as long as you are ales o the problem I don’t think it will cause difficulties In particular, do not naively combine the spherical components of vectors associated with different points (in Fig. 1.37, A-+ B = 0, not 28, and A- B= —1 not +1), Beware of differentiating a vector that is expressed in spherical coordinates, since the unit vectors themselves are functions of position (3/40 = 6, for example), And do not take #, 6, and g outside an integral, as we did with &, ¥, and 2 in Eq, 1.53. In general, if you're uncertain about the validity of an operation, reexpress the problem in Cartesian coordinates, where this difficulty does not arse. Figure 1.37 "claimed onthe very frst page that vectors have no lesion, ad I'l stan by that The vectors themselves tive “out thee" corpltey independent of our choice of coednats. But the notation we Use o represent them des depend a the pot in question, in curviner coordinates.40 (CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS: ‘An infinitesimal displacement in the & direction is simply dr (Fig. 1.38a), just as an infinitesimal element of length inthe x dtection is dx all, =dr. (1.65) ‘On the other hand, an infinitesimal element of length in the 6 direction (Fig. 1.38b) is nor just do (that’s an angle—it doesn’t even have the right units for a length), but rather r d0: dg = rd8. (1.66) Similarly, an infinitesimal clement of length in the @ discon (ig. 1.38) is in od 67) ‘Thus, the general infinitesimal displacement dl is d= dré+rd0d +rsinodgd. (1.68) ‘This plays the roe (in line integrals, for example) that dl = dx &-+ dy § + d22 played in Cartesian coordinates. ae sind de, three infinitesimal displacements: dz = dll dlydly = 7? sind dr d9 dg. (1.69) | cannot give you a general expression for surface elements da, since these depend on the orientation of the surface. You simply have to analyze the geometry for any given case (this goes for Cartesian and curvilinear coordinates alike). If you are integrating over the surface of a sphere, for instance, then r is constant, whereas 0 and @ change (Fig. 1.39), so day sin dé dee. le dy (On the other hand, if the surface lies in the xy plane, say, so that @ is constant (to wit: 7/2) while rand @ vary then = . day = diy diy6 = rdrdgé.1.4. CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 4l Figure 1.39 Notice, finally, that r ranges from to 00, @ from 0 t0 2, and 0 from 0 to = (not ‘2n—that would count every point twice)? Example 1.13 ae Find the volume of sphere of aus Seno: vin fan fl fl [oP saoaravas [oars (f+) (f=rm)({"#) © (Nota big surprise.) So far we have talked only about the geometry of spherical coordinates. Now I would like to “translate” the vector derivatives (gradient, divergence, curl, and Laplacian) into r, 6, notation. In principle ths is entirely straightforward: in the case of the gradient, re, ty ar ae ay tae vr= for instance, we would frst use the chain rule to reexpress the partial ar _ar (ary) | or (0), ar (ap Be ar Lax) * a0 Max) * a6 Lax *Altematively. you could un rom Oo = (the “eastern hemisphere an cover the “west hemisphere” by extending @ from x ypto2. But this is very ad notation, ince, among other things, sn? wl hen ra eave, ‘nd yl have to put absolute value signs around that erm in vlime and surface elements (ea and vole being intrinsically postive quate),2 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS ‘The terms in parentheses could be worked out from Eq. 1.62—or rather, the inverse of those equations (Prob. 1.36). Then we'd do the same for a7 /ay and AT /8z, Finally, we'd substitute inthe formulas for &,¥. and Zin terms of é, 6, and g (Prob. 1.37). It would take an hour to figure out the gradient in spherical coordinates by this brute-force method. T suppose this is how it was frst done, but there is a much more efficient indirect approach, explained in Appendix A, which has the extra advantage of treating all coordinate systems at once. I described the “straightforward” method only to show you that there is nothing subtle or mysterious about transforming to spherical coordinates: you're expressing the ‘same quantity (sradient, divergence, or whatever) in different notation, that’s al Here, then, ae the vector derivatives in spherical coordinates: Aces ar. Lar Lar vrs ey 4 Oe 70) Divergence: Puy TE sind) + te am w+ ing a9 SO) + ine ap curt os le Fano [an'sore — 86. #41 [ So - Zew]é 1 an, + Fem 26. an) ory is (2a 179 ar) * am (* a For reference, these formulas are listed inside the front cover. Prpblem 1.36 Find formulas for 7,0. in terms of x. y,= (the inverse in other words, of Bg. 1.6), # in terms of & 4 (that is, derive By. 1.64), 624... Also work out the © Problem 1.37 Express the unit vectors (Check your answers several ways (F- inverse formulas, giving & $2 in terms of #4, 6 (and 8. 4). = Problem 1.38 (a) Check the divergence theorem for the function vy = of radius R, centered a the origin, 1/12), (Ifthe answer surprises you, look back at Prob. 1.16.) using as your volume the sphere by Do the same for v21.4. CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 4B Figure 1.40, Figure La Problem 1.39 Compute the divergence ofthe function ¥ = (re0s0)F + (rsin@)6 + (r sind cos) ¢. Check the divergence theorem for this function, using as your volume the inveredhemispher- ‘cal bow! of radius R, resting on the xy plane and centered athe origin Fig, 1.40), Problem 1.40 Compute the gradiont and Laplacian ofthe function T = (cos + sin cos). ‘Check the Laplacian by converting T to Cartesian coordinates and using Eq 142. Test the _radient theorem for this function, using the path shown in Fig. 41, from (0, 0,0) (0,0, 2) 1.4.2 Cylindrical Coordinates ‘The cylindrical coordinates (s, @, 2) of a point P are defined in Fig. 1.42. Notice that @ has the same meaning as in spherical coordinates, and z is the same as Cartesian; 5 is the distance to P from the z axis, whereas the spherical coordinate r is the distance from the origin, The relation to Cartesian coordinates is X= sc089, yy =ssing, 74) ‘The unit vectors (Prob. 1.41) are & = cospi+sings, b = ~sing t+ cose s, (1.75) b= a ‘The infinitesimal displacements are di=ds, dig=sdp. dle (1.76)“4 CHAPTER 1, VECTOR ANALYSIS Figure 1.42 0 dsi+sdog +dzi, (77) and the volume element is dr =sdsdodz (1.78) ‘The range of s is 0 + 00, goes from 0 — 22, and z from —20 10 00. ‘The vector derivatives in eylindrical coordinates are: = (1.79) (1.80) (81) a eee er vw —(s— —. ‘These formulas ate also listed inside the front cover. Problem 1.41 Express the cylindrical unit vectors & 4, % in terms of &, ¥, Faq, 1.75). “Invert” your formulas 10 get &.j,# in terms of 8, & (and @),1.5. THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION 45 Je YN Problem 142 (a) Find the divergence ofthe function Y= S24 sin? 84 55in gos 43: 2 (b) Test the divergence theorem for this function, using the quater-ylinder (radius 2, height 5) shown in Fig. 143, () Find the cur of v, 1.5 The Dirac Delta Function 1.5.1 The Divergence of #/r? Consider the vector function (1.83) Atevery location, vis directed radially outward (Fig. 144); ifever there was.a function that ‘ought to have a large positive divergence, this is it. And yet, when you actually calculate the divergence (using Eq. 1.71), you get precisely zero: vere be (eb) d2avco as are 7 (You will have encountered this paradox already. if you worked Prob. 1.16.) The plot thickens if you apply the divergence theorem to this function. Suppose we integrate over a sphere of radius R, centered at the origin (Prob. 1.38b); the surface integral is form = f (je) ee amesese ~ (ff) (8) (1.85)46 CHAPTER I. VECTOR ANALYSIS But the volume integral, J'V -vde, is zero, if we are really to believe Eq. 1.84. Does this ‘mean thatthe divergence theorem is false? What's going on here? “The source ofthe problem is he point r = 0, where ¥ blows up (and where, in Eq. 1.84, wwe have unwittingly divided by zero). I is quite true that ¥ - v = 0 everywhere except the origin, but right a the origin the situation is more complicated. Notice that the surface integral (1.85) is independent of R; if the divergence theorem is right (and its), we should get {(V-¥)dr = 4r for any sphere centered atthe origin, no matter how small, Evidently the entire contribution must be coming from the point r = 0! Thus, V - v has the bizarre property that it vanishes everywhere except at one point, and yet its integral (over any \olume containing that point) is 47, No ordinary function behaves like that. (On the other hand, a physical example does come to mind: the density (mass per unit volume) of a point particle, 1's zero except at the exact location of the particle, and yet its integral is finite— namely, the mass of the particle.) What we have stumbled on is @ mathematical object known to physiists asthe Dirac delta funetion, It arses in many branches of theoretical physics. Moreover, the specific problem at hand (the divergence of the function /r*) isnot just some arcane curiosity—it is, in fact, central to the whole theory of electrodynamics, So itis worthwhile o pause here and study the Dirac delta function with some care. 1.5.2. The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function The one dimensional Dirac delta function, 3(x), can be pictured as an infinitely high: infinitesimally narrow “spike,” with area 1 (Fig. 145). That isto say: 0, ifx #0 itx=0 86) a={ and . [-soar=t «as? Technically, 8(x) is not a funetion at all, since its value is not finite at x = 0. In the ‘mathematical literature itis known as a generalized function, or distribution, It is, if you 50) Aral Figure 1451.3. THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION 47 40) fae Rix) Tina Ts 1 @ Figure 1.46 like, the limit of a sequence of functions, such as rectangles R(x), of height m and width 1m, or isosceles triangles Ty (x), of height n and base 2/n (Fig. 146). If F(x) is some “ordinary” function (that is, nor another delta function—in fact, just to be on the safe side let’s say that f(x) is continuous), then the product f (x)8(x) is zero everywhere except at x = 0. It follows that F(e)Ax) = FOVBLX). (1.88) (This is the most important fact about the delta function, so make sure you understand why itis true: since the product is zero anyway except at x = 0, we may as well replace f(x) by the value it assumes atthe origin.) In particular [-seoserae= 10 [™ seae= 10 (1.89) Under an integral, then, the delta function “picks out” the value of f(x) at x = 0. (Here and below, the integral need not run from ~ce to +20; it is sufficient that the domain extend across the delta function, and —e to +e would do as well.) Of course, we can shift the spike from x = 0 to some other point, x = a (Fig. 1,47): se-on{ 2 EEE | win ["se-oac=t (90 Equation 18 bsomes FE — a) = f(a)(x — a), a9) and E189 generalizes to [rose ads = ra) 192) Evaluate the integral Jf 800 -Das48 CHAPTER |, VECTOR ANALYSIS Figure 147 ‘The delta function picks out the value of x? at the point x = 2, so the integral is 2 2 8. Notice, however, hat ifthe upper linit had bee | (instead of 3) th answer wok! be 0, because the spike would then be outside the domain of integration Although 8 itself isnot a legitimate function, integrals over 8 are perfeclly acceptable. In fact, it’s best to think of the delta function as something that is always intended for use under an integral sign. In particular, two expressions involving delta functions (say, D(x) and D3(x)) are considered equal if © 7 FDO dx f POpDalx) dx, (1.93) for all ordinary”) functions f(x). Example 1.15 Show that : sks) = FA). casa) ‘where k is any (nonzero) constant. (In particular, (—x) = 8(8).) Solution: For an arbitrary test function f(x), consider the integral [soso Changing variables, we ley = kx, so that x = y/k,and ds = I/kedy. I is positive, the Integration still uns from —ce to +e, but if kis negative, then + = oe implies y = ‘This is no as arbiary sit may sound The crucial point i tht the integrals must be equ fo any (0, ‘Suppose Dy(x) and Dy) actualy dered sa, nthe neighborhood of te point x= 17, Then we cou ick Faction f(s) that was sharply peaked aboutx = 17, andthe nepal Would not be el1.5. THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION 49 vice versa, so the onder of the limits is reversed. Restoring the “proper” order costs a minus sign, Thus [somes f? sors 2810 (The lower signs apply when is negative, and we account for this neatly by putting absolute value bats around the finl k, as indicated.) Under the integral sign, then, S(&x) serves the same purpose as (1/Ik|)8(2) [i rosanes [7 pf ps0] ‘According to criterion 1.93, therefore, (x) and (1/|A)B() are equal. Problem 143 Balt te following integrals (@ 80x -25 psu Hae ( ffomxate—aydx fb + Dds @ {Ino +9 8642)de Problem 1.44 Evaluate the following integral: (a 2, 2x49) 5 3 de. (b) fg +38 +2981 —2)de. © [1 9263¢ + 1)de @ f2n.80 bode Problem 145 () Show that 4 ay) = 800), Hint: Use integration by parts} (b) Let (x) be the step funetion: ito a) = «195) 0 tzso ‘Show that do dx = 8(2),50 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 1.5.3 The Three-Dimensional Delta Function Itis an easy matter to generalize the delta function to three dimensions: Br) = 52) 50) 502) (1.99) (Asalways,r = x+y +2 dis the position vector, extending from the origin to the point (&, ¥.2). This three-dimensional delta function is zero everywhere except at (0, 0,0), where it blows up. Its volume integral is 1: [ewe [0 fo foxcavs And, generalizing Eq. 1.92, )dedyd2=1. (1.97) fi. Mee = mae = sea (1.98) i space Asin the one-dimensional case, integration with 8 picks out the value of the function f at the location of the spike ‘We are now ina postion to resolve the paradox introduced in Sect, 1.5.1. As you will recall, we found thatthe divergence of #/r? is zero everywhere except a the origin, and yetts integral over any volume containing the origin isa constant (lo wit: 4x). These are precisely the defining conditions forthe Dirac delta function; evidently v (® = 48%) (1.99) More generally, (1.100) Where, as always, @is the separation vector: 4 = rr’. Note that differentiation here is with respect fo r, while r’ is held constant. Incidentally, since (1101) (Prob. 1.13), it follows that (1.102)1.5. THE DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION 31 Example 1.16 Bvaluate the integral J [rerae(B) ac where Visa sphere of radius R centered at the ofigin, Solution 1: Use Eq, 1.99 to rewrite the divergence, and Eq, 1.98 o do the integral 7 [2 rreemae ix(0-+ 2) = 8 hy ‘This one-line solution demonstrates something of the power and beauty ofthe delta function, ‘but L would like to show you a second method, which is much more eurbersomie But serves to illustrate the method of integration by pars, Seet. 1.36. ‘Solution 2: Using Eg. 1.59, we transfer the derivative from #/r2 to (72 2): [i wetsanees fot ead an ‘The gradient is vert 42) $0 the volume integral becomes * [aca [2 snoardwasass fra R. “Meanwhile, on the boundary ofthe sphere (where da = R° sino do dpe, 0 the surface integral becomes [oe +2 sinade ag = 420K? +2) Putting ital together, then, J 40 R? 4 4x? +2) = 82, as before52 CHAPTER |, VECTOR ANALYSIS Problem 146 (a) Write an expression forthe electric charge density p(r) of a point charge q at. Make sure that the volume integral of p equals g (b) What isthe charge density of an electric dipole, consisting ofa point ch ‘origin anda point change + ata? se = at the {€) What i the charge density of « uniform, infinitesimally thin spherical shell of radius Rand ‘otal charge Q, centered at the origin? (Beware: the integral overall space must equal Q.) Problem 1.47 Evaluate the following integrals: (2) S auguce 02 + F- 0-4 a2)5%(e ~ a)de, where ais. fixed vector anda is ts magnitude (6) fy —b25°(Sn) dr, where Vis acube cf side 2, centered onthe origin and b = 49.43. © Jylet + ee-0 + 81x — ede, whore V isa sphore of radius 6 about the origin, S34 39 + 28 and is its magne 1.2,3.6= 6.2. D,and (@) fpr 2980 — eye, whered a sphore of radius 1S centered at (2,2, 2). ‘Problem 1.48 Evaluate the integral ra her(e sa (shere Visa sphere of radius R, centered atthe origin) by twodiflerent methods, asin Ex. 1.16 1.6 The Theory of Vector Fields 1.6.1. The Helmholtz Theorem Ever since Faraday, the laws of electricity and magnetism have been expressed in terms of clectric and magnetic fields, E and B. Like many physical laws, these are most compactly expressed as differential equations. Since E and B are vectors, the differential equations naturally involve vector derivatives: divergence and curl. Indeed, Maxwell reduced the tie theory to four equations specifying respectively the divergence andthe curl of and B "ujity speaking. hss only re in te static case; in general the divergence and cl ate given in terms of ‘ime derivatives ofthe elds thetselves,1.6. THE THEORY OF VECTOR FIELDS 33 Maxwell's formulation raises an important mathematical question: To what extent is a vector function determined by its divergence and curl? In other words, if [tell you that the divergence of F (which stands for E or B, as the case may be) isa specified (scalar) function D, V-F=D, and the curl of F isa specified (veetor) function C, vxF (for consistency, C must be divergenceless, because the divergence of a cur is always zero), can you then determine the function F? Well...not quite. For example, as you may have discovered in Prob. 1.19, there are ‘many functions whose divergence and curl are both zero everywhere —the trivial case F = 0, ofcourse, butalsoF = yzi+zx §+xy2, F = sin.x cosh y&—cos. sinh y, ete. Tosolve ‘differential equation you must also be supplied with appropriate boundary conditions, In electrodynamics we typically require that the fields go to zero “at infinity” (far away from all charges). With that extra information the Helmholtz theorem guarantees that the field is uniquely determined by its divergence and curl. (A proof of the Helmholtz theorem is given in Appendix B,) 1.6.2. Potentials {the curl ofa vector field (F) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be written as the gradient ‘ofa sealar potential (V) VxP=0e5F=-vv. (1.103) (The minus sign is purely conventional.) That's the essential burden of the following theorem: ‘Theorem 1: Curl-less (or “irrotational”) fields. The following con- ditions are equivalent (that is, F satisfies one if and only iF it satisfies all the others) (@) V x F = O everywhere (b) fF - dl is independent of path, for any given end. point. (©) fF -dl =0 for any closed loop. (@) Fis the gradient of some scalar, F vv. in some textook peblems the charge iself eens to infty (we speak for instance ofthe elect field of an fit plane, or the magnetic field of an infinite Wire). Tn such ease he nema boundary conditions Jo not ppl. an one mes invoke symmetry arguments to determine the elds uni.54 CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS ‘The scalar potential is not unique—any constant can be added to V with impunity, since this will not affect its gradient. Ifthe divergence of a vector field (F) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be expressed 4s the curl of a vector potential (A): V F205 F=VxA «a.104) ‘That's the main conclusion of the following theorem: ‘Theorem 2: Divergence-ess (or solenoidal”) fields, The following conditions are equivalent: (a) V-F = Oeverywhere. (b) J F-daisindependent of surface, forany given bound- ary line (¢) fF -da = 0 for any closed surface. (@) Fis the curl of some vector, F = V x A. ‘The vector potential is not unique—the gradient of any scalar function can be added to A. without affecting the curl, since the curl of a gradient is zero, You should by now be able to prove all the connections in these theorems, save for the ones that say (a), (b), oF (c) implies (d). Those are more subtle, and will come later. Incidentally, in all cases (whatever its curl and divergence may be) a vector field F can be written as the gradient of a scalar plus the curl of a vector: VV EV XA (always) (1.105) Problem 149 (@) Let Fy = 22 and Fy = xi + y§ 42% Calculate the divergence and curl of Fy and Fa. ‘Which one can be written as the gradiont ofa scalar? Find a scalar potential that does the job. ‘Which one ean be written asthe curl oft vector? Find a stable yostor potential (©) Show that Fy = y2%-4 cx + xy can be written both asthe gradient ofa sealar and 2s the curl of a vector, Find sealar and vector potentials fr this function Problem 1.80 For Theorem | show that (4) = (a), (a) => (€) (€) => (by, (b) =» (©), and ©>@, Problem 1.51 For Theorem 2 show that (4) = (a), (a) => (©) (€) = (0) (b) => (), and ©>@.1.6, THE THEORY OF VECTOR FIELDS 35 Problem 1.82 (2) Which ofthe vectors in Problem 1.15 can be expressed as the gradient of a selar? Find a scalar function that does the job. (b) Which can be expressed as the curl ofa vector? Find such a vector More Problems on Chapter 1 Problem 1.83 Check the divergence theorem forthe function v= eosd# +r cos Peost sing, using as your volume one octant ofthe sphore of radius R (Fig, 1.48). Make sure you include the entire surface. {Answer: m R4/4) Problem 1.54 Check Stokes theorem using the function = avy -+-bx # (a and are constants) and the circular path of radius R, centered atthe origin inthe xy plane. [Answer: m R2(6—a)] Problem 1.85 Compute the line integral of, +0yto% along the triangular path shown in Fig, 1.49. Check your answer using Stokes’ theorem, Answer: 83) Problem 1.56 Compute th line integral of (r-cos? @)# — (reo sin6)6 + 3rd around the path shown in Fg. 1.50 (the points ure labeled by thir Cartesian coordinates). Do itcither in cylindrical or in spherical coordinates, Chock your answer, using Stokes’ theorem. Answer: 3/2) Figure 1.48, Figure 1.49 Figure 1.50CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS 0240) 9 *H(a00) Figure 1.51 Figure 1.52 Problem 1.57 Check Stokes’ thoorem for the function ¥ = y2, using the triangular surface shown in Fig. 151. [Answer: a2] Problem 1.58 Check the divergence theorem forthe function 1 sind + 4r?.cos06 +r? tand }, ‘using the volume ofthe “ice-cream cone” shown in Fig. 1.52 (the top surface is spherical, with radius R and centered atthe origin). (Answer: (x RS/12)(2n +3V3)) Problem 1.59 Here are wo cute checks ofthe fundamental theorems: (#) Combine Corollary 2 to the gradient theorem with Stokes' theorem (¥ = VT, inthis case), ‘Show that the result is consistent with what you already knew about second derivatives. (b) Combine Corollary 2to Stokes’ theorem with the divergence theorem. Show that the result is consistent with what you already knew. Problem 1.60 Although the gradient, divergence, and curl theorems are the fundamental in- {egral theorems of vector calculus, itis possible to derive a number of corollaries from them, Show that: GT) de = eT da, tine Let y = oem; use the product rules] where ¢ is a constant, inthe divergence 0) JAW * vod =~ fv % da, (Hint: Replace v by (v x €) in the divergence theorem.) © AAT VU + (VT) (WU)]dr = fg(TVU)- da, (Hints Let theorem | VU inthe divergence (@ fTV2U -UV2T) de = fo(TVU —UVT): da, (Comment: Thisis known as Green's Aheorem: i follows from (wich is sometimes called Green's Identity] (©) fo VT x da =~ fpT Al, (in: Let v = eT in Stokes’ theorem.)1.6. THE THEORY OF VECTOR FIELDS ST © Problem 1.61 The integral [a (1.106) is sometimes called the vector area of the surface S. If S happens to be fa, then al isthe ordinary (Scalar) area, obviously. (a) Find the vector area of a hemispherical bowl of radius R. (b) Show that a = 0 for any closed surface. (Hint: Use Prob, 1,608.1 (6) Show that ais the same forall surfaces sharing the same boursary () Show that aatfena, 1.107) ‘where the integra is around the boundary lin. (Hint: One way to doit is to draw the come stubiended by the loop at the origin. Divide the conical surface up into infinitesimal tang lar wedges, each with vertex at the origin ad oppesite side dl, and exploit the geometrical Interpretation ofthe cross product (Fig. 1.8). (©) Show that fiena for any constant vector €, (Hint: lot T (1.108) © Problem 1.62 (a) Find the divergence ofthe fonction First compute it directly, as in Eq, 1.84, Test your result using the divergence theorem, asin Bq, 1.85, Ts there a delta function atthe origin, as there was for &/r2 What isthe general formula forthe divergence of r"®7 [Answer V -(r"#) = (n+ 2)-"—!, unless which ease itis °C) =2, in (b) Find the curl of. Test your conclusion using Prob. 1,606, Ansiver: Vx (78) = 0]Chapter 2 Electrostatics 2.1 The Electric Field 2.1.1 Introduction ‘The fundamental problem electromagnetic theory hopes to solve is this (Fig. 2.1): We have some electric charges, qi, 42,43... (call them souree charges); what force do they exert ‘on another charge, Q (call it the test charge)? The positions ofthe source charges are given (as functions of time); the trajectory ofthe test particle is to be calculated. In general, both the souce charges and the test charge are in motion, "The solution othis problem is facilitated by the principle of superposition, which states that the interaction between any two charges is completely unaffected by the presence of others. This means that to determine the force on Q, we can first compute the force F}, due to qi alone (ignoring all the others); then we compute the force F>, due to 42 alone; and so oon, Finally, we take the vector sum of all these individual forces: F = F, + F2 + Fs + Thus, if we can find the force on Q due to a single source charge q, we are, in principle, ddone (the rest is just a question of repeating the same operation over and over, and adding itall up)! ‘Well, at frst sight this sounds very easy: Why don’t I just waite down the formula for the force on Q duc to q, and be done with it? 1 could, and in Chapter 10 T shall, but you would be shocked to see it at this stage, for not only does the force on Q depend on the separation distance 2 berween the charges (Fig. 2.2), it also depends on both their velocities and on the acceleration of q. Moreover, itis not the position, velocity, and acceleration of q right now that matter: Electromagnetic “news” travels at the speed of light, so what concerns Q is the position, velocity, and acceleration q had at some earlier time, when the message left. "The principio superposition may seem “obvious to you, butitdidnot hae wobe so simple: ifthe eleeuomag- ret force were proportional oth square ofthe total source charge, fer instance, the principe of superposition Wold no old, since (gy +43)? #4) +43 ete would he “cross terms" 0 consider). Superposition spo a Togical neces, bu an experimea fact 582.1. THE ELECTRIC FIELD 9 : i . “4 Source” charges “Test” charge Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 ‘Therefore, in spite of the fact that the basic question (“What is the foree on Q due to 47") is easy to state, it does not pay to confront it head on; rather, we shall go at it by stages. In the meantime, the theory we develop will permit the solution of more subtle electromagnetic problems that do not present themselves in quite this simple format. To begin with, we shall consider the special case of electrostatics in which all the source charges are stationary (though the test charge may be moving) 2.1.2. Coulomb’s Law ‘Whats the force on a test charge Q due toa single point charge q which is at rest a distance ‘away? The answer (based on experiments) is given by Coulomb's law Qn ‘The constant ¢p is called the permitivity of free space. In SI units, where force is in ‘Newtons (N), distance in meters (m), and charge in coulombs (C), 2 85 x 10-2 No “0 In words, the force is proportional to the produet of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance, As always (Sect, 1.1.4), is the separation vector from r’ (the location of g) to F (the location of Q): 2 22) +s its magnitude, and 4 i its direction. The force points along the line from q t0 Qs its repulsive if q and Q have the same sign, and attractive if ther signs are opposite. Coulomb's law and the principle of superposition constitute the physical input for clectrostaties—the rest, except for some special properties of matter, is mathematical elab- oration ofthese fundamental rules0 CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS Problem 2. (@) Twelve equal charges, g, are situated atthe comers of a regular 12-sded polygon (for instance, one on each numeral ofa clock face). What isthe net force on atest charge Q at the center? (©) Suppose one of the 12 4's is removed (the one at “6 o'clock"), What isthe force on O” Explain your reasoning carefully (c) Now 13 equal charges, q_ ar placed atthe comers ofa regular 13-sided polygon. What is the force on a test charge @ at the center? (@) Ione ofthe 13 4° is removed, what is the force on Q°? Explain your reasoning. 2.1.3 The Electric Field Ie we have several point charges qi, 42, --.qasat distances 4,22, ...,4» from Q, the total force on Q is evidently 1_(ua, , 20, P= Fare. = aig (tha thee.) x bc oO [aa why = &(4 tpt} F= QE, (2.3) where ia roe Ey 4) E iscalled the electric field of the source changes. Notice that it isa function of position (r), because the separation vectors 4; depend on the location of the field point P (Fig. 2.3). But itmakes no reference to the test charge Q. The electric field is a vector quantity that varies Source point Figure 2.32.1, THE ELECTRIC FIELD 6 from point to point and is determined by the configuration of source charges; physically, E(r) isthe force per unit charge that would be exerted on atest charge, if you were to place fone at P. ‘What exactly is an electri field? T have deliberately begun with what you might call the “minimal” interpretation of E, as an intermediate step in the calculation of electric forces. But I encourage you to think of the field as a “real” physical entity, filling the space in the neighborhood of any electric charge. Maxwell himself came to believe that electric and magnetic fields represented actual stresses and strains in an invisible primordial {ellylike “ether.” Special relativity has forced us to abandon the notion of ether, and with it ‘Maxwell's mechanical interpretation of electromagnetic fields. (It is even possible, though cumbersome, to formulate classical electrodynamics as an “action-at-a-distance” theory, and dispense with the field concept altogether.) I can't tell you, then, what a field is—only how to calculate it and what it can do for you once you've got it. Problem 22 (a) Find the electric fleld (magnitude and direction a distance above the midpoint between two equal charges, qa distance dl apart Fig. 2.4). Check that your result is consistent with what you'd expect when : > d, (©) Repeat pat (a), only thi time make the right-hand charge —q instead of +4. a YY dg ae (a) Continuous (b) Line charge. distbation age -S () Surface charge, (a) Volume charge, p Figure 24 Figure 2.5, 2.1.4 Continuous Charge Distributions ‘Our definition ofthe electric field (Eg. 2.4), assumes thatthe source of the field is acollection, of discrete point charges qj. If, instead, the charge is distributed continuously over some region, the stim becomes an integral (Fig. 2.5a): La, n= fh 2. Fe = ag | pide es)a CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS IF the charge is spread out along a line (Fig. 2.5b). with charge-per-unit-length 2, then dq = dal’ (where dl’ is an clement of length along the line): ifthe charge is smeared ‘out over a surface (Fig. 25), with charge-per-unitarea 0, then dq = o da’ (where da’ is an element of area on the surface); and ifthe charge fills a volume (Fig. 2.5d), with charge-per-unit-volume p, then dq = pdr’ (where d+’ isan element of volume): dq > hdl ~o da’ ~ pe’ ‘Thus the electric field of a line charge is ; fra sb en snr ne sa, ew Equation 2.8 itself is often referred to as “Coulomb's lav.” because itis such a short step from the original (2.1), and because a volume charge is in a sense the most general ‘and realistic case. Please note carefully the meaning of in these formulas. Originally, Eq.2.4,4; stood for the vector from the source charge q; tothe field point. Correspondingly, in Bas. 25-28, asthe vector from dg (therefore from dda’, ord’) 10 the field point r. Example 2.1 Find the electric feld a distance z above the midpoint of «straight line seement of length 2L, which caries a uniform line charge 2 (Fig. 26) ‘Solution: [tis advantageous fo chop the line up into symmetrically placed pairs (at x), for then the horizontal components ofthe two fields cancel, and the net field ofthe pairs ateaagh ("cat Firming: The unit vector isnt constant its divetion depends onthe source peat and hence it cannot be taken tse the integrals 25-28. a practice, you mus Work with Cartesian component sudo como), even if you use curvilinear coordinates to perform the negation2.1, THE ELECTRIC FIELD a eee Figure 2.6 Here cos = ¢/2,2 = V2 02, and runs from Oto L: 1 f 2 ee ff ON a are Jy HE me [|e = Ine |2J2 aa isan 0 and it aims inthe direction. For points far rom the line (z > L), this result simplifies: Lae reo E hich makes sense: From faraway the line “Tooks" ike a point charge q = 2, so the field reduces to that of point charge q/(4m¢92?). Inthe imit L -» 20, onthe other hand, we obtain the field ofan infinite straight wire: or, more generally, pa? es where sis the distance fom the wire. Problem 2.3 Find the electric field u distance ¢ above one end of a straight line segment of length L Fig. 2.7), which carries a uniform line charge 2. Check that your formulas consistent ‘with what you would expect for the case = >> Z(CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS Figure 2.9 Problem 24 Find the electric field a distance = above the center of a square loop (side @) carrying uniform line charge 2 (Fig. 2.8) (Hint: Use the result of Ex. 2.1] Problem 2.5 Find the electric fled « distance z above the center of a citeular loop of radius (Fig, 2.9), which caries a uniform line charge A. Problem 2.6 Find the electric fleld a distance z above the center of fat circular disk of radius R (Fig. 2.10), which caries a uniform surface charge «.. What does your formula give in the limit R “> 00? Also check the ease 2 > R. Problem 2.7 Find the electric feld a distance z from the center of aspherical surface of radius (Fig. 2.11), which caries a uniform charge density 0. Treat the case z < R (inside) as well as > R (outside). Express your answers ints ofthe total charge q on the sphere. (Hint: Use the law of cosines to write» in erms of R and 8. Be sure to take the posiive square ra: R— 2)if R> z,butit’s (2 AYER <2] Problem 2.8 Use your result in Prob. 2.7 to find the fleld inside and outside a sphere of radius AR, which cartes 4 uniform volume charge density p. Express your answers in terms of the total charge ofthe sphere, q. Draw a graph of [Eas a function ofthe distance from the center x Figure2.10 Figure 2.1122. DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS “6 2.2. Divergence and Curl of Electrostatic Fields 2.2.1 Field Lines, Flux, and Gauss’s Law In principle, we are done with the subject of electrostatics. Equation 2.8 tells us how to compute the field ofa charge distribution, and Ea. 2.3 tells us what the force on a charge Q placed in this field will be. Unfortunately, as you may have discovered in working Prob. 2.7, the integrals involved in computing F can be formidable, even for reasonably simple charge distributions. Much of the rest of electrostatics is devoted to assembling a bag of tools and tricks for avoiding these integrals. It all begins with the divergence and curl of E. I shall calculate the divergence of E directly from Eq. 2.8, in Sect. 2.2.2, but first I want to show you a more qualitative, and perhaps more illuminating, intuitive approach, Let’s begin with the simplest possible case: a single point charge q, situated at the origin: 2.10) To got a “feel” for this field, I might sketch a few representative vectors, as in Fig. 2.12a, Because the field falls off like 1/r*, the vectors get shorter as you go farther away from the origin; they always point radially outward, But there isa nicer way to represent this field, and that’s to connect up the arrows, to form field lines (Fig. 2.12b). You might think that I have thereby thrown away information about the strengh ofthe field, which was contained in the length of the arrows, But actually [ave not. The magnitude ofthe field is indicated by the density of the field lines: it’s strong near the center where the field lines are close together, and weak farther out, where they are relatively far apart. In tcuth, the feld-line diagram is deceptive, when I draw iton a two-dimensional surface, forthe density of lines passing through a circle of radius r is the total number divided by the circumference (n/2:r), which goes like (1/r), not (1/72). But if you imagine the model in three dimensions (a pincushion with needles sticking out in all directions), then the density ‘of lines is the total number divided by the area of the sphere (n/42r), which does go like ary. o Figure 2.1266 (CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS Equal but opposite charges Figure 2.13 Such diagrams ae also convenient for representing more complicated fields, Of course, the number of lines you draw depends on how energetic you are (and how sharp your pencil is), though you ought to include enough to get an accurate sense ofthe field, and you must bbe consistent: If charge q gets 8 lines, then 2q deserves 16. And you must space them fairly—they emanate from a point charge symmetrically in all directions. Field lines begin on positive charges and end on negative ones; they cannot simply terminate in midair, though they may extend out to infinity, Moteover, field lines can never eross—at the intersection, the field would have two different directions at once! With all this in mind, itis easy to sketch the field of any simple configuration of point charges: Begin by drawing the lines in the neighborhood of each charge, and then connect them up or extend them to infinity (Figs. 2.13 and 2.14) Equal charges Figure 2.142.2. DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS 67 E Figure 2.15 In this model the flux of E through a surface S, em [tod aay Is isa measure ofthe “numberof field lines” passing through S. I put this in quotes because of course we can only draw a representative sample of the feldlines—the rota! number would be infinite, But fora given sampling rate the flux is proportional to the number of lines drawn, because the field strength, remember, is proportional to the density of field fines (the mumber per unit area), and hence E - da is proportional to the number of lines passing through the infinitesimal area da. (The dot product picks out the component of da along the direction of E, as indicated in Fig. 2.15. Its only the area in the plane perpendicular 10 that we have in mind when we say that the density of field ines is the number per unit area) This suggests thatthe flux through any closed surface is @ measure ofthe total charge inside. For the field tines that originate on a positive charge must either pass out through the surface or else terminate on a negative charge inside (Fig. 2.16). On the other hand, a charge ouside the surface will contribute nothing tothe total flux, since its field lines pass in one side and out the other Fig. 2.16b). This is the essence of Gauss's law. Now let's make it quantitative. Figure 2.1668 CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS In the case of point charge g at the origin, the fux of E through a sphere of radius r is 1 (a) a : fe a= [4 ) sin do dei) = 2g 12) Notice that the radius of the sphere cancels ou, for while the surface area goes up a8 r2 the fieid goes down as 1/72, and so the producti constant. In terms ofthe field-lne picture, this ‘makes good sense, since the same numiber of field lines passes through any sphere centered atthe origin, regardless ofits size. In fact, it dda’ have o bea sphere—any closed surface, ‘whatever its shape, would trap the same numberof field lines, Evidently the fx through any surface enclosing the charge isq feo Now suppose that instead ofa single charge at the origin, we have a bunch of charges seaitered about. According tothe principle of superposition, the toal field is the (vector) sum of all the individual feds : E=)e mi ‘The flux through a surface that encloses them al, then, is| feria ¥(f-t)=¥ (5) For any closed surface, then, (2.13) ‘where Qene is the total charge enclosed within the surface. This is the quantitative state- ‘ment of Gauss’s law, Although it contains no information that was not already present in Coulomb's law and the principle of superposition, itis of almost magical power, as you will see in Sect, 2.2.3. Notice that itll hinges on the 1/r? character of Coulomb’s law; without ‘that the crucial cancellation of the r's in Eq. 2.12 would not take place, and the total flux ‘of E would depend on the surface chosen, not merely on the total charge enclosed. Other 1/r? forces (1am thinking particularly of Newton's law of universal gravitation) will obey “Gauss's laws" of their own, and the applications we develop here carry over directly, As it stands, Gauss’s law is an integral equation, but we can readily turn it into a differential one, by applying the divergence theorem: fecar= fw eae 5 ¥ Rewriting Qege in terms of the charge density p, we have ene oi v2.2. DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS 69 [@« ‘And since this holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal ‘So Ganss’s law becomes for bar % (2.14) Equation 2.14 carties the same message as Eq. 2.13; it is Gauss's law in differential form. The differential version is tier, but the integral form has the advantage in that it ‘accommodates point, line, and surface charges more naturally. Problem 2.9 Suppose the electric field in some region is found to be = Ar, in spherical ‘oonintes (kis some constant), (a) Find the change density p. (b) Find the toal charge contained in a sphere of radius R, centered atthe origin. (Do it wo clitferent ways.) Problem 2.10 A charge q sits at the back comer of a cube, as shown in Fig. 2.17. What isthe flux of E through the shaded side? Figure 2.17 2.2.2 The Divergence of E Let's go back, now, and calculate the divergence of E directly from Eq. 2.8: 1 . OFS 7 peed! 2.15) pace (Originally the integration was over the volume occupied by the charge, but I may as well extend it to all space, since » = 0 in the exterior region anyway.) Noting that thea) CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS ‘r-dependence is contained ina = r— r', we have I a po ital (Soo ‘This is precisely the divergence we calculated in Bq. 1.100: & 2 -(S)-s0. VE ea 4reg dele 0 which is Gauss’s law in differential form (2.14). To recover the integral form (2.13), we run the previous argument in reverse—integrate over a volume and apply the divergence theorem: : ' [ved feds foar Qe: y 3 Dy 2.2.3. Applications of Gauss’s Law pte) 2.16) | must interrupt the theoretical development at this point to show you the extraordinary power of Gauss's law, in integral form. When symmetry permits, it affords by far the ‘quickest and easiest way of computing electric fields, I'l illustrate the method witha series of examples. ‘Example 22 i the fel outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and toal charge g Solution: Draw a spherical surface at radius + > R (Fig, 2.18); this is called a “Gaussian surface” inthe trade. Gauss's law says that for this surface (as for any ote) $ Bada= 2 Oa and Qeye = 4- At first glance this doesn't seem to get us very far because the quantity we want (B) is buried inside the surface integral. Luckily, symmetry allows ws to extract Krom under the itepral sign: E certainly points radially outward.* as does da, so we can drop the nme [res [ne you doubt that Fis radial, concider the aerate, Suppose, say tha i pints dus ea, tthe “eur But "he orenation of the equator is pero aritary—nothing fs spoming hes sothere so val “ath sot” ‘is—any argument purpering to show tat Kp eas cul juts well Be ned to shun it pints wes oF orth, eran cher diction. The only unique rection ona speed2.2. DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS n Gaussian ‘surface Figure 2.18 and the magnitude of Es constant over the Gaussian surface, fetta =e fda = iar 8 3 ‘Thus areor [Notice a remarkable feature of this result: ‘The field outside the sphere is exactly the same as ‘would have been if ll the charge had been concentrated atthe center. ‘Gauss’s law is always true, but itis not always usefd. If p had not ben uniform (or, at any rat, not spherically symmetrical) ori had chosen some other shape for my Gaussian surface, it would still have been ttue thatthe fx of K is (L/eo)g. but I would not have been certain that F was in the same direction as da and constant in magnitude over the surface, and without that I could not pull [out ofthe integral. Symmerry is crucial to this application of Gauss’s law. AS far as 1 know, there are only three kinds of symmetry that work ‘Spherical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a concentric sphere. 2. Cylindrical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a coaxial cylinder Fig. 2.19). 3. Plane symmetry. Use a Gaussian “pillbox,” which straddles the surface Fig, 2.20) Although (2) and (3) technically require infinitely long cylinders, and planes extending to infinity in all directions, we shall often use them to get approximate answers for “long” cylinders or “large” plane surfaces, at points far from the edges.n CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS Gaussian pillbox —— “ey Figure 2.19 Figure 2.20 Example 2.3 {Along cylinder (Fig 221) caries a charge density that is proportional to the distance from the axis: p = hs, for some constant Find the electric field inside this cylinder, Draw a Gaussian eylinder of length ! and radius s. For this surface, Gauss’s law ‘The enclosed charge is Ome = f rac= f (used the volume element appropriate to cylindrical coordinates, Eq, 1.78, and integrated & From 010 2m, dz from 010. Fput a prime onthe integration variable sto distinguish i from the radius + of the Gaussian surface.) te \ Gaussian surface Figure 2.212.2, DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS B [Now symmetry dictates that E must point radially outward, so forthe curved portion of the Ca a fico f a foe hile the two ends contribute nothing (here Eis perpendicular toa). Thus, IE)2nst, pee IBI2no = Sea or finaly Example 2.4 ‘An infinite plane carries a uniform surface charge @. Find is electric fil. Solution: Dravv a “Gaussian pillbox,” extending equal distances above and below the plane (Fig. 2.22). Apply Gause's law to this surface FP dam FO Inthis case, Qane = 0A, where Ais the area of the lid oF the pillbox. By symmetry, E points away from the plane (upward for points above, downward for points below, Thus, the top and bottom surfaces yield feda=2am, Figure 2.22™ (CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS Whereas the sides contribute nothing. Thus 2aigl = bo, xs en \where is a unit vector pointing away from the surfce. In Prob. 2.6, you obtained this same result by a much more laborioys method. 1c seems surprising, atin ta he ld ofa init plane is independent of how far aay yow are. What about the [/7? in Coulomb's law? Well, the point is that as you move farther nd farther away from the plane, more and more charge comes into your “field of view” (a cone shape exeding bt rom your ee), and this compensates forthe diminishing infaence ‘of any particular piece. The electric fel of a sphere falls off lke 1/15 the electric eld of a infinite line falls off ke 1/r; and the electric field ofan infinite pane doesnot falloff a al, ‘Although the direct use of Gauss's law to compute electric field is limited to cases of spherical, cylindrical, and planar symmetry, we can put together combinations of objects possessing such symmetry, even though the arrangement as a whole For example, invoking the principle of superposi not symmetrical mn, we could find the field in the vicinity ‘of two uniformly charged parallel cylinders, or a sphere near an infinite charged plane. Example 2.5 ‘Two infinite parallel planes carry equal ut opposite uniform charge densities to (Fig. 2.23), Find the field in each ofthe thee regions: (i 0 the lef of both, (i between them, i) to the right of both Solution: The lft plate produces a field (1/2y)e which points away from it (Fie. 2.24)—0 the left in repion (i) and tothe right in regions (i) and (ii) The right plate being negatively charged, produces a field (1/2ep)e., which points toward it—to the right in regions (i) and (Gi) and to the let in region (i). The wo elds cancel in regions i) and (ii); they conspite in region (i), Conclusion: The field is (I/¢o), and points to the right, between the planes; elsewhere itis zero. E, Ek22. DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS 15 Problem 2.11 Use Gauss’s law to find the electri fed inside and outside aspherical shell of radius R, which earries a uniform surface charge density, Compare your answer to Prob. 27, Problem 2.12 Use Gauss’s law to find the electric field inside a uniformly charged sphere (charge density p). Compare your answer to Prob, 2.8, Problem 2.13 Find the electric field distance ¢ from an infinitely long straight wire, which cates a uniform line charge 2. Compare Eq. 2.9 Problem 2.14 Find the electric fed inside a sphere which carries a charge density proportional tothe distance from the origin, p = kr. for some constant k. (Hint: This charge density is nor ‘uniform, and you must integrate to get the enclosed charge. ] Problem 2.18 4 hollow spherical shell carries charge density inthe egion a B, Plt |B) asa fonction ofr. Problem 2.16 A long coaxial cable (Fig. 2.26) carries uniform volume charge density p on the inner eylinder (radius a), and a uniform surface charge density on the outer eylindrcal shell (radius 6). ‘This surface charge is negative and of just the right magnitude so thatthe cable usa whole i electrically neural. Find the electric field i each ofthe three regions: () inside the inner eyinder(s < a), (i) between the eylinders (a < s = b), it) outs te cable (6 > b). Plo IB} asa fonction of s Problem 2.17 An infinite plane slab, of thickness 2d, carries uniform volume charge density 1p (Fig. 2.27), Find the electric feld, asa function of y, where y = @ atthe center. Plot E ‘versus y, calling E positive when it points inthe +y drcotion and negative when it points in the —y direetion, Problem 2.18 Two spheres, each of radius R and carying uniform charge densities +p and respectively are placed so that they partially overlap (Fig. 2.28). Call the vector from the Positive center to the negative centr . Show that the field inthe region of overlap is constant, and find its valu. [int Use the answer to Prob, 2.12.) Figure 2.25 Figure 2.2616 CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS Figure 2.27 Figure 2.28 2.2.4 The Curl of E il calculate the curl of E, as I did the divergence in Sect, 2.2.1, by studying first the simplest possible configuration: a point charge at the origin, In this case 1 Grea Now, a glance at Fig. 2.12 should convince you thatthe curl of this field has to be zero, but | suppose we ought to come up with something alittle more rigorous than that. What if we calculate the line integral of this field from some point ato some other point b (Fig. 2.29) » fea In spherical coordinates, dl = dri +rd06 + rsiné deg, so lq fran” . m : fe a= f Saree <4 fi Fre, 28 = Seer Ed ‘Therefore, L (4.4) ze me (z oa) (2.18) where rs the distance from the origin tothe point a and ry isthe distance 10 b, The integral around a closed path is evidently zero (for then ra = rp): fea | 2.19) Ce23. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 1 and hence, applying Stokes’ theorem, Now, I proved Eqs. 2.19 and 2,20 only forthe field ofa single point charge at the origin, but these results make no reference to what is, afterall, a perfectly arbitrary choice of coordinates; they also hold no matter where the charge is located. Moreover, if we have ‘many charges, the principle of superposition states that the total field is a vector sum of their individual fields: gE Pt Eat, VxE=Vx (E+E + = (V x Ey) + (Vx Ba) + ‘Thus, Eqs. 2.19 and 2.20 hold for any static charge distribution whatever. Problem 2.19 Calculate V > E directly from Eq. 2.8, by the method of Sect. 2.2.2. Refer to Prob. 1.62 ifyou get suck 2.3, Electric Potential 2.3.1 Introduction to Potential ‘The electric field E is not just any old vector function; it is a very special kind of vector function, one whose curl is always zero. E = y&, for example, could not possibly be an electrostatic field; no set of charges, regardless of their sizes and positions, could ever produce such a field. In this section we're going to exploit this special property of electric fields to reduce a vector problem (finding E) down to a much simpler scalar problem. The first theorem in Sect, 6.2 asserts that any vector whose cut i zero is equal to the gradient ‘of some scalar. What I'm going to do now amounts to @ proof of that claim, in the context of electrostatics.8 CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS “tin Figure 2.30 Because V x B = O, the line integral of E around any closed loop is zero (that follows from Stokes’ theorem). Becuuse jE dl = 0, the line integral of E from point a to point 'b is the same forall paths (otherwise you could go our along path (i) and retum along path (ji) Fig. 2.30—and obtain f Bl # 0), Because the line integral is independent of path, ‘ve ean define a funetion* vns- [lea at Here © is some standard reference point on which we have agreed beforehand; V then depends only on the point r. It is called the electri potential. Evidently, the potential difference between two points a and. oe verve) =~ [Peas fea Leal, ° oe lo I Now, the fundamental theorem for gradients states that 6 fea ex » vey—vey= [ovat » » [ovas- fea Since, nally, this is tre for any pons a and b, te inerands mest be equ (E=-wv] 2) Equation 2.23 is the differential version of Eg, 2.21; it says that the electric field is the gradient of a scalar potential, which is what we set out to prove. “Toa any posible amiguly {ould perhaps puta pime onthe integration variable [leer [ ts so contre ain. nd twee pete is Me! ate Sorc a sepa algae Pe vee)2.3. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 9 Notice the subtle but crucial role played by path independence (or, equivalently, the fact ‘that V x E = 0) in this argument, Ifthe line integral of E depended on the path taken, then the “definition” of V, Eq, 2.21, would be nonsense. It simply would not define a function, since changing the path would alter the value of V(r), By the way, don't let the minus sign in Bq. 2.23 distract you; it carries over from 2.21 and is largely a matter of convention. Problem 2.20 One of these is an impossible electrostatic ld, Which one? @ © ihyk 42+ ee Hy? B+ xy + 2) + Dyed Here k is constant with the appropriate units. For the posible oe, find the potential using the origin as your reference pont. Check your answer by computing WV. [Ufini: You must select a specific path to integrate along. t doesn’t matter what path you choos, since the answer is pth-independent, hut you simply cannot integrate unless you have w particular path in mind} 2.3.2, Comments on Potential (® The name. ‘The word “potential” is « hideous misnomer because it inevitably reminds you of potential energy. This is particularly confusing, because there isa connection between “potential” and “potential energy.” as you will see in Sect. 2.4. Fm sorry that it is impossible to escape this word. The best I can do is to insist once and for all that “potential” and “potential energy” are completely different terms and should, by all rights, hhave different names. Incidentally, « surface over which the potential is constant is called an equipotential, (Gi) Advantage of the potential formulation. If you know V, you can easily get E—just take the gradient: B= —VV. This is quite extraordinary when you stop to think abou it, for E isa vector quantity (three components), but ¥ isa scalar (one component). How can one function possibly contain all the information tat three independent functions carry? The answer is that the three components of E are not really as independent as they look; in fact, they are explicitly interrelated by the very condition we started with, V x E=0. Interms of components, OE, _ aby ay” ax ‘This brings us back to my observation at the beginning of Sect, 2.3.1: E isa very special kind of vector. What the potential formulation does is to exploit this feature to maximum advantage, reducing a vector problem down to a scalar one, in which there is no need 10, fuss with components80 CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS (iii) The reference point O. There is an essential ambiguity in the definition of potential, since the choice of reference point © was arbitrary, Changing reference points ‘amounts to adding a constant K to the potential: veo=-f where K is the line integral of E from the old reference point © to the new one ©’. Of course, adding a constant to V will not affect the potential difference between two points: © 7 B.a=-[e-a-['Ea=K+ven, lo lo vm) - V'@) y(b) ~ Via), since the K's cancel out. (Actually, it was already clear from Eq, 2.22 that the potential difference is independent of ©, because it can be written asthe line integral of E from a to ', with no reference to O.) Nor does the ambiguity affect the gradient of V: vv’ =v, since the derivative of a constant is zero, That's why all such V"s, differing only in their choice of reference point, correspond to the same field E. Evidently potential as such carries no real physical significance, for at any given point We can adjust its value at will by a suitable relocation of O. In this sense itis rather like altitude: If Task you how high Denveris, you will probably tell me its height above sea level, because that is a convenient and traditional reference point, But we could as well agree to measure altitude above Washington D.C., or Greenwich, or wherever, That would add (or, rather subtract) a fixed amount from all our sea-level readings, but it wouldn't change anything about the real world. The only quantity of intsinsic imerest is the difference in altitude between two points, and thar isthe same whatever your reference level. Having said this, however, there is a “natural” spot to use for © in electrostatics — analogous to sea level for alttude—and that is a point infinitely far from the charge, Or- dinarly, then, we “set the zero of potential at infinity” (Since V(O) = 0, choosing & reference point is equivalent to selecting a place where V is to be zero.) But T must warn ‘you that there is one special circumstance in which this convention fails: when the charge distribution itself extends to infinity. The symptom of trouble, in such cases, is that the potential blows up. For instance, the field of a uniformly chatged plane is («/2ea)f, as we found in Ex. 2.4; if we naively put © = oo, then the potential at height z above the plane becomes, vi o(z- 20), oe tn The remedy is simply to choose some other reference point (inthis problem you might use the origin). Notice that the difficulty occurs only in textbook problems: in “real life” there is no such thing as a charge distribution that goes on forever, and we can always use infinity as our reference point,2.3. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 81 iy) Potential obeys the superposition principle. ‘The original superposition princi- ple of electrodynamics pertains to the force on a test charge Q. It says that the total force (on Q is the vector sum of the forces attributable to the source charges individually F4Po+... Dividing through by Q, we find thatthe electric field, 100, obeys the superposition principle: ESE) +E+ Integrating from the common reference point tor, it follows that the potential also satisfies such a principle: Vevthes ‘That is, the potential at any given point is the sum of the potentials due to all the source ‘charges separately. Only this time itis an ordinary sum, not a vector sum, which makes it alot easier to work with, (¥) Units of Potential. In our units, force is measured in newtons and charge in coulombs, so electric fields are in newtons per coulomls. Accordingly, potential is measured innewton-meters per coulomb or joules per coulomb. A joule per coulomb is called a volt Example 2.6 Find the potenti inside and ouside spherical shell of radius R (Fig. 2.31), which cates & uniform surface charge. Sot the reference point at infinity. Figure 2.3182 (CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS ‘Solution: From Gauss's law, te Geld outside is rer ‘where isthe total charge on the sphere, The field inside is zero. For pints outside the sphere ore, a gaa! [Lay c 2 mle ‘To find the potential inside the sphere (r < R), we must break the integral into two sections, using in each region the feld that prevails there: vin “8 a a f@are + " Sar — [oar = Voom ae fi it [4 = ae, [Notice that the potentials nor zero inside the shell eventhough the fils. V i & constant im this region, to be sure, so that VV = (thats what maters. In problems of this type you mus alvays work your way in from the reference point thas where he potential s "aed down Is tempaing to suppose that you could figure oot the potential inside the sphere on the bass ofthe flere alone but hiss abe: The potential inside the sphere sensitive ‘whats going on ouside the sphere as wel. I placed a second uniformly charged sel tat radi A’ > R, the potential inside R would change, eventhough the field would stil be zero. Gauss's law guarantees that charge exterior toa siven pont (ats, at larger) proguces no net fel at that point, provided its spherically eylindrcally symmetric: bat hee is no such rule for pote, when infinity is used as the reference point Problem 2.21 Find the potential inside and outside a uniformly charged solid sphere whose radius is R and whose total charge is g. Use infinity as your reference point. Compute the sradient of V in each region, and check that it yields the correct fied. Sketch V4) Problem 2.22 Find the potential a distance s from an infinitely long steaight wire that caries 2 uniform fine charge 3. Compute the gradient of your potential, and check that it yields the ‘correct field. Problem 2.23 For the charge configuration of Prob, 215, find the potential tthe center, using infinity a8 your reference point Problem 2.24 For the configuration of Prob. 2.16, find the potential difference between a point fom the axis and a point onthe outer cylinder. Note that ti not necessary to commit yourself {0 particular reference point if you use Eq, 2.222.3. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 3 2.3.3 Poisson's Equ: n and Laplace’s Equation We found in Sect. 2.3.1 that the electric field can be written as the gradient of a sca potenti E=-vv. ‘The question arises: What do the fundamental equations for E, and Vx E=0, look like, in terms of V? Well, V 0, apart from that persisting ‘minus sign, the divergence of E t 2.28) This is known as Poisson’s equation, In regions where there is no charge, so that Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's equation, vv =0, 2.25) We'll explore these equations more fully in Chapter 3 So much for Gauss's law, What about the curl law? This says that VxE=Vx(-VV) ‘must equal 2er0. But that’s no condition on V—curl of gradient is always zero. Of course, weused the curl law to show that E could be expressed as the gradient of a scalar, so it's not really surprising that this works out: V x E = 0 permits E= WV; in return, E guarantees V x E = 0. Ittakes only one differential equation (Poisson's) to determine V, because V is a scalar; for K we needed tvo, the divergence and the curl, 2.3.4. The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution | defined V in terms of E (Eq. 2.21). Ordinarily, though, it's E that we'te looking for (if we already knew E there wouldn't be much point in calculating V), The idea is that it might be easier to get V first, and then calculate E by taking the gradient, Typically, then, we know where the charge is (that is, we know p), and we want to find V. Now, Poisson's equation relates V and p, but unfortunately it's “the wrong way around”: it would give us p, if we knew V, whereas we want V, knowing p. What we must do, then, is “invert” Poisson's ‘equation. That's the program for this section, although I shall do it by roundabout means, beginning. as always, with a point charge atthe origin.84 CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS 16 Figure 2.32 Setting the reference point at infinity, the potential of a point charge q at the origin is Sif eg La aye te Fre dog ~ Sree '|. ~ er vor (You see here the special virtue of using infinity for the reference point: it kills the lower limit on the integral.) Notice the sign of V; presumably the conventional minus sign in the definition of V (Eg. 2.21) was chosen precisely in order to make the potential of a positive charge come out positive, Its useful to remember that regions of positive charge are potential “hills,” regions of negative charge are potential “valleys,” and the electric field points “downhill” from plus toward minus. ‘In general, the potential of a point charge q is l Srey 0 ver) 2.26) ‘where 2, as always, isthe distance from the charge to r (Fig. 2.32). Invoking the superpo- sition principle, then, the potential of a collection of charges is ve em or for aconnuos nition, Lp ve = gh fae. a2 ee vi9= ge [aw a2») ‘This is the equation we were looking for, telling us how to compute V when we know pit is, if you like, the “solution” to Poisson's equation, for a localized charge distribution? 1 Equation 229 isan example ofthe Helmbol theorem (Appendix Bin the context of electrostatics, where the ul of His zero a its derpence se.2.3, ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 85 invite you to compare Eq, 2.29 with the corresponding formula for the electric field in terms of p (Eq. 2.8): 1 Re) dre, ‘The main point to notice is that the pesky unit vector is now missing, so there is no need. to worry about components. Incidentally, the potentials of line and surface charges are 1 Mr) 1 oe) ae wa/ Pe om [a e3o {should warn you that everything in this section is predicated on the assumption that the reference point is at infinity. This is hardly apparent in Eq. 2.29, but remember that we gor that equation from the potential of a point charge at the origin, (I/47t€0)(q/r), which is valid only when © = oo. If you try to apply these formulas to one of those artificial problems in which the charge itself extends to infinity, the integral will diverge. Example 2.7 Find the potential of a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R (Fig. 2.33) Solution: This isthe same problem we solved in Ex. 2.6, but this time we shall Faq, 2.30: vor if ge [Sue ali Lets set the point onthe axis and use the law of cosines to express in terms ofthe polar angle 6 Pa Rae ~2Rrcos0’ Figure 2.3386 CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS ‘An element of surface area on this sphere is R?sin8 dad so anv) ind do! ag’ rave) = of [eS lo /R? + 2? — 2Rz cos ante (fea E~ aired ( ) Re Behe (VRE VE lo 7m) a [Ves -Vae=5 Atthis tage we mustbe very careful to take the positive root. For points outside the sphere, ‘greater than R-andhence V(R = 2)? = 2—R; forpoints inside the sphere, JR 2)? = R==, Thus, Re Vey = SA UR+2)- = R= Eo, outside; eo Ro vey = Fuk + -R-o1= inside 02 © Interms of the total charge onthe shell, g = 4 R22, V(z) = (1/4meq)(g/2) (or. in general, vin 1 /Aate9)(g/1) for points outside the sphere, and (1/4zrep)(q/) for points inside. Of course, inthis particular ease it was easier t0 get V by using 2.21 than 2.30, because Gass law gave us E with so litle effort. But if you compare Ex. 2.7 with Prob, 2.7 you will appreciate the power of the potential formulation. Problem 2.28 Using Eqs. 2.27 and 2.30 find the potential ata distance z above the center of the charge distributions in Fig. 2.34. In each case, compute E = ~VV. and compare your answers with Prob. 2.2a, Ex. 21 and Prob 2.6, respectively. Suppose that we changed the right-hand charge in Fig. 24a to ~q; what then isthe potential at P? What field does tht suggest? Compare your answer to Prob. 2.2b, and explain carefully any discrepancy. P i ee. 2 + (a) Two point charges (b) Uniform line charge (¢) Uniform surface charge a t Figure 2.3423. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 87 Problem 2.26 A conical vrlace (an empy Icecream cone) caries a uniform saface charge 2. The height ofthe cone ish, as isthe radius ofthe top. Find the potential difference between points a (the vertex) and b (the center ofthe top. Problem 2.27 Find the potential on the axis of a uniformly charged solid eylinder, a distance « from the center. The length of the cylinder is, its radius is R, and the charge density is Use your result to calculate the elctic fed a this point. (Assume that 2 > L/2. Problem 2.28 Use Ey, 2.29 0 calculate the potential inside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius Rand total charge g. Compare your answer to Prob, 2.21 Problem 2.29 Check that Eg. 229 satisfies Poisson's equation, by applying the Laplacian and using Fg, 1.102, 2.3.5 Summary; Electrostatic Boundary Conditions In the typical electrostatic problem you are given a source charge distribution p, and you want to find the electric field Fit produces. Unless the symmetry of the problem admits a solution by Gauss law, it is generally to your advantage to calculate the potential first, as ‘an intermediate step. These, then, are the three fundamental quantities of electrostatics: p, E, and V. We have, in the course of our discussion, derived all six formulas interrelating them, These equations are neatly summarized in Fig. 2.35. We began with just two exper- imental observations: (1) the principle of superposition —a broad general rule applying t0 ail electromagnetic forces, and (2) Coulomb's law—the fundamental law of electrostatics, From these, all else followed. Figure 2.3588 CHAPTER 2, ELECTROSTATICS Figure 2.36 ‘You may have noticed, in studying Exs. 2.4 and 2.5, or working problems such as 2.7, 2.11, and 2.16, that the electric field always undergoes a discontinuity when you cross a surface charge a. In fact, it isa simple matter to find the amount by which E changes at such a boundary, Suppose we draw a wafer-thin Gaussian pillbox, extending just barely over the edge in each direction (Fig. 2.36). Gauss’s law states that feta 20 oa i where A is the area of the pillbox lid, (If varies from point to point or the surface is curved, we must pick A to be extremely small.) Now, the sides of the pillbox contribute nothing tothe flux, in the imit as the thickness € goes to zero, so we are left with Ebove ~ Ebatow = = 231) ow = 5 c where Efe denotes the component of E that is perpendicular to the surface immediately above, and E:,, is the same, only just below the surface. For consistency, we let “upward” be the positive direction forboth. Conclusion: The normal component of Es discontinuous ‘by an amount 6 fey at any boundary. In particular, where there is no surface charge, E* is ‘continuous, as for instance at the surface of a uniformly charged solid sphere, ‘The tangential component of E, by contrast, is always continuous. For if we apply Eq. 2.19, fe-a=o, tothe thin rectangular loop of Fig. 237, the ends give nothing (as € > 0) and the sides Fre CEal — Elgl 50 EI, q (232) hove = Eretow23. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 89 Figure 2.37 ‘where B! stands for the components of E parallel to the surface. The boundary conditions ‘on E (Eqs. 2.31 and 2.32) can be combined into a single Formula: Eapove ~ Eoeiow 2.33) « here ft is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface, pointing from “below” to “above: ‘The potential, meanwhile, is continuous across any boundary (Fig. 2.38). since . Ye ~ Von = = [Ed 2s the path length shrinks toe, soto does the itera: Vanove = Veeow 234) Figure 2.38 Notice that it does’t mater which side you call “aoe” and which “below since reversal would switch ihe Areston off, Incident you ony intrested in the ld ue to he essen At acl path of surface ‘hang ise he answer is (0/29) immediately above the srice, and (29) immediately below. This follows rom Fx. 24, frit you are cise enough Wo the pach t "looks Hike an nite pane. Evident the entire lscontintyin Eis ate hs ol pach of change90 CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS However, the gradient of V inherits the discontinuity in B; since B = —VV, Eq. 2.33, implies that Wave ~ VVieiw = — 28, 235) or, more conveniently, AVebove _ View 2.36 an an Nese) where 7 a Wawa 2.37 an Co ‘denotes the normal derivative of V (thats, therate of change in the direction perpendicular to the surface) Please note that these boundary conditions relate the fields and potentials just above and Just below the surface. For example, the derivatives in Eq. 2.36 are the limiting values as Wwe approach the surface from either side. Problem 2.30 (2) Check that the results of Exs, 2.4 and 2.5, and Prob 2.11, are consistent with Bq, 2.33. (b) Use Gauss's law to find the field inside and outside a long hollow cylindsial tube, which carries a uniform surface charge &. Check that your result is consistent with Ea 2.33, (©) Check thatthe result of Ex 2.7 is consistent with boundary conditions 2.34 and 2.36, 2.4 Work and Energy in Electrostatics 2.4.1. The Work Done to Move a Charge ‘Suppose you have a stationary configuration of source charges, and you want to move a test charge Q from point ato point b (Fig. 2.39). Question: How much work will you have to do? At any point along the path, the electric force on Q is F = QE; the force you must exert, in opposition to this electrical force, is OE. (Ifthe sign bothers you, think about lifting a brick: Gravity exerts a force me downward, but you exert a force mg upward. Of course, you could apply an even greater force—then the brick would accelerate, and part Figure 2.3924, WORK AND ENERGY IN ELECTROSTATICS 9 of your effort would be “wasted” generating kinctic energy. What we're interested in here is the minimum force you must exert to do the job.) The Work is therefore . " we [paso ['e-a=a1ve-vean Notice thatthe answer is independent of the path you take from a to b; in mechanics, then, ‘we would call the electrostatic force “conservative.” Dividing through by Q, we have vo) -v@=F 38) Inwords, the potential difference berween points aand bis equal tothe work per unit charge ‘required to carry a parice from a to b, In paticular, if you want to bring the charge Q in from far away and stick it at point r, the work you must do is W=01V@)— Veoh. $0, if you have set the reference point at infinity, w=oVve 2.39) In this sense porentat is potential energy (the work it takes to create the system) per unit charge (just asthe feld is the force per uot charge). 2.4.2 ‘The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution How much work would it take to assemble an entire collection of point charges? Tagine bringing in che charges, one by one, from faraway (Fig. 2.40). The fist charge, qi, takes tno work, since there is no field yet to fight against. Now bring in g2. According to Eg. 2.39, this will cost you q2 Vj (r2), where Vj is the potential due to 4), and r2 is the place we're mig “a (*3) Nae Figure 2.402 CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS (rz is the distance between 4 and q2 once they are in position). Now bring in 43: this requires work q3Vi,2(F3), where Vj,2 is the potential due to charges 41 and qz, namely, (1/4rrenyqu/a13 + 42/23). Thus : (g 2) weg (H4 2 z ire” M3 3, Similarly, the exa work to bring nga will be 1 : men(2 2+8). reo (aig ne oe ‘The soral work necessary to assemble the first four charges, then, is 1 A ae (22+ i , , Ht , Wet) trea Gan Pain Tne Tan aan ‘You see the general rule; Take the product ofeach par of charges, divide by their separation distance, and add ital up: i< 4d rah ay (2.40) ‘The stipulation j > ‘isjustto remind you notto count the same pairtwice. A nicer way to accomplish the Same purpose is intentionaily to count each pair twice, and then divide ty fa malhs, cw B (ve must sill avoid = j, of couse). Notice that inthis form the answer pin doesnot 50 and r>a. [Answers (@/Degh((4/srytan-! VT PRE ~ 1) Problem 2.42 Ifthe electric field in some region is given (in sperical coordinates) by the expression AR+ Bsind cored Ein) where A and B are constants, what isthe charge density? [Answer: eg(A — Bsing)/r°]2.5. CONDUCTORS 107 Problem 2.43 Find the net force tha the southern hemisphere ofa uniformly charged sphere exerts on the northern hemisphere. Express your answer in terms ofthe radius R and the total charge Q. [Answer= (1/43¢9)(307/16R9)] Problem 2.44 An inverted hemispherical bow! of radius & catfes a uniform surface charge density a. Find the potential difference between the “north pole” and the centr, [Answer, (Ro /2eq v2 — 19) Problem 245 A sphere of radius R caties a charge density p(r) = kr (where ks a constant) Find the eneray ofthe cotguraton. Check your answer by calelting it in at leas «wo siferent ways. (Answer: 24°87 /Teq] Problem 2.46 The electric potetial of some configuration is given by the expression vey = here and. are constants Fine electric eld Ee, he charge desty (7), theft charge Q. (Answer: p = «gA(dx8%(e) — 22 jr)) Problem 2.47 Two infinitely long wires running parallel tothe x sxis carry uniform charge densities +3 and ~2. (Fig, 2.54). () Find the potential at any point (x,y,z), using the origin as your reference. () Show thatthe equipotential surfaces are circular cylinders, and locate the axis and radius ofthe cylinder comesponding to a given potential Vo, Problem 2.48 In a vacuum diode, electrons are “boiled” off hot eathode, at potential 20, ‘and accelerated across a gap tothe anode, which is held at positive potential Vp, The cloud of ‘moving electrons within the gap (called space charge) quickly builds upc the point wheres reduces the field atthe surface of the cathode to zero. From then on a steady current 1 flows between the plates. Suppose the plates ae large relative to the separation (A >> d? in Fig. 2.35), so that edge effets can be neglected. Then V. p, and v (the speed ofthe electrons) are all functions of x alone. Figure 2.54 Figure 2.55CHAPTER 2. ELECTROSTATICS (2) Write Poisson's equation forthe region between the plates. () Assuming the electrons start from rest a the eathode, what i ther speed at point x, where the potential is Vox)? (c) Inthe steady state, is independent of x. What, then is the relation between p and v? (a) Use these thre results to obtain a diferemtal equation for V. by eliminating p and v. (©) Sole this equation for V as a funtion of x. Vp, and d. Plot V(x), and compare i tothe potential without space-charge. Also, find p and» a functions of x. 4 Show that ky? 2.56) ‘and find the constant K. (Equation 2.56 is called the Child-Langmui law. It holds for other ‘geometries as well, whenever space-charge limits the curent. Notice thatthe space-charge Timited diode is nontinear—it does not obey Oh’s aw.) Problem 24 tnaie thse nl enrol pee mascot hate ee trot Colon's oy, Tea facet etn been unt ches Bn = sgeL ae 1 -y 2) iy wit nso f nate hs dimensions feng, dvs an sa ug tabetha fess tees aero seal we ‘iyo cert dsp tela) Tuachapataleskoteomeliing Skim osonnoa tr nw dace Asan le pi of sapeenton Sl mas (a) Whatis the elec field ofa charge dstbution p (replacing Eq. 28)? (Does his elec elit serpin? Explain el oy 08 ec your cont, oma pot eat estas wtunct) (Find epi fpoin cage te ang 4225. i your ner) was ‘So ea gobs an cage it) Ui ove Jour ee pl (4) For a point charge g at the origin, show that feat [vars Is Bhi "where Sis the surface, V the volume, of any sphere centered at. (6) Show that this result generalizes: ee waned (va Lea fearafrens Sa ssn Chie th ga Been (he ing ig he, 39 er hopin a eri hms a Sis (Sem src suet2.5. CONDUCTORS 109 Problem 2.50 Suppose an electri field E(x, y, 2) has the form Exser, Ey=0, Er=0 ‘where «isa constant. What isthe charge density? How do you account for the fac thatthe field points in a particular direction, when the charge density is uniform? (This is amore sublle problem than it looks, and worthy of careful thought.) Problem 2.51 All of electrostatics follows from the 1/1? character of Coulomb's law, together with the principle of superposition, An analogous theory can therefore be constructed for [Newton’s law of universal gravitation. What isthe gravitational energy ofa sphere, of mass Mf and radius R, assuming the density is uniform? Use your result to estimate the gravitational ‘energy of the sun (look up the relevant numbers). The sun radiates at a rate of 3.86 x 10° W; if allthis came from stored gravitational energy, how long would the sun Iast? [The sun isin fact much older than that, so evidently this i not the source of its power Problem 2.52 We know thatthe charge on a conductor goes tothe surface, but just how it distributes itself there is not easy to determine. One famous example in which the surface charge density canbe calculated explicitly isthe ellipsoid: a a aod Ini case! se an ee (S45 3 trate at Th es where @ isthe total charge. By choosing appropriate values fora, by and c,obtin from Eq. 257): (a) the net (both sides) surface charge density (7) ona ctcular disk of radius (b) the net surface charge density 6(x) on an infinite conducting “ribbon” in the « plane, Which straddles the y axis from x = —a tx = a (et A be the total charge per unit length ‘of ribbon): (¢) the net charge per unit length 2(x) on a conducting “needle”, running from x = ato =a, Ineach cas, sketch the graph of your res "For the derivation Gwhich isa real our de force) see W. R. Smythe, State nd Dynamic Electric, 3 ed (sew York: Hemisphere, 1989), Set 502Chapter 3 Special Techniques 3.1 Laplace’s Equation 3.1.1 Introduction The primary task of electrostatics isto find the electric field of a given stationary charge distribution. In principle, this purpose is accomplished by Coulomb’s law, in the form of Eq, 28: 1 a E(r) = splr')dr’ BL) fl = | cor yar 3. vo) ef " G2) Still, even this integral is often too tough to handle analytically. Moreover, in problems involving conductors p itself may not be known in advance: since charge is free to move around, the only thing we control directly isthe fora! charge (or perhaps the potential) of each conductor, In such cases itis fruitful to recast the problem in differential form, using Poisson's equation (2.24), 3) Which, together with appropriate boundary conditions, is equivalent to Eq, 3.2. Very often in fact, we are interested in finding the potential in a region where p = 0. (If p = everywhere, of course. then V = 0, and there is nothing further to say—that’s not what 1 103.1, LAPLACI 'S EQUATION Mm mean, There may be plenty of charge elsewhere, but we're confining our attention o places ‘where there is no charge.) In this case Poisson's equation reduces 0 Laplace's equation: vv =0, G4) or, writen out in Cartesian coordinates, as) ‘This formula is so fundamental to the subject that one might almost say electrostatics is the study of Laplace's equation. At the same time, itis a ubiquitous equation, appearing in such diverse branches of physics as gravitation and magnetism, the theory of heat, and the study of soap bubbles. In mathematics it plays @ major role in analytic function theory. To get a feel for Laplace’s equation and its solutions (which are called harmonic functions), we shall begin with the one- and two-dimensional versions, which are easier to picture and illustrate all the essential properties of the three-dimensional case (though the one «dimensional example lacks the richness of the other two). 3.1.2, Laplace's ‘Suppose V depends on only one variable, x, Then Laplace's equation becomes Equation in One Dimension ey de ‘The general solution is Voy ame +h, 3.6) the equation for a straight line. It contains two undetermined constants (m and b), as is appropriate for a second-order (ordinary) differential equation, ‘They are fixed, in any particular case, by the boundary conditions of that problem. For instance, it might be specified that V = 4 atx = I, and V = Oatx = 5. In that case m = —1 and b = 5, so V =—x +5 (see Fig. 31), v Figure 3.12 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES | want to call your attention to two features of this result; they may seem silly and ‘obvious in one dimension, where I can write down the general solution explicitly, but the analogs in two and three dimensions are powerful and by no means obvious: 1. V(x) is the average of V(x +a) and V(r ~ a), for any a: Vi = Veta +Vo-al Laplace's equation isa kind of averaging instruction; it tells you to assign tothe point .x the average of the values to the left and to the right of x. Solutions to Laplace's equation are, in this sense, as boring as they could possibly be, and yet fit the end points properly 2. Laplace's equation tolerates no local maxima or minima; extreme values of V must ‘occur at the end points, Actually, this sa consequence of (1), fori there were a local ‘maximum, Vat that point would be greater than on either side, and therefore could rot be the average. (Ordinarily, you expect the second derivative to be negative at ‘4 maximum and positive at a minimum, Since Laplace’s equation requires, on the ‘contrary, thatthe second derivative be zero, it seems reasonable that solutions should exhibit no extrema. However, this is ot a proof, since there exist functions that have ‘maxima and minima at points where the second derivative vanishes: +*, for example, has such a minimum at the point x = 0.) 3.1.3. Laplace’s Equation in Two Dimensions If V depends on wo variables, Laplace's equation becomes ay ey ad * ay Thisis no longer an ordinary differential equation (thatis, one involving ordinary derivatives only): it sa partial differential equation. As a consequence, some of the simple rules you ‘may be familia with do not apply. For instance, the general solution tothis equation doesn't contain just two arbiteary constants—or, for that matter, any inte number—despite the fact that it's a second-order equation. Indeed, one cannot write down a “general solution” (at least, not in a elased form like Eq. 3.6). Nevertheless, it is possible to deduce certain properties common to all solutions Icmay help to have a piysical example in mind, Picture a thin rubber sheet (ora soap film) stretched over some suppor. For definiteness, suppose you take a cardboard box, cut ‘wavy line all the way around, and remove the top part (Fig. 3.2). Now glue a tightly stretched rubber membrane over the box, s0 that i fits like a drum head (it wont bea lar O, with a single point charge q at (0, 0, d), subject to the boundary conditions: 1. V=0 when z = 0 (since the conducting plane is grounded), and 2. V0 far from the charge (that is, for x? +? + 2* > a2), ‘The first uniqueness theorem (actually, its corollary) guarantees that there is only one function that meets these requirements. If by rick or clever guess we can discover such @ function, it's got to be the right answer. Trick: Forget about the actual problem; we're going to study 2 completely different situation. This new problem consists of two point charges, +g at (0,0,d) and —g at (0,0, =d), and no conducting plane (Fig. 3.11). For this configuration I can easily write down the potential: Vex, 02) 69 a wale rede Very rerdy (The denominators represent ie distances from (x,y,z) othe charges + and —g, respec tively.) I follows that 1. V=0when z= 0, and 2.V > Oforst tye pat, and the only charge in the region z > 0 is the point charge +g at (0,0,d). But these are precisely the conditions of the original problem! Evidently the second configuration happens to produce exactly the same potential as the first configuration, in the “upper” region z > 0. (The “lower” region, z < 0, is completely different, but who cares? The "upper partis all we need,) Conclusion: The poiential of a point charge above an infinite grounded conductor is given by Eg. 3.9, for z = 0. Notice the crucial role played by the uniqueness theorem in this argument: without ‘no one would believe this solution, since it was obtained for a completely different charge distribution. But the uniqueness theorem certifies it: If itsatsfies Poisson's equation inthe region of interest, and assumes the correct value at the boundaries, then it must be right,3.2, THE METHOD OF IMAGES 123 3.2.2 Induced Surface Charge [Now that we know the potential, it isa straightforward matter to compute the surface charge induced on the conductor. According to Eq. 2.49, av @ =~ where 3 /An is the normal derivative of V atthe surface, In this case the normal direction isthe z-direction, so a= OR From Eq. 3.9, wv acta) a P+¥ +e+de ~aa Bete y eae ‘As expected, the induced charge is negative (assuming q is positive) and greatest at y=0. While we're ati, let's compute the rota induced charge 2= foda ‘This integral, over the xy plane, could be done in Cartesian coordinates, with da = de dy, but it’s a litle easier to use polar coordinates (r, 6), with r? = x? + y? and da = rdr dé, Then id als.) GB.10) an and o-f * Deter rte = SO do ty Beet Py? VP+E lo Evidently the total charge induced on the plane is ~9, as (with benefit of hindsight) you can perhaps convince yourself it had be. ig | Gall) 3.2.3. Force and Energy ‘The charge q is atracted toward the plane, because ofthe negative induced charge. Let's calculate the force of ataction. Since the potential in the vicinity of g is the same as in the analog problem (the one with +9 and —q but no conductor), so also is the field and, therefore, the force: G12)124 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Beware: Itis easy to get carried away, and assume that everything isthe same inthe two problems. Energy, however, is nor the same. With the two point charges and no conductor, Eq, 2.42 gives 2 wee G3) But for a single charge and conducting plane the energy is half ofthis ‘ie 3.14) Areg 4d of ‘Why half? Think of the energy stored in the fields (Eq, 2.45): we [ear Inthe first case both the upper region (c > 0) and the lower region (2 < 0) contibute—and by symmetry they contribute equally. But in the second ease only the upper region contains a nonzero field, and hence the energy is half as great. Of course, one could also determine the energy by calculating the work required to bring in from infinity. The force required (to oppose the electrical force in Bq. 3.12) is (yaar egy a? /Az*)2, $0 ral 5) As I move g toward the conductor, I do work only on q. Itis true that induced charge is moving in over the conductor, but this costs me nothing, since the whole conductor is, at potential zero. By contrast, if I simultaneously bring in nwo point charges (with no conductor), Ido work on both of them, and the total is twice as great leo aren 4d 3.2.4 Other Image Problems ‘The method just described is not limited to a single point charge; any stationary charge distribution near grounded conducting plane can be treated in the same way, by introducing its mirror image—hence the name method of images. (Remetnber that the image charges have the opposite sign; this is what guarantees that the xy plane will be at potential zero.) There are also some exotic problems that can be handled in similar fashion; the nicest of these is the following, Example 32 [A point charge q is situated a distance a from the center of a grounded conducting sphere of radius R (Fig. 3.12). Find the potential ouside the sphere,3.2. THE METHOD OF IMAGES 12s Ags Figure 3.12, Figure 3.13 Solution: Examine the completely diferent configuration, consisting ofthe point charge g together with another point charge * os : ra a (o the right ofthe center of the sphere (Fig. 3.13). No conductor, now—just the two point charges. The potential of this configuration is ver= ge (+4), an ine y Where 2 and” are the distances from g and’, respectively, Now, it happens (see Prob. 3.7) ‘that this potemtial vanishes a al points on the sphere, and therefore isthe boundary conditions for our original problem, inthe exterior egion, Conclusion: Eq, 3.17 isthe potential of a point charge near a grounded conducting sphere. (Notice that b isles than R, so the “image” charge q’ is safely inside the sphere—vou cannot put image charges inthe region where you are calculating Vi that would change p, and you'd be solving Poisson's equation with the wrong source.) In particular, the force of attraction between the charge and the sphere is 1a’ 1 @Ra 5 a a8 fre @— be Freq @ — PP ow ‘This solution is delightfully simple, but extraordinarily lucky. There's as much art as ‘sclence inthe method of images, for you must somehow think up the right “auxiliary problem” {Took at. ‘The fist person who solved the problem this way’ cannot have know in advance ‘what image charge g’to use or where to pt it. Presumably, he (she?) started with an arbitrary ‘charge at an arbitrary point inside the sphere calculated the potential on the sphere, and thea «iscovered that with q' and b jut right the potential on the sphere vanishes. But itis relly & Imiracle that any choice does the job—with 3 cube instead of a sphere, for example, na single ‘charge anywhere inside would make the potential zero on the surface126 (CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Figure 3.14 Problem 3.6 Find the force on the charge +g in Fig. 3.14, (The xy plane is a grounded conductor) Problem 3.7 (a) Using the law of cosines, show that Eq. 3.17 canbe written a follows: ver.8) G19) {) Calculate the energy of this configuration, Problem 38 In Ex. 3.2 we assumed thatthe conducting sphere was grounded (V = 0), But with the addition ofa second image charge, the same basic mode! will handle the case of a sphere at any potential Vo (relative, of eourse, to infinity). What charge should you use, and ‘here should you put i? Find the force of attaction between a point charge q and a neutral ‘conducting sphere. Problem 3.9 A uniform line charge is placed on an infinite straight wire, distance d above «grounded conducting plane. (Let's say the wire runs parallel to the x-axis and directly above it, and the conducting plane isthe xy plane.) (4) Find the potential in the region above the plane. (b) Find the charge density « induced on the conducting plane, Problem 3.10 Two semi-infinite grounded conducting planes meet at right angles. In the region between them, there isa point charge q, situated as shown in Fig. 3.15. Set up the Juge configuration, and calculate the potential inthis region. What charges do you need, and ‘where should they be located?” What isthe force ong How much work dd it take to bring 4 in from infinity? Suppose the planes met at some angle other than 90°; would you sil be able to solve the problem by the method of images? If not, for what particular angles does the method work?3.3. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 127 Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16 1 Problem 3.11 Two long, straight coppet pipes. each of radius R, are held a distance 2d apart One sat potential Vp, the otherat ~ Vg (Fig. 3.16). Find the potential everywhere, [Suggestion Exploit the result of Prob, 247] 33 Separation of Variables In this section we shall attack Laplice’s equation direetly, using the method of separation of vatiables, which isthe physicist’ favorite tool for solving partial differential equations, The method is applicable in circumstances where the potential (V) or the charge density (c) is specified on the boundaries of some region, and we ate asked to find the potential in the interior. The basic strategy is very simple: We look for solutions that are products of functions, each of which depends on only one of the coordinates. The algebraic details, however, can be formidable, so I'm going to develop the method through a sequence of examples. We'll start with Cartesian coordinates and then do spherical coordinates (FNL leave the cylindrical case for you to tackle on your own, in Prob. 3.23) 3.3.1. Cartesian Coordinates Example 3.3 ‘Two infinite grounded metal plates le parallel othe xz plane, one at y =0, the otherat y = a (Fig. 3.17). The left end, at x = 0, is closed off with an infinite strip insulated from the two plates and minained at a specific potential Vo(y). Find the potential inside this “slot.” Solution: The configuration is independent of , so this is teally a rwo-dimensional problem, In mathematical terms, we must solve Laplace’s equation, 20)128 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Figure 3.17 subject to the boundary conditions (i) V=Owhen y =0, Gi) V=0wheny =a, Gil) V = Volv) when x =0, ia (iy V4 088 +0 (The tater, although not explicitly stated inthe problem, is necessary on physical grounds: as you get farther and farther away from the "hot” stip atx = 0. the potential should drop 10 eto.) Since the potential is specified on all boundaries, the answer is uniquely determined, ‘The first step isto look for solutions in the form of products Ver.) = XCOFO). em (On the face of it this is an absurd restrction—the overwhelming majority of solutions to Laplace's equation do nor have such a form, For example, V(x, y) = (Sx + 6)) satisfies Eq. 3.20, bt you can't express tas the product of a function x times a function y, Obviously. we're omly going to get a tiny subset ofall possible soluions by this means, and it would be a ‘miracle if one of them happened to fit the boundary conditions of our problem... But hang on. because the solutions we do get are very special, and ittums out tha by pasting them togethcr ‘ve can construct the general solution, Anyvay putting Eq, 3.22 imo Eq, 3.20, we obtain ex ey Ga tka ae XG ‘The next ep i o "separate the variables” (thats, collet all he x-dependence into one term and all the y-dependence into another). Typically, this is accomplished by dividing through by vs 0. Vax ey Kar Fat “ere the first term depends only on x and the second only on yin other words, we have an equation ofthe form 23) FO) +90) =0. G24)3.3, SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 129 Now, there's only one way this could possibly be true: f and g must both be constant. For what if Fe) changed, as you vary x—then if we held y fixed and fiddled with x, the sum ‘F44) + g() would change, in violation of Eq, 3.24, which says it's always zero, (That's a ‘imple but somehow rather elusive argument; don’t accept it without due Unought, because the hole method rides om it) I follows from Eq, 3.23, then, that Lax Ley go ace, wih HG Fae 0 prac G25) ‘One ofthese constants is positive. the other negative (or perhaps both ae zero). In general, one ‘must investigate all the possibilities; however, in our particular problem we need Cy postive and C> negative, for reasons that will appear in a moment, Thus a ay an ap -PY, G26 [Notice what has happened: A partial differential equation (3.20) has been converted into te ‘ordinary differential equations (3.26). The advantage of this is obvious ordinary differential ‘equations are alot easier to solve. Indeed: X( = Ae + Be, YC) = Csinky + Doosky sothat Vee.9) = (Ae + Be**)(Cinky + Deos ky). G2 ‘Ths i the appropriate separable solution to Laplace's equation: it remains to impose the boundary conditions, and see wht they tell us about the constants. To begin atthe end, condition (iv) equites that A equal zo.* Absorbing B into C and D, we ae left with Vix, y) = eMC sinky + Deoshy). Condition i) now demands that D equal 20, so Vex. y) = Ce* sinky (328) ‘Meanwhile (i) yields sin ka = 0, fom which it follows that d 329 (Atthis point you ean see why chose C positive and C2 negative: IF X were sinusoidal, we ‘could never arrange fori to go to zero at infinity. and iY were exponential we could not make it vanish at oth O and a. Incidentally, = 0 is Ho good, for in tht ease the potential vanishes everywhere. And we have already excluded negative ns.) ‘That’sasfaras wecan go, using separable solutions, and unless Vo) justhappens to have the form sin(n y/a) for some integer n we simply can tithe final boundary condition atx = 0. [But now comes the crucial step that redeems the method: Separation of variables has given us an infinite set of solutions (one for each n), and whereas none of them by itself satisfies " assuming ts postive, bt this involies no loss of generaiy—negatve gives the same oltion 3.27), ‘only withthe constants shed (4 «> B,C > ~C)- Occasionally (but mot as example) EO must also be inca ace Pro. 347)130 CHAPTER 3. SPECTAL TECHNIQUES the final houndary condition, itis possible to combine thet in a way tht does. Leplace’s {equation is linear ih the sense that if V. V2, Vs, satisfy it, so does any linear combination, V =a V) -bag¥a +ag¥s +... where a}, a9, .. are arbitrary constants. For Vv avy) ta2¥2V9 + 1+ Ot Exploiting this fact. we can patcs together the separable solutions (3.28) to construct a much more general solution: Yi cael sine, 62 = ‘Thistl sats theirs ttce undary conditions: the question scan we by ste eize of ie cofciems Cy) he as bounty Conon? Vans) ¥60.9) = S° Gy sintnny 0} = Vt ean Well, you may recognize this sum—it's a Fourier sine series, And Dirichlet's theorem’ guaran- testa virualy ay fuetion Vo(9)—itcan even nite umber of dicomtimuites can be expanded in sucha sees, But how do we actualy determin the coefficients C,, bred as they ain that init sum? The device for accomplishing this so lovely it desevesname~t call t Fourier’ ek, though itsems Farhad seVeseally these es somewhat cari. Here's ha Boe Mulipy Ea. 3.31 by sinc’ y/a) (wher ns posite meger and inteprate om Oa Lew [sneer snn'nsiandy = ["vousina'ry/ady. 832 fee : a. [swt snovasioay |, aay [ 2 ten . Te eee once ey ee Eq, 3.32, reduces to (a/2)Cq’. Conclusion:® G -if Vo sintnxy/ay dy: 34) ‘That does it: Eq, 330 isthe solution, with coefficients given by Eg, 3.34. As-# concrete ‘example, suppose the strip at x = 0 isa metal plate with constant potential Vp (remember, it's insulated from the grounded plates at y =O and y =a). Then ee (335) itis ok, Soa. M, Mathematical Methods nthe Phosical Sciences, 2a ed. (New York: John Wiley. 1983) For aestetc reasons I've dropped the prime: Eq. 3. bolds for ® = 1,2,3,.-. aad i does't mater (bviowsly) what leer you use Tor he “Bunimy” indes3.3, SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 131 os 06 VINO 04 02 i oo 06 6 D2 OS OST ee 0? sta wa Figure 3.18 Evidently Leon sininya, 36 Figure 3.18 is plot ofthis potential: Fig, 3.19 shows how the first few terms in the Fourie series combine to make ahetter and hetter approximation tthe constant Vp; (a) ism = I only, (includes 1 up o 5, (eis the sum ofthe frst 10 terms, and (i the sum of the first 100 vivo va Figure 3.19132 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Incidentally the infinite series in Eq 3.36 can he summed explicitly (try your hand att, yo Tike; he resus 1 (sasla) ao (Sen an t Laplace's equation is obeyed and the four boundary 2g 20 a Vex.) In this form itis easy to check ‘conditions (321) are satisfied, ‘The success of this method hinged on two extraordinary properties of the separable solutions (3.28): completeness and orthogonality. A set of functions f(y) is said to be complete if any other function f(y) can be expressed as a linear combination of them: £0) = VOwho. (338) ‘The functions sin(nzry/a) are complete on the interval 0 = y < a. It was this fact, guaranteed by Dirichlet’s theorem, that assured us Eq. 3.31 could be satisfied, given the proper choice of the coefficients Cy. (The proof of completeness, for a particular set of functions, is an extremely difficult business, and I'm afraid physicists tend to assume it's true and leave the checking to others.) A set of functions is orthogonal if the integral of the product of any two different members ofthe set is zero: ff hormonar=0- Sonn! an 639) ‘The sine functions are orthogonal (Eq. 3.33); this is the property on which Fouriet’s trick is based, allowing us to kill off all terms but one in the infinite series and thereby solve for the coefficients C,. (Proof of orthogonality is generally quite simple, either by diteet integration or by analysis ofthe differential equation from which the functions came.) Example 3.4 ‘Two infinitely long grounded metal plates, again at y ate connected atx = +b by meta strips maintained at a constant potential Vp, as shown in Fig. 3.20 (a thin layer of insulation at each comer prevents them from shorting out. Find the potential inside the resulting rectangular pipe. Solution: Once again, the configuration i independent of z. Our problems o solve Laplace's ‘equation av av ae ay? ‘subject tothe boundary conditions () V=0when y =0, Owhen y =a, Yo when Vo when 6.40)3.3. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 1s Figure 3.20 ‘The argument runs as hefore upto Ea, 3.27 Vex, 9) = (AE + Be YC sinky + Deosse. This time, however, we cannot set A = 0; the region in question does not extend to x = co, so 2 is perfectly acceptable. On the other hand, the situation is symmetric with respect tox, so Vins, 9) = V(x, y)sand it follows that A =. Using fg che Mee cosh kx and absorbing 2A into C and D, we have V(x, ») = coshkx (Csinky + Deosky) Boundary conditions (andi) equ, a here, that D = Oa k = n/a, s0 Vox, 3) = Ceonhins/a) site y/ay 6s Because V(x, 9) even nx, twill atomically meet condition ii fii). K remain, therefore to const the general ies combination Vee.9) = Yo Cueoshons/a) sinfeny/ay and pick the coefficients Cy, in such a way aso satisfy condition (ii V(b, ») = So Cneoshinxb a) simon ‘This isthe same problem in Fourier analysis that we faced hefore; T quote the result from Bg.3.35 0, ifmiseven Cyeosbinnbjay =} yy, ifn is odd134 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES 08 06 vivo 0 02 Figure 3.21 Conclusion: The potential in this case is given by $80 yy 1 costs vex.yy = eee 1 cosh(nxb/a) singry a) 3.42) ‘his function is shown in Fig, 3.21 Example 35 ‘An infinitely long rectangular metal pipe (sides and b) i grounded, but one end, at x = 0,35 ‘maintained at a specified potential Vp(y. 2), indicated in Fig, 3.22. Find the potential inside the pip. Solution: ‘This isa genuinely three-dimensional problem, G43)3.3. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 135 subject to the boundary conditions () V=Owhen y V =O when y ii) V =O when =0, (ivy) V=0whens =o, () V+ Oasx 00, (si) V = Vols. 2) when [As always, we look for soluions that are products Ve XGOY (IZ). G45) ean Putting this into Eq. 3.43, and dividing by V, we find lax ie 1a Ox ey az ig Kar Yap Zar Ie follows that 1x 1@ey ez Fae Oh Faye Th ZG TH with C+ +CS =O (Our previous experience (Ex. 3.3) suggests that Cy must be postive, C2 and C3 negative Setting C; = —#? and Cy = ~12, we have Cy =k? +12, and hence % Wey, 346) Once asin, separon of vaibes as med a paral diferenial equtio it odinary sien equations. The sotons re Xi = deVOHP ey pe VE HPs Yo) = Chinky + Deosky, 2) = Brinks + Peoste Boundary conton (implies A = 0, gies D = 0, andi is = 0, wheres i and (iv) equite that = n/a and = mx /b, where n and are positive integers. Combining the remaining constants, we are left with Vex, 9.2) = Co*VOTRFFONOF: singnsry/a) sin(ome/b). 647) ‘This solution meets all the boundary conditions except (vi). Tt contains nwo unspecified inegers(n and), and the most general inear combination is a double sum: Vee. 29 = Yo Come VORP HOPS sntnny/ay sinomac/6). 48) We hope to ithe remaining boundary conon, FF ca sinters) sinymns/8) = Yoo? B49) vo.136 CHAPTER 3, SPECIAL TECHNIQUES by appropriate choice ofthe coefficients Cy, To determine these constants, we multiply by sin(n'xy/a) sin(m'e2/b), where n’ and mare arbiteary positive integers, and integrate: = re . YY Gam f site sinc faydy f° int /b sine 2/b)de nel mel . i LF ff v000.2 sets sinc dd Quoting Ea, 3.33 the eft sid is (a /4)Cy 80 Cent ae ao Ay Equation 3 48, withthe coefficients given by Eq, 3.50, isthe solution to our problem. For instance, ithe end of the tube is a conductor at constant potential Vo, * i Vo(y.2)sintnn y/a) sintmaz/P) dy de 6.50) 4% [2 b Com = £8 amrrsiants [snob a f Oitnermiseen, asp 1 In this case AVIA HOTA « sini yjay singmrc/d). (3.52) Very nme aTS, [Notice thatthe successive tems decrease rapidly: reasonable approximation would be ob- ‘ained by keeping only the first few. Problem 3.12 Find the potential in the infinite slot of Ex, 3.3 ifthe boundary at x = 0 consists ‘ef two metal strips: one, from y = 0 (0 y = a/2 is held ata constant potential Vo, and the ‘other, fom y = 4/2 10 » = a, is at potential —Vo Problem 3.13 For the infnte slot (Ex. 3.3) determin the charge density oy) onthe stip at + = 0, assuming it is a conductor at constant potential Vp, Problem 3.14 A rectangular pipe, running parallel vo the z-axis (from —96 to +00), has thee ‘rounded metal sides, at y = 0, y = a, and.x = 0. The fourth side, at ‘specified potential Vo(v. (@) Develop a general formula forthe potential within the pipe. () Find the potential explicitly, forthe case Voy Vp (a constant Problem 3.15 A cubical box (sides of length a) consists of five metal plates, which are welded together and grounded (Fig. 3.23). The top is made ofa separate sheet of metal, insulated fom the others, and eld at a constant potential Vo. Find the potential inside the bor.3.3. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 137 Figure 3.23 3.3.2. Sphe -al Coordinates In the examples considered so far, Cartesian coordinates were clearly appropriate, since the boundaries were planes. For round objects spherical coordinates are more natural. In the spherical system, Laplace’s equation reads: 18 (eM) 4 18 (sno), 1 OY Par Oar) * sind 30 ae) * into BO? 53) | shall assume the problem has azimuthal symmetry, so that V is independent of 3" in that case Eq. 3.53 reduces to a (nav 2 (r+ oss) As before, we look for solutions that are products Vir, 8) = Rr). G55) Patting this into Bg, 34, and ving by V, ig7amy 1 a ae a SF) + sanaa (998) °. 56) Since the frst term depends only on r, and the second only on 8, it follows that each must be a constant: 1d (dR ia (ie za’ R)=usn aanoan (smog) =H» 657) Here (U1) is usta fancy way of writing the separation constant—you'll see ina minute ‘why this is convenient. The general case fr g-dependem poten, is weated in all the graduate texts. See, for instance, J.D. Jackson's Classical Elecdmamic, Sed, Chapter 3 (Ness York: Jn Wiley, 1999),138 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES As always, separation of variables has converted a partial differential equation (3.54) into ordinary differential equations (3.57). The radial equation, ener, 658) hhas the general solution 3.59) as you can easily check; A and B are the two arbitrary constants to be expected in the solution of a second-order differential equation. But the angular equation, fp (sno) =H psn, 6.60) is not so simple, The solutions are Legendre polynomials in the variable cos 6: 8) = Pcosd). Bon F(x) is most conveniently defined by the Rodrigues formula: nw= (4) cv! 6.62) . mila) © . ‘The first few Legendre polynomials are listed in Table 3.1 (Aes Pola) Pix) x Prix) Gx? = 1/2 Px) = (Sx° —3x)/2 Pax) (5x4 - 30x? + 3)/8 Pox) = (6x5 — 70x? + 15/8 ‘Table 3.1 Legendre Polynomials Notice that P(x) is (as the name suggests) an Ith-order polynomial in x; it contains only ‘even powers if is even, and odd powers, if Vis odd. ‘The factorin front (1/2'1!) was chosen in order that P= 3.63) ‘The Rodrigues formula obviously works only for nonnegative integer values of /. More- over it provides us with only one solution, But Eq, 3.60 is second-order, and it should pos- ses rw independent solutions, for every value of J. It turns out that these “other solutions”3.3. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES B9 blow up at @ = O and/or @ = x, and are therefore unacceptable on physical grounds.® For instance, the second solution for! = 0 is, eo) =m (an). 64) ‘You might want to check for yourself that this satisfies Eq, 3.60, Inthe case of azimuthal symmetry, then, the most general separable olution to Laplace’s ‘equation, consistent with minimal physical requirements, is vee) (a - ) ce (There was no need to include an overall constant in Eq, 3.61 because it ean be absorbed into A and B at this stage.) As before, separation of variables yields an infinite set of solutions, ‘one for each J, The general solution is the linear combination of separable solutions: vena) = 3° (aur 4 7h) cose 6.65) Le ‘The following examples illustrate the power of this important result, Example 3.6 The potential Vo(6) is specified on the surface of a hollow sphere, of radius R. Find the potential inside the sphere In this case By = 0 forall otherwise the potential would blow up atthe origin. Ve) = SA Aone, em) G67) Can tis equation be satisfied, fr an appropriate choice of coefficients Ay? Yes: The Legendre polynomials (ike the snes) constitute a complete st of funetions on the interval —1 = = 1 inrare cases where the ass forsome reason nucessibe these “ther solution may ave tbe considered140 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES (0 <0 2), How do.we determine the constants? Again, by Fourier’ trick, forthe Legendre Polynomials like the snes) are orthogonal functions?” rrererarae = Acoso) ry(costysino as er aa. 3.0) wet “Thos, multiplying Ea, 3.67 by (os4) sin and iterating, we have a va pcos) in ark A = [ womrrtcoreysinade, “ aa pt Vo Pieos0) sine do 2.69) Sat [f omeoey 3.69) Equation 3.66 is the solution to our problem, with the coefficients given by Eg. 3.69, Incan be dificult o evaluate integrals ofthe form 3.69 analytically, and in practice itis often easier to solve Eq. 3.67 “by eyeball”! For instance, suppose we are told tha the potential on the sphere is - Yow) = ksin2(0/2), 6.10) ‘where k isa constant, Using the half-angle formula, we rewrite this as k k Vo(0) = 5 (1 ~ c0s8) = 51 Pp(cos6) ~ Pi (cos) Ping tt io E367, we inayat Ay = 4/2, Ay = 8/2) a sich Bey ko a kor vine =$[Prvenn-Frenn]=$(I- Zone). 029 Example 3.7 ‘The potential Vp(0) is again specifica on te surface ofa sphere of radius R, bur this me we are asked to find the potential ouside, assuming there is no charge there. Solution: In his case it's the A's that must be zero (orelse V would not goto zer0 at 20), so = Bi ve = Siem) am "73, Boas, Mathematical Methods tthe Physical Sciences, 2nd. Section 12.7 (New York: John Wie. 1988). "Osis cerinly tre whenever Vo() can be expressed as. polynomial nos, The depreeof he polyoma tells. us the highest F we requir, athe leading coecen determines the comesponding 4. Sobatng oft ‘AiR! P (cos) and repeating the process, we systematically work our way down Ay. Native that sf V 2 ‘even function of eos, then en ever es wl occur inthe sim (ad likewise for od funtion)3.3. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES lat [A the surface ofthe sphere we require that SB VR.) = AE yoo) = vow) Multiplying by Fy (cos#) sin@ and integrating—exploting, again, the orthogonality retation 3.68—We have = fF voter (oso) sno ae as Vo(@)Py(coss) sing aa 67) I [Equation 3.72, wth the coeicients given by Eq, 3.73, i the soation to our problem, Example 3.8 Anuncharged metal sphere of radius 2 isplacedinan otherwise uniformelectricield E = Ey [The field will push postive charge othe “northern” surface ofthe sphere, leaving a negative ‘charge on the “southem” surface (Fig. 324). This induced charge, in urn, distorts the field in the neighborhood of the sphere] Find the potential in te region outside the sphere Solution: ‘The sphere isan equipotential—we may as well et it to zero, Then by symmetry the entire xy plane is at potential zeo. This time, however, V does not goto zero at lange = Infact, far from the sphere the field is Fy, and hence Vi By +6 Figure 3.24la CHAPTER 3, SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Since V =O in the equatorial plane, the constant C must be zero. Accordingly, the boundary ‘conditions for this problem are av R when Gi) Vs ~Egreos@ fore > &. ey ‘We must fit these boundary conditions with afunetion ofthe form 3.65. “The first condition yiclds a Al B= AR, 835) - vee = Ea( Sx) cost, 10 e For > R, the second term in parentheses is negligible, and therefore condition (i) requires eat Yar! A (e090) = ~Eyr cose mm Evident, only one term s present: 1 = 1. In fat since P6080) ~ 686, cam ted off immediatly Ay = Fo, allther A's zr. Conclusion Vor.0) 3.76) ‘The first term (~ For cos) is due to the external field: the contribution atrbutable to the ndvced charge is evidently eB Ey hy cos8, Ifyou want to know the induced charge density it can be calculated in the usual way: 2 av R =| = sto (128) ooe ‘As expected, its postive inthe “northern” hemisphere (0 << @ << 1/2) and negative inthe “southern” (r/2. <0 =m) Example 3.9 A specified charge density (0) is glued over the surface of aspherical shel of radius. Find the resulting potential inside and outside the sphere Solution: You could, of couse, do this by direct integration: ele (ce Bala3.3. SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 143 ‘but separation of variables is often easier. For the interior region we have Veo) = Saul Aeose) = R) an) (00 By terms—they blow up atthe origin); n the exterior region ae Vir.0) = 4 Picos8) (> R) 3.79) mr (0 A; terms—they don’t go to zer0 at infinity). These two functions must be joined together by the appropriate boundary conditions atthe surface tel. First, the potential is continuous atr = (Eq, 2.3 oS ow Darr rvconey = > Broo, a0) & B follows hat he oficients fie Lege polynomials ar equ By = Apr Gal) (To prove that formally, multiply bot sides of Eq. 3.80 by P)-(cos0) sin @ and integrate from 010 m, using the onthogonality relation 3.68.) Second, the radial derivative of V suffers a slscontinuty atthe surface (Eq, 2.36) Von _ Yin (Ga - 2) (8) Ts Yee ngs pcos) — So1ayal1 (6080) io Ree =o using Eg 381 ere napa! |p c0s6) G83) From here the oeciens can be determined using Fourie’ rick | A a9(@) 26080) sin 4. 38s W = soars ff 02 oy) [Equations 3.78 and 3.79 constitute the solution to our problem, withthe coefliciens given by [Bgs. 381 and 3.84, cut) oes te ow txsmesn ete sere a = voih [Tien Ps = firemen £CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES ‘The potential inside the sphere is therefore k 7.0)=~-reosd 7 2 R), 3 Vire)= yareme 0B) 6.86) whereas outside the sphere AR 00) = AE Moose (r= 3. Viney= Fe apeose = R) sn Ing te edhe nl ein xr el Ex, ee ee en ee Be sea tte Se afSene erkative Goes ee ees : Bono consistent with our conclusion in Ex. 38. Problem 3.16 Derive P(x) from the Rodeigues formula, and check that Ps(cos 8) satisfies the 3. Check that Ps and P; are onhogonal by explicit integration. angular equation (3.60) for Problem 3.17 (2) Suppose the poteutal isa constant Vp over the surface of the sphere. Use the results of x. 36 and Ex. 3.7 to find the potential inside and outside the sphere. (Of course, you know the answers in advance—this is usta conssteney check on the method.) (b) Find the potential inside and ouside a spherical shell hat casi a uniform surface charge ‘9g, using the results of BX. 3.9, Problem 3.18 The potential at the surface ofa sphere (radius R) is given by Vo = keos39, where & is a constant. Find the potential inside and ouside the sphere, as well as the surface ‘charge density 6(@) on the sphere. (Assume there's no charge inside or outside the sphere.) Proben 319 Suppose pol Yo) aero spr psi, and hes ochre inser ue pte. Show hh hae dost on esp en 20) = 2 Sar 1qpR(os = Sy Lar PGK, 6x8) c= ff vat niomey nae am l33, ‘SEPARATION OF VARIABLES 145 Problem 3.20 Find he potential outside a charged metal sphere (charge Q, radivs R) placed in an otherwise uniform electric feld Ey. Explain clearly where you are setting the zero of potential Problem 3.21 In Prob. 2.25 you found the potential on the axis ofa uniformly charged disk Ve.0)= WTR (@) Use this, together with the fact that F(1) = 1, to evaluate the first three terms in the ‘expansion (3.72) for the potential ofthe disk at points aff the axis, assuming r > R, (b) Find the potential for r < R by the same method, using (3.66). [Note: You must break the interior region up into two hemispheres, above and below the disk, Do not assume the coefliciens 47 are the same in both hemispheres.) Problem 3.22 A spherical shell of radius & caries «uniform surface charge op on the “north- em” hemisphere and a uniform surface charge —2p on the “southem” hemisphere, Find the Potential inside and ouside the sphere, calculating the coefficients explicitly up to Ag and Ba, Problem 3.23 Solve Laplace's equation by separation of variables in cylindrical coondinates, assuming there sno dependence onz (cylindrical syrnmetry), [Make sure you find al solutions ‘othe radial equation; in particular, your result must accommodate the case ofan infinite line charge, for which (ofcourse) we already know the answer,] Problem 3.24 Find the potential ouside an infinitely long metal pipe, of radius R, placed at Fight angles to an otherwise uniform electric field Ep. Find the surface charge induced on the Pipe, (Use your result from Prob. 3.23] Problem 3.25 Charge density (6) =asins9 (orhere a is a constant) is glued over the surface of an infinite cylinder of radius R (Fig. 325). Find the potential inside and outsie the eylinde. (Use your result from Prob. 3.23.) Figure 3.25,146 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES 3.4 Multipole Expansion 3.4.1 Approximate Potentials at Large Distances Ifyou are very far away from a localized charge distribution, it “looks” like a point charge and the potential is—t0 good approximation—(1/4¢9)Q/r, where Q is the total charge. ‘We have often used this as a check on formulas for V. But what if Q is zero? You might reply thatthe potential is then approximately zero, and of course, you're right, ina sense (indeed, the potential at large r is pretty small even if Q is not zero). But we'te looking for something a bit more informative than that. Example 3.10 A (physical) electric dipole consists of two equal und opposite charges (g) separated by a stance d. Find the approximate potential at points ar from the dipole. Solution: Let 2— be the distance from =g and 24. the distance from +g (Fig. 3.26) Then : worm ata(-£) a @ t= Sco + 2 ( a7 ro) ‘We'einterestedin theégimer > d, so he third termis negligible, andthe binomial expansion ra La! (isfoo) "7a! (144008) and (from the law of cosines) HEAP 4 a2) rd cond = and hence 8.90 Figure 3.2634. MULTIPOLE EXPANSION 147 oe Se Monopote Dipole Quadrupole Octopole w= wel W= Ur) Wet) Figure 3.27, Evidently the potential of a dipole goes like L/r? at large 7; 38 we might have anticipated, it falls off more rapidly than the potential of a point charge. Tacidenaly, if we put together 8 pair of equal and opposite dipoles to make a quadrupole, the porenial goes like 1/3; for ‘back-to-back quadrupoles (an getopol) it goes like 1/r* and so on. Figute 3.27 summarizes ‘his hierarchy; for completeness Ihave included the eletric monopole (pont charge), whose potential of course, goes like I/r. Example 3.10 perttined toa very special charge configuration. | propose now to develop 4 systematic expansion for the potential of an arbitrary localized charge distribution, in powers of1/r. Figure 3.28 defines the appropriate variables; the potential at ris given by Ye) = ge f Dowhar’ Gon area J 2 sig a coves, Poe seaarendar[is() -a(Sone) vervite 3.92) = (£) (F-20080) For pins wel ous the chae dsb, «I mich ss han and ths nites bina expansion where 3.93) Figure 3.28148 (CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES or, im terms of r,r’, and 0 1 i [: + (5) cos") + (2) ex #-H/2 +(£) ema -soannias .] Inthe last step Ihave collected together like powers of (/r): surprisingly the (the terms in parentheses) are Legendre polynomials! The remarkable result! : 'y() Pa(cos’), 94) ar BG where is the angle between r and #’. Substituting this back into Eg. 3.91, and noting that +r isa constant, a far as the integration is concerned, I conclude that tal VO = gag Logmen [OP Pleoro oer) 6.95) or, more explicily, up : -conppte dr’ Vooo wal: foe +f rese'nryae safer Gores) oera's]. 696 This is the desired result—the multipole expansion of V in powers of 1/r. The first term (n = 0) is the monopole contribution (it goes like 1/r); the second (n = 1) is the dipole (it goes like 1/r2); the third is quadrupole: the fourth octopole; and so on. As it stands, Eq, 3.95 is exact, bat iis useful primarily as an approximation scheme: the lowest nonzero term in the expansion provides the approximate potential at large r, and the successive terms tell us how to improve the approximation if greater pre require. Mipeidentally, his atfords a second way of obaining the Legere polynomials (the fist being Redrgues fel) 1/2 calle he generating function for Legendre polynomials3.4, MULTIPOLE EXPANSION 149 Problem 3.26 A sphere of radius R. centered a the origin, cartes charge density Where k is @ constant, and r, @ are the usual spherical coordinates. Find the approximate potential for points on the z axis, far from the sphere 3.4.2. The Monopole and Dipole Terms Ordinarily the multipole expansion is dominated (t large r) by the monopole ter: Vaontt) = <2, a7) far where Q = J pdr isthe total charge of the configuration, This is just what we expected forthe approximate potential at large distances from the charge. Inidentally for point charge atthe origin Vogy represents the enact potential everywhere, not merely a ist approximation at large rin this case all he higher multiples vanish, the total charge is zero, the dominant term inthe potential wil be the dipole (unless, o couse it aso vanishes} 1 Vaip(e) = —— 0 = ep J ecove'ne yar. Since 6's the angle between and t (Fig. 3.28), +'cos6! = Fr and the dipole potential can be written more suecinety [roa ‘This integral, which does not depend on Ft all iscalled dipole moment ofthe distribution: entra] 3.98) and the dipole contribution to the potential simplifies 10 i Vag) = a 3.99)150 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES ‘The dipole moment is determined by the geometry (size, shape, and density) of the charge distribution, Equation 3.98 translates inthe usual way (Sect. 2.1.4) for point, line, and surface charges. Thus, the dipole moment of @ collection of point changes is 6.100) G.101) Where dis the veetor from the negative charge to the positive one (Fig. 3.29). Is this consistent with what we got for a physical dipole, in Ex. 3.10? Yes: If you put Eg. 3.100 into Eq. 3.99, you recover Eg. 3.90. Notice, however, that this is ony the approximate potential of the physical dipole—evidently there are higher multipole contributions. OF course, as you go farther and farther away, Vaip becomes a better and better approximation, since the higher terms die off more rapidly with increasing r. By the same token, ata fixed r the dipole approximation improves as you shrink the separation d. ‘To.construct “pure” dipole whose potential is given exacrly by Eq, 3.99, you'd have 10 let d approach zero. Unfortunatly, you then lose the dipole tem 109, unless you simultaneously arrange for q to got infinity! A physical dipole becomes 2 pure dipole, then in the rather autficil limit d + 0, ¢ + 00, with the product qd = p held fixed, (When someone uses the word “dipole.” you can't always tell whether they mean a physica! dipole (with finite separation between the charges) ora pure (point) dipole. If in doubt, assume that d is small enough (compared to) that you can safely apply Eq. 3.99.) Dipole moments are vectors, and they add accordingly: if you have wo dipoles, py and i, the toxal dipole moment is p, + p2. For instance, with four charges at the corners of a square, as shown in Fig. 3.30, the net dipole moment is zero, You.can see this by combining the charges in pairs (vertically, | ++ f= 0, or horizontally, > + <= 0) or by adding up the four contributions individually, using Eq. 3.100. This is a quadrupole, as I indicated earlier, and its potential is dominated by the quadrupole term in the multipole expansion.) 4 4 Figure 3.29 Figure 3.303.4, MULTIPOLE EXPANSION 151 Figure 3.31 Problem 3.27 Four particles (one of charge g, one of charge 3g. and 1wo of charge —24) are placed 2s shown in Fig. 3.31, each a distance @ from the origin. Find a simple approximate formula for the potential, valid at points far from the origin. (Express your answer in spherical ‘conedinates.) Problem 3.28 In Ex. 39 we derived the exact potential fora spherical shell of radius R, which caries a surface charge 6 = k cos. (a) Caleatate the dipole moment ofthis charge distribution, (©) Find the approximate potential at points fa from the sphere and compare the exact answer (G87), What can you conclude about the higher multipoles? Problem 3.29 Forthe dipole in Ex.3.10, expand I/2 order (d/r)°, and use thisto determine the quadrupole and octopole terms in the potenti. 3.4.3 Origin of Coordinates in Multipole Expansions | mentioned earlier that a point charge at the origin constitutes a “pure” monopole. Ifit is ‘not at the origin, it’s no longer a pure monopole. For instance, the charge in Fig. 3.32 has a dipole moment p = gd§, and a corresponding dipole term in its potential. The monopole potential (1/4zre0)q /r is not quite correct for this configuration; rather, the exact potential is (1/47¢0)q/2. The multipole expansion is, remember, a series in inverse powers ofr (the distance to the origin), and when we expand 1/2 we get all powers, not just the first. So moving the origin (or, what amounts to the same thing, moving the charge) can radically altera multipole expansion. The monopole moment Q does not change, since the total charge is obviously independent of the coordinate system. (In Fig. 3.32 the monopole term was unaffected when we moved q away from the origin—it's just that it was no Jonger the whole story: a dipole term—and for that mater all higher poles—appeared as, well.) Ordinarily, the dipole moment does change when you shit the origin, but there is an ‘important exception: Ifthe total charge is zero, then the dipole moment Is independent of152 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Figure 3.32, Figure 3.33 the choice of origin. For suppose we displace the origin by an amount a (Fig. 3.33). The ‘new dipole moment is then frowar' = fo'—aoerar rower af oerar ~ 0a. In particular, if @ = 0, then P =p. So if someone asks for the dipole moment in Fig. 3.34(a), you can answer with confidence “gd,” but if you're asked for the dipole ‘moment in Fig, 3.34(b) the appropriate response would be: “With respect to what origin” a4g © Figure 3.34 Problem 3.30 Two point charges, 3y and —g, are separated by a distance a, For each ofthe arrangements in Fig. 3.35, find (i) the monopole moment, (i) the dipole moment, and (it) the approximate potential (in spherical coordinates) at large r (include both the monopole and dipole contribution).3.4, MULTIPOLE EXPANSION 153 @ o © Figure 3.35 3.4.4 The Electric Field of a Dipole So far we have worked only with potentials. Now I would like to calculate the electric field ‘of a (pure) dipole. I we choose coordinates so that p lies at the or direction (Fig. 3.36), then the potential at r,# is (Eq. 3,99): and points inthe = Vai.) = oP, = Peed 3.102 Amer’ aregr? ¢ » To get the field, we take the negative gradient of V - av _ 2pc0se & Gr ~ rear Lav _ psind fe 90 arear 1 av Fe = Find ag = Thus 082 2 Say Bap 8) = gros (Bonn e+ sino) @.103)154 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES ‘This formula makes explicit reference to a particular coordinate system (spherical) and assumes a particular orientation for p (along z). It can be recast in a coondinate-free form, analogous tothe potential in Eq. 3.99—see Prob. 3.33, "Notice that the dipole field falls off as the inverse cube of r: the monopole field (Q/Areor?VF goes as the inverse square, of course. Quadrupole fields go Tike 1/r4, oc- topole like 1/r°, and so on. (This merely reflects the fact that monopole potentials falloff like 1/, dipole like L/r?, quadrupole like 1/r°, and so.on—the gradient introduces another factor of I/r.) Figure 3.37(a) shows the field lines of a “pure” dipole (Eg. 3.103). For comparison, I have also sketched the field lines for a “physical” dipole, in Fig. 3.37(b). Notice how similar the two pictures become if you blot out the central region; up close, however, they are entirely different. Only forpoints r >> d does Eq. 3.103 represent a valid approximation to the field of a physical dipole. As I mentioned earlier, this réxime can be reached either by going to large r or by squeezing the charges very close together.!? {a Field of a “pure” dipole (a) Field ofa "physical dipole Figure 3.37 Problem 3.31 A “pure” (a) What is the force on a point charge q at (a, 0,0) (Cartesian coordinates)? (b) What isthe foree ong at (0, 0,4)? (©) How much work does it take to move g from (a, 0,0) t0 (0,0, 4)? ipoe p is situated atthe origi, pointing in the z direction, "Even in the iit dere emains an infinitesimal region at te exigin where te fed ofa physical dipole pins inthe “rong direction, as you ean see by “walking” down the axis in Fig. 3.35() If you want to explore this subtle and important pt, we Pro. 3.23.4. MULTIPOLE EXPANSION 135 Figure 3.38 Problem 3.32 Three point charges are locatedas shown in Fig. 3.38, each a distance a from the origin, Find the approximate electric feld at points far rom the origin. Express your ansiver in spherical coordinates, and include the two lowest orders in the multipole expansion, ‘+ Problem 3.33 Show thatthe electric fied ofa (“pure”) dipole (Bq, 3.103) can be writen in the coordinate-free form 2.104) More Problems on Chapter 3 Problem 3.34 A point charge q of mass.m is released from rest at a distanced from an infinite ‘grounded conducting plane. How long will it take for the charge t hit the plane? [Ansiver (ra/q)J2r oo and x = a/2. (Obtaining the induced surface is not so easy. See B.G. Dick, Am. J. Phys. 1, 1289 (1973), M. Zahn, Am. J. Phys. 4, 1132 (1976), J, Pleines and S. Mahajan, Am. J. Phys. 45, 868 (1977), and Prob. 3.44 below.) Problem 3.36 Two long straight wires, carying opposite uniform line charges +2. are situated ‘on either side of along conducting cylinder (Fig. 3.59). The cylinder (which cartes no net ‘charge has radius R, andthe wires are a distance a from the axis. Find the potential at point x Aj, | Wha? + 20a cos drltsa/ RI? + R? ~ 2800086} ineg" [7 a? — 2eacos lisa/R)? + RP + 281 cos] [oom 0 Problem 337 A conducting sphere of radius , at potential Vp, is surrounded by a thin con- ‘centric spherical shell of radius b, over which someone has glued a surface charge 218) = keose,156 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Figure 3.39 ‘where i a constant, and @ is the usual spherical coordinate (4) Find the potential in each region: (i) > b, and (il)a a Problem 339A long clinics fads caries a uniform aface charge on th Upper half and an opposite charge ~oy onthe lower half (Fig. 3.40). Find the electric potential inside and outside the eylinder. Problem 3.40 A thin insulating rod, running from z = ~a to z = +a, caries the indicated line charges. In each case, find the leading term in the multipole expansion ofthe potential (a) = kcos(arz/2a), by = k sin(rz/a), (©) 2 = kos(rs/a), where k is a constant Problem 3.41 Show thatthe average field inside a sphere of radius R, due 10 all dhe charge ‘within the sphere, mar G15) ‘where p is the total dipole moment. There are several ways to prove this delightully simple result, Here's one method:34, MULTIPOLE EXPANSION 157 (Show tat the verge fed due to single charge q at point inside the sphere isthe same {the el tr do toa unifommy charged sphere with p = —4/( ®), namely ot faa an Saar, wage! eH where isthe vector from rode! (b) The latter can be found from Gauss's law (See Prob. 2.12). Express the answer in terms of the dipole moment of ¢ (©) Use the superposition principle to generalize 10 an arbitrary charge distribution (4) While you're ait, show thatthe average feld over the sphere due tall the charges outside is the same as the field they produce atthe center Problem 3.42 Using Bq, 3.103, calculate the average electric fell ofa dipole, over aspherical volume of radius R. centered athe origin. Do the angular intervals fist. (Nore: You must express # and 6 in terms of &, §, and 2 (see back cover) before integrating. If you don't understand why, reread the discussion in Seet. .41.] Compare your answer with the general theorem Fa. 3.105, The discrepancy here i related to the fact tht the field ofa dipole blows Uupatr =O. The angular integral is zero, but the radial itegral is infinite, so we really don’t know whar to make ofthe answer. To resolve this dilemma, les say that Eq. 3.103 applies ‘ouaside a tiny sphere of radius e—its contribution to Ey is then unambiguously 22r0, ad the whole answer has to come fom the field inside the e-spere (&) What must the fled inside the «sphere be, in order forthe general theorem (3.105) 1 hold? [dine since ¢ is arbitrarily small, we're talking about something that is infinite at r = O and ‘whose integral over an infinitesimal volume is finite] Answer: —(P/3¢0)5(E)] [Evidently the rue field of a dipote is ii Buip(t) = FS BP ey TPH. 3.106) are 3a? : Pl-5 ‘You may well wonder how we missed the delta-function term when we calculated the field back in Set. 3.4.4. The answers tha the diferentiaion leading to Eg, 3.103 is perfectly valid except ar = 0, but we should have known fom our experience in Sect. 1.5.1) thatthe point r= Ois problematic. See C. P. Frahm, Am. J. Phys. SI, 826 (1983), or more recently R [Estrada and R. P. Kanwal, Am. J. Phys. 63, 278 (1995). For further details and applications, see D.J.Grifths, Am. J. Piys. $0,698 (1982),) Problem 3.43 (@) Suppose a charge distribution py) produces potential V(r), and some other charge dis tribution p2(+) produces a potential ¥3(e)- [The two situations may have nothing in common, forall Leare—pechaps number | isa uniformly charged sphere and number 2 isa paalll-plate ‘capacitor. Please understand that and p are not presenta! the same time; we ar talking about two different problems, one in which only ps present, and another in which only pais present] Prove Green's reciprocity theorem: piv pave.158 CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES Figure 3.41 Hin: Evaluate [By Bade two ways, first writing EB) = —V Vj and using integration-by Pacts to transfer the derivative to Ba, then writing Ep = ~VV3 and tansferring the derivative WE) (©) Suppose now that you havetwo separated conductors Fig. 3.41). Hyoucharge up conductor 4a by amount Q (leaving & uncharged) the resulting potential of bis, say, Vap. On te other ‘hand, if you put that same charge Q on conductor b (leaving a uncharged) the potential of 4 would be Vbg. Use Green's reciprocity theorem to show that Vay = Vig (an astonishing result, since we assumed nothing about the shapes or placement ofthe conductors) Problem 3.44 Use Green’s reciprocity theorem (Prob, 3.43) to solve the Following two prob Tems. [Hint for distribution 1, use the actual situation; for distribution 2, remove q. and set ‘one of the conductors at potential Vp, (@)Both plates ofa parallel platecapacitorare grounded, and point charge is placed berwoen them at distance « fom plate 1. The plate separation isd. Find the induced charge on each plate. (Answer: Q) = q¢x/d~ 1): Q2 = —gx/d) (by Two concentric spherical conducting shells (radia and b) are grounded, and point charge is placed between them (at radius r), Find the induced charge on each sphere Problem 3.45 (a) Show that the quadrupole term inthe multipole expansion can be written where Oy = fox = 0'Paylote’y de Here Lit ay = 0 es isthe Kronecker delta, and Q,; is the quadrupole moment ofthe charge dstibution, Notice the hierar Vino3.4, MULTIPOLE EXPANSION 159 ‘The monopole moment (Q) isa scalar, the dipole moment (p) i # vector, the quadeupole smoment (jj) isa second-ank tensor, and soon {b) Find all gine components of Qi fr the configuration n Fig, 3.30 (assume the square has sido aan ies in the xy plan, centered atthe origin. (©) Show thatthe quadrupole moments independent of origin if the monopole and dipole "moments bh vanish. (This works al the way up the hierarchy —~he lowest nonzero mulpole ‘moment is always independent of rin) {@) How would you define he octopole moment? Express he octopoe term in the mulpole “expansion in terms ofthe octopole moment Problem 3.46 In Ex, 38 we determined te electric fel outside a spherical conductor (radius ‘R) placed ina uniform external feld By. Solve the problem now using the method oF images, an check that your answer agrees with Fa. 376, Hint: Use Fx,3.2, but put another charge, =d, diametrically opposite q. Let a —> 20, with (1/42req)(2q/a2) = ~Bp held constant] Problem 3.47For the infinite rectangular pipe in Ex. 34, suppose the potential on the bottom {y= 0) andthe two sides (x = Eh) is zero, but the potential on the top (y = 4) i a nonzero constant Vp. Find the potential inside the pipe. (Note: This is arotated version of Prob. 3.14(b), ‘ut sett up as in Ex, 3.4 using sinusoidal functions in y and byperbolics in x. Its an unusval ‘ase in which k = O must be incluged. Begin by finding the general solution to Bg 3.26 when = 0. For urher discussion see S. Hassani Amt. J. Phys. $9, 470 (1991),] [amoversvo ($43 E52, Sambal sn /a))] Problem 3.48 () A long metal pipe of squate eross-section (side a) is grounded on three sides, while the {outth (which is insulated from the rest) is maintained at constant potential Vp. Find the net charge per unit length on the side opposite to Vp. (Hin: Use your answer to Prob. 3.14 oF Prob. 3.47.) () A long meta pipe of circular cross-section (radius R) is divided (lengthwise) ito four {equal section, three of them grounded and the fourth maintained at constant potential Vo, Find the nt charge pe nit length on he section oppite oY. [wer to bo (a) and) i= -eo¥yIn2] Problem 3.49 An ideal elecre dipole is situated at the ofigin, and points in the z direction, asin Fig. 3.36. An electric charg is released from rest ata point inthe xy plane, Show that swings buck and forh in a semi-circular are. as though it were a pendulum supported atthe origin, [This charming results duc to R.S, Jones, Am J Phys. 63, 1042 (199), "These are pec cses ofthe Thompson-Lampard theorem: 20 J-D. Jackson, J.P. 67, 107(1999),Chapter 4 Electric Fields in Matter -1 Polarization 4.1.1 Dielectrics In this chapter we shall study electric fields in matter. Matter, of course, comes in many varieties—solids, liquids, gases, metals, woods, glasses—and these substances do not all respond in the same way to electrostatic fields. Nevertheless, most everyday objects belong (atleast, in good approximation) to one of two large classes: conductors and insulators (or dielectrics). We have already talked about conductors; these are substances that contain an “unlimited” supply of charges that are free to move about through the material. In practice what this ordinarily means is that many of the electrons (one or two pet atom in a {ypical metal) are not associated with any particular nucleus, but roam around at will. In dielectrics, by contrast, all charges are attached 1o specific atoms or molecules—they'te ‘on a tight leash, and all they can do is move a bit within the atom or molecule. Such ‘microscopic displacements are not as dramatic as the wholesale rearrangement of charge in conductor, but their cumulative effects account for the characteristic behavior of dielectric materials. There are actually two principal mechanisms by which electric fields can distort, the charge distribution of a dielectric atom or molecule: stretching and rotating. In the next two sections I'll discuss these processes. 4.1.2 Induced Dipoles ‘What happens to a neutral atom when itis placed in an electric field E? Your fist guess ‘might well be: “Absolutely nothing—since the atom is not charged, the field has no effect con it” But that is incorrect. Although the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, there is positively charged core (the nucleus) and a negatively charged electron cloud surrounding it, These two regions of charge within the atom are influenced by the field: the nucleus is pushed in the direction of the field, and the electrons the opposite way, In principle, if the field is large enough, it can pull the atom apart completely, “ionizing” it (the substance 1604.1. POLARIZATION 161 then becomes a conductor). With less extreme fields, however, an equilibrium is soon established, for ifthe center of the electron cloud does not coincide withthe nucleus, these positive and negative charges attract one another, and this holds the atoms together. The {wo opposing forces—E. pulling the electrons and nucleus apart, their mutual atraction drawing them together—reach a balance, leaving the atom polarized, with phis charge shifted slightly one way, and minus the other. The atom now has a tiny dipole moment , which points in the same direction as B. ‘Typically, this induced dipole moment is approximately proportional tothe field (as long as the latter is not too strong: p=ak. aD ‘The constant of proportionality a is called atomic polarizability Its value depends on the detailed structure of the atom in question. Table 4.1 lists some experimentally determined atomic polarizabilities, H_ He Bee C: Ne Na An Re Ce 0.667 0205 24.3 560 1.76 0396 24.1 1.64 434 596 ‘Table 4.1 Atomic Polarizabilities (a:/4zr¢9, in units of 10-8 m’), Source: Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 78th ed. (Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc, 1997). Example 4.1 A primitive model for an atom consists of a point mucleus (+4) surrounded by 8 uniformly charged spherical cloud (~q) of radius (Fig 4.1), Calelate the atomic polarizability of such Solution: In the presence of an external field E, the nucleus will be shifted slighty tothe right and the electron cloud to the lft, as shown in Fig. 4.2. (Because the actual displacements Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2162 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER involved are extremely small, as you'l soe in Prob 4.1, itis reasonable to assume thatthe electron cloud retains its spherical shape.) Say that equilibrium occurs when the nucleus is displaced distance ¢ from the cent ofthe sphere. At that point the extemal fied pushing the nucleus to the right exactly balances the internal fled pulling itto the left: E = By, where Ec isthe field produced by the electon cloud. Now the field at a distance from the center of uniformly charged sphere is (Prob. 2.12), At equilibrium, then, (arcga VE. Raat ‘The stomic polarizability is therefore Inga = Sen, 42) \whete vis the volume ofthe atom, Although this atomic meidel is extremely crude, the result (42) is not too bad—i’s accurate to within a factor of four or so for many simple atoms. For molecules the situation is not quite so simple, because frequently they polarize ‘more readily in some directions than others. Carbon dioxide (Fig. 4.3), for instance, has 4 polarizability of 4.5 x 10-° C2.m/N when you apply the field along the axis of the molecule, but only 2 x 10~ for fields perpendicular to this direction, When the field is at some angle to the axis, you must resolve it into parallel and perpendicular components and multiply each by the pertinent polarizability: p=aiB. +a)By In this case the induced dipole moment may not even be in the same direetion as E. And CO} is relatively simple, as mblecules go, since the aioms at least arrange themselves in 4 straight line; for a completely asymmetrical molecule Eg. 4.1 is replaved by the most {general linear relation between E and p: xB Hey Ey Hecke xB Hayy Ey bey By bask + Px (43) Figure 4.34.1. POLARIZATION 163 ‘The set of nine constants aj constitute the polarizability tensor for the molecule. Their actual values depend on the orientation ofthe axes you chose, though itis always possible to choose “principal” axes such that all the off-diggonal terms (a. x. et») vanish, leaving {ust three nonzero polarizabilities: ery, yy» and Problem 4.1 4 hydrogen atom (with the Bobr radius of half an angstrom) is situated becween {wo metal plates | mm apart, which are connected to opposite terminals of 2 500 V battery ‘What fraction ofthe atomic radius does the separation distance d amount to, roughly? Estimate the voltage you would need with this apparatus to ionize the atom. [Use the value ofe in Table 4.1, Moral: The displacements we'te talking about are minute, even on anatomic sale Problem 4.2 Accoring to quantum mechanics, the electron cloud fora hydrogen atom inthe ‘round state has a charge density, where isthe charge of the electron and isthe Bohr radi. Find the tome polarizability of such an atom, [Hint First calculate the electric fel ofthe electron cloud, F¢(r): then expand the exponential, assuming r ? What isthe torque on pp due to p}” [In each ease T want the torque on the dipole about is own center. It bothers you thatthe answers are not equal and opposite, see Prob, 4.29.) Figure 4.6 Problem 46 (perfect) dipole pis situated a distance above an infinite grounded conducting plane (Fig. 4.7). The dipole makes an angle 0 with the perpendicular tothe torque on p.IFthe dipole is free to rotate, in what orientation will it come to rest? Problem 4.7 Show thatthe energy of an ideal dipole p in an electric field Eis given by =e 46) Problem 48 Stow thatthe iteration energy of two dipoles separated bya displacement is a | seg siti Po 30 pA an (dint: use Prob. 4.7 and Eq 3.104.) Problem 4.9 A dipole p isa distance r from point charge g, and oriented so that p makes an angle @ with the vector F from q top. (2) What is the Force on p? (b) What isthe force on g? In te presen context Ey, 4.5 could be writen more conveniently as P= Vip: B), However, itis safer to stick with (p WE. because we will be appiying the formu o materials ip which the dipole momeat (per Unt ‘olume} is self a function of poston and hs Second expression woud imply incorecty) tha p a0 1s be Sierntte166 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER 4.1.4 Polarization In the previous two sections we have considered the effect of an external electric field on an individual atom or molecule. We are now in a position to answer (qualitatively) the original question: What happens to piece of dielectric material when itis placed in an electric field” Ifthe substance consists of neutral atoms (or nonpolar molecules), the field will induce in each a tiny dipole moment, pointing in the same direction as the field.? If the material is ‘made up of polar molecules, each permanent dipole will experience a torque, tending to line it up along the field direction. (Random thermal motions compete with this process, so the alignment is never complete, especially at higher temperatures, and disappears almost at once when the field is removed.) Notice that these two mechanisms produce the same basic result: « lot of litle dipoles Pointing along the direction of the feld—the material becomes polarized. A convenient ‘measure of this effect is P= dipole moment per unit volume, which is called the polarization. From now on we shall not worry much about how the polarization gor there. Actually, the two mechanisms I described are tot as clear-cut as I tried to pretend. Even in polar molecules there will be some polarization by displacement (hough generally itis a lot easier to rotate a molecule than to stretch it, so the second mechanism dominates). I's even possible in some materials to “freeze in” polarization, so that it persists after the field is removed. But let’s forget for a moment about the cause of the polarization and study the field that a chunk of polarized material iseif produces, Then in Sect. 4.3, we'll put it all together: the original field, which was responsible for P, plus the new field, which is due to P, 4.2. The Field of a Polarized Object 4.2.1 Bound Charges ‘Suppose we have a piece of polarized material—that is, an object containing @ lot of micro- scopic dipoles lined up. The dipole moment per unit volume P is given. Question: What is the field produced by this object (not the field that may have caused the polarization, but the field the polarization ise/fcauses)? Well, we know what the field of an individual dipole looks like, so why not chop the material up into infinitesimal dipoles and integrate to get the total? As usual it's easier to work with the potential, For a single dipole p we hhave equation (Eq, 3.99), 48) in asymmetric molecules the induced dipole momen may nt be paral the He, but ifthe molecules are ‘andomiy oriented, te perpendicular contributions will average to zero. Within a single ey the orientations ‘ae cenainly not random, snd we woul fave fo reat this cave Separately4.2, THE FIELD OF A POLARIZED OBJECT 167 Figure 48. ‘here » isthe vector from the dipole to the point at which we are evaluating the potential (Fig. 4.8). In the present context we have a dipole moment p = Pdr’ in each volume clement dz’, so the total potential is : That does it, in principle. Buta lite sleight-of-hand casts this integral into a much ‘more illuminating form. Observing that Pe) ay. 49 ‘where (unlike Prob. 1.13) the differentiation is with respect tothe source coordinates (t’), 1 v(t : ma lP YG)" ! aa fv Ce -firne] cr or, using the divergence theorem, doflran gi flwme aw ] : ‘The first term looks, the potential of a surface charge pe Pa ain168 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER (where itis the normal unit vector), while the second term looks like the potential of a volume charge VP. 12) oo ‘With these definitions, Eq 410 becomes 1 2 4% & 3 1) oles wale a) 3 v ‘What this means is thatthe potential (and hence also the field) of a polarized object is the same as that produced by a volume charge density p» = ~V - P plus a surface charge density 0) = P-f. Instead of integrating the contributions ofall the infinitesimal dipoles, as in Eq. 4.9, we just find those bound charges, and then calculate the fields they produce, in the same way we calculate the field of any other volume and surface charges (for example, using Gauss's law). Example 42 Find the electric fla produced by a uniformly polarized sphere of ras R. Solution: We may as well choose the z axis to coincide with the direction of polarization (Fig. 4.9), The volume bound charge density is zer, since P is uniform, bot y= Poa cos8, ‘where is the usual spherical coordinate. What we want, then, isthe field produced by’ charge density P cos® plastered over the surface of a sphere, But we have already computed ‘the porential of such a configuration in Ex. 3.9 Pp 3reoe forr = R, vos eR Fe Teme for = R, Figure 4.94.2. THE FIELD OF A POLARIZED OBJECT 169 Since reas the field inside the sphere is uniform, forr = R. aay ‘This remarkable result willbe very useful in what follows. Outside the sphere the potential is iWentica wo that ofa perfect dipole atthe origin, ve PE tree (aay "whose dipole moment is, not surprisingly, equal tothe total dipole moment of the sphere: pe ink, a) “The field ofthe uniformly polarized sphore is shown in Fig. 4.10. Figure 4.10 Problem 4.10 A sphere of radius & caries a polarization Per) where isa constant and ri the vector From the center. (4) Calculate the bound charges 2p and pp, (b) Find the fel inside and outside the sphere170 CHAPTER 4, ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER Problem 4.11 A short cylinder, of radius a and length L, caries a “frozen-in uniform polar ization P, parallel to is axis. Find the hound charge, and sketch the elovtie ila () fr E> a. Li) for L a, Inside te rubber he electric field cannot be determined, since we do not know P. It may have appeared to you that I left out the surface bound charge 0 in deriving Eq, 4.22, and ina sense that is true. We cannot apply Gauss’s law precisely athe surface of dielectric, for here pp blows up. taking the divergence of E with i. But everywhere else the logic is sound, and in fact if we picture the edge of the dielectric as having some finite thickness within which the polarization tapers off 10 zero (probably a more realistic model43, THE ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT im than an abrupt cut-off anyway), then there is no surface bound charge; varies rapidly but smoothly within this “skin,” and Gauss’s law can be safely applied everywhere. Atany rate, the integral form (Eq. 4.23) is free from this “defect.” Problem 4.15 A thick spherical shell nner radius a, outer radius b) is made of dielectric ‘material with a “irozen-in” polarization Pen Where & is a constant and ithe distance from the centr (Fig. 4.18) (There is no free charge in the problem.) Find the electric field i al thee regions by two different methods () Locateall the bound charge, and use Gauss's law (Eq, 2.13)tocalculatethe Bld itprodices, (b) Use Eq. 4.23 to find D, and then get E trom Eg. 4.21, ENotice thatthe second method is ‘much faster, and avoids any explicit reference to the bound charges Problem 4.16 Suppose the field inside a large piece of dilectic is Eo, 90 thatthe electric displacement is Dy = éoEg + P. (9) Now a small spherical cavity (Fig 4.19) is hollowed out ofthe material, Find the field at the center ofthe cavity in tems of Ep and P, Also find the displacement atthe center ofthe cavily in terms of Dg and P. (b) Do the same fora long needle-shaped cavity running parallel to P (Fig. 4.196). (6) Do the same for a thin wafershaped cavity perpendicular to P (Fig. 4,19). [Assume the cavities are small enough that P, Ep, and Dy are essentially uniform, Hint ‘Carving out cavity isthe sume as superimposing an object of the same shape but opposite polarization | Ls (@) Sphere (b) Needle (¢) Wafer Figure 4.18, Figure 4.19178 CHAPTER 4, ELECTRIC FIFLDS IN MATTER 4.3.2. A Deceptive Parallel Equation 4.22 looks just like Gauss’s law, only the raral charge density p is replaced by the _free charge density pr, and D is substituted for é9E. For this reason, you may be tempted to conclude that D is “just ike” E (apart from the factor «9), except that its source is py instead of p: “To solve problems involving dielectrics, you just forget all about the bound ‘charge—calculate the field as you ordinarily would, only call the answer D instead of E. ‘This reasoning is seductive, but the conclusion s false; in particular, there is no “Coulomb's Jaw" for D: ‘The parallel between E and D is more subtle than that Fos the divergence alone is insufficient to determine a vector field; you need t0 know the curl as well, One tends to forget this in the case of electrostatic fields because the curl of Fis always zero. But the curl of D is nor always zero. Vx D=a(V xB) 4(V xP)=V xP, (425) and there is no reason, in general, to suppose that the curl of P vanishes. Sometimes it does. asin Ex. 44 and Prob. 4.15, but more often it does not. The bar electret of Prob. 4.11 is a cease in point: here there is no free charge anywhere, so if you really believe that the only source of D is py, you will be forced to conclude that D = 0 everywhere, and hence that E = (-1/eq)P inside and E = 0 outside the electret, which is obviously wrong. (I leave it for you to find the place where V x P # in this problem.) Because V x D #0, moreover, D cannot be expressed as the gradient of a scalar—there is no “potential” for D. ‘Advice: When you are asked to compute the electric displacement, first look for sym ‘metry. Irthe problem exhibits spherical, cylindrical, or plane symmetry, then you can get D directly from Eq, 4.23 by the usual Gauss's law methods. (Evidently in such eases V x Pis automatically zero, but since symmetry alone dictates the answer you're not really obliged to worry about the cur.) Ifthe requisite symmetry is absent, you'll have to think of another approach and, in particular, you must not assume that D is determined exclusively by the free charge. 4.3.3 Boundary Conditions ‘The electrostatic boundary conditions of Sect, 2.3.5 can be recast in terms of D. Equation 4.23 fells us the discontinuity in the component perpendicular to an interface: Dihaye~ Diy = 27> (4261 while Eq. 4.25 gives te discontinuity in parallel componens: Ditove ~ Phew = Plo ~ Phtow aan4.4. LINEAR DIELECTRICS 179 In the presence of dielectrics these are sometimes more useful than the corresponding boundary conditions on E (Eqs. 2.31 and 2.23) L Eve — and EI You might try applying them, for example, to Probs. 4,16 and 4,17. Problem 4.17 For the bar electet of Prob, 4.11, make thre careful sketches: one of P, one of andone of. Assume J isabout 2a. [Hin E lines terminate on charges; D lines terminate on fee charges 44 Linear Dielectrics Constant 44.1 Susceptibility, Permittivity, Dielectri In Sects. 4.2 and 4.3 we did not commit ourselves as to the cause of P; we dealt only with the effects of polarization. From the qualitative discussion of Sect. 4.1, though, we know that the polarization of a dielectric ordinarily results from an electric field, which lines up the atomic or molecular dipoles. For many substances, infact, the polarization is proportional to the field, provided E is not too strong: Pp eoxeE. (430) ‘The constant of proportionality, x, is called the eleetrie susceptibility of the medium (a factor of has been extracted to make xe dimensionless). The value of z- depends on the microscopic structure ofthe substance in question (and also on external conditions such as femperature). I shall call materials that obey Eq, 4,30 linear dielectrics.* Note that E in Eq. 4.30 is the tora field: it may be due in part to free charges and in part to the polarization itself. If, for instance, we put a piece of dielectric into an external ficld Ep, we cannot compute P directly from Eq, 4.30; the external field will polarize the ‘material, and this polarization will produce its own field, which then contributes tothe total field, and this in tun modifies the polarization, which ,.. Breaking out of this infinite regress is not always easy. You'll see some examples in a moment. The simplest approach is to begin with the displacement, at least in those cases where D can be deduced directly from the free charge distribution. “in moder optical applications specially nonlinear matsas have Become incrtsingly important, For these there is second tem in the formula for P as function of Epil a cubic ons. In gener, E430 can be regarded 3 he Best nonzero) term in the Taylor expansion of Pin owe of180 (CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER In linear media we have D = 6E+P = cok + coxeF = en(l + xe), 3p 0 Dis also proportional to E: (432) where © sell + x0) 433) ‘This new constant is called the permittivity of the material. (In vacuum, where there is ‘no matter to polarize, the susceptibility is zero, and the permittivity is 69. That's why €9 is called the permittivity of free space. I dislike the term, for it suggests that the vacuum is just a special kind of linear dielectric, in which the permittivity happens to have the value 8.85 x 10-!? C?/N-m?,) If you remove a factor of ¢9, the remaining dimensionless quantity tke = <= 434) « Ge is called the relative permittivity, or dielectrie constant, of the material. Dielectric con- stants for some common substances are listed in Table 4.2, OF course, the permittivity and the dielectric constant do not convey any information that was not already available in the susceptibility, nor is there anything essentially new in Eq, 4.32; the physics of linear dielectrics is all contained in Bq. 4.303 Material Dielectric Constant [| Material Dielectric Constant ‘Vacuum q Benzene 228 Helium 1.000065 Diamond s7 ‘Neon 1.00013 Salt 59 Hydrogen 1.00025 Silicon 118) ‘Argon 1.00082 ‘Methanol 33.0 Air (dry) 1.00084 Water 80.1 Nitrogen 1.00085 lee (-30° C) 99 ‘Water vapor (100° C) _ 1.00587 KTaNbOs (0° C)_ 34,000 Table 4.2. Dielectric Constants (unless otherwise specified, values given are for I atm, 20° C). Source: Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 78th ed, (Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc., 1997). as ong as wear engaged inthis orgy of unnecessary terminology and notation, I might as well mention that formulas for Din terms of (Eg. 432i the case of near dielectrics) are called constitutive relations,44, LINEAR DIELECTRICS 181 Example 45 ‘A metal sphere of radius a carries 4 charge @ (Fig. 4.20). Itis surrounded, out 10 radius , by linear diclectrc material of permitviy e. Find the potential atthe center (ealive to infinity), Solution: To compute V, we need to know E: to find E, we might first ty to locate the bound ‘charge; we could get the bound charge from P, but we can’t calculate P unless we already know E (Eq, 4.30). We seem to be in bind. What we do know is the five charge Q, and ostunately the arrangement is spherically symmetric, so Jet's begin by calculating D, using 9.423 2 forall points x > a ire (lnside the metal sphere, of course, E = P = D = 0.) Once we know D, itis a tival matter ‘o obtain E, using Eq. 4.32: 2 = fora b. Frege? ‘The potential at the center is therefore [lean (aoa) ff (ea) Loe o AAs it tums out, it was not necessary for us to compute the poazization or the bound charge ‘explicitly, though this can easily be done: one, P= carck = OEE182 (CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER inthe dielectric, and hence m=-V-P while 000 atthe outer surface, arch? Sr ar the inner surface. = atthe inner sur [Notice thatthe surface bound charge atu is neguttve (i points outward with respect 10 the dielectric, which is +# at b but ~# at a). This is natural, since the charge on the metal sphere attracts its opposite in all the dicletric molecules. 11 this layer of negative charge that reduces the field, within the dielectric, from 1/rreo(Q/r2}# to 1/4re(Q/r2)e. la this respect a dielectric is rather like an imperfect conductor: on a conducting shell the induced surface charge would be stich as to cancel the field of Q completely in the region a R, subject tothe boundary conditions Vn = Vous Vn __ Vou he ee a2) ae iil) Vogt + ~Eorcos®, fore > R. (The second ofthese follows from Fg. 4.41, since theres no fee charge atthe surface.) Inside the sphere Eq. 3.65 says Vine Yair Pycosy; (4.44) = ‘outside the sphere, in view of ii), we have Vout 45)188 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER Boundary condition i) requires that . “s Ear alec = —oReosa +> PL Meaney, o 7 a 46) ear conan its « ua ee Sian npcost) = Epcos = Fo DB pon) 120 i= ae aan Ilo ta oa evidenly Wal = et? ied e420 eee ee (440 Example 48 Suppose the entire region below the plane: = 0 in Fig. 4.28 is fled with uniform inear clectric material of susceptibility ze. Calculate the fore on a point charge q situated a distance d above the origin ‘Solution: The surface bound charge on the xy plane is of opposite sign to 4. so the force will be attractive. (In view of Eq 439, there is no volume bound charge.) Let us fist calculate 04, using Egs 4.11 and 4.30. op = P= Pe ‘keBs. "Ogemember,P(60s8) = cos and the coecions must he equal for each, as you could prove by maligne by Fyeost sing integrating for Oto, and invoking te onhogonaity of the Legendre polynomials (Eq, 388),4.4, LINEAR DIELECTRICS 189 Figure 4.28 ‘where E; isthe z-component ofthe total field just inside the dielectric, at z= 0, This field is due in part to g and in part to the bound charge itsell. From Coulomb's law, the former contribution is where r = y/ Wp yaa 2 ($50) aga)etnm am Apa from the factor xe/ (xe +2) ths is exactly the same asthe induced charge onan infinite conducting plane under similar circumstances (Eq. 3.10)! Evidently the real bound charge Xe = i 4% ( )a ash, ‘We could, of course, obtain the field of by direct integration i ffs goo onda, zal (3) . Ror some purposes a conductor can be epured as theming case ofa near dileeic, with Ze» 20. This ‘soften a useful check ty applying to Exs 48.46, and 47.190 CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER But as in te case of the conducting plane, there isa nicer solution by the method of images. Indeed, if we replace the dielectric by a single point charge gp, atthe image postion (0,0, —d), wwe have (as) ine eins» 0. Means, achargs (+ 1) 100.) ls he peal ett) wy for the region z < 0. Taken together, Eqs. 452 and 4.53 constitute a function which satisfies Poisson's equation with a point charge q at (0,0,d). which goes to zero at infinity, which is continuous atthe boundary z =O, and whose normal derivative exhibits the discontinuity appropriate toa surface charge op a’: =O: 1 fe ad. Ja aantom L(x \¢ e (458 wa (ais) «sn | do not elsim to have provided a compelling motivation for Eqs, 4.52 and 4.53—lke all image solutions, this one owes its justification to the fact that it works: it solves Poisson's equation, and it meets the boundary conditions. Stil, discovering an image solution is not entirely a matter of guesswork. There ate at least two “rules ofthe game”: (1) You must never put an image charge into the region where you're computing the potential. (Thus Eq, 4.52 tives the potential for z > 0, but this image charge qp isatz = —d: when we tmnt the region = <0 (Eq, 453), the image charge (q + qp) is at : = +d.) (2) The image charges must add ‘upto the correct total in each region. (That's how I knew to use gp, f0 account forthe charge inthe region z < 0, and (q +4) fo cover the region < > 0.) Problem 4.22 A very long cylinder of linear dielectric material is placed in an otherwise uniform electric field Fo. Find the resulting feld within the cylinder. (The radius i a, the susceptibility Ze, and the axis is perpendicular to Ep,) Problem 4.23 Find the field inside a sphere of linear dielectric material in an otherwise uniform electric feld Ko (Ex, 4.7) hy the following method of successive approximations: First pretend the field inside is just Ep, and use Eq, 4.30 to write down the resulting polarization Po. This polarization generates a field ofits own, Ey (Ex. 4.2), which in urn modifies the polarization by an amount P,, which further changes the fleld by an amount E, and so on. The resulting field is Ep +E, + Ez +». Sum the series, and compare your answer with Eg. 449, Problem 4.24 An uncharged conducting sphere of radius ais costed witha thick insulating shell dieleetic constant ¢,) out to radius b. This object is now placed in an otherwise uniform electric feld Ep. Find the electric field in the insulator.44, LINEAR DIELECTRICS 191 Problem 4.25 Suppose the region above the xy plane in Ex, 4.8 is also filled with linear dielectric but ofa different susceptibility x, Find the potential everywhere 4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric Systems Intakes work to charge up a capacitor (Eq. 2.55): Ifthe capacitor is filled with linear dielectric, its capacitance exceeds the vacuum value by a factor ofthe dielectric constant, C= 6 Cow as we found in Ex. 4.6. Evidently the work necessary 10 charge a dielectic-filed capacitor is increased by the same factor. The reason is prety clear: you have to pump on more (free) charge to achieve a given potential, because part of the field is canceled off by the bound charges. InChapter2, derived a general formula for the energy stored in any electrostatic system (Eq, 2.45): we8 [ea ass ‘The case of the dielectrc-filed capacitor suggests that this should be changed to w= fartara! [nee in the presence of linear dielectrics. To prove it, suppose the dicletric material is fixed in postion, and we bring in the free charge, a bit ata time. As py is increased by an amount Ay, the polarization will change and with it the bound charge distribution; but We're interested only in the work done on the incremental free charge: aw [arpvae (456) Since VD = py, Apy = V-(AD), where AD isthe resulting change in D, so aw= fiv capes. Now VAD [¥-(AD)V + AD- (VY) and hence (integrating by parts) awa [¥-tamvide+ festa192 CHAPTER 4, ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER The divergence theorem turns the first term into a surface integral, which vanishes if we integrate over all of space. Therefore, the work done is equal 10 aw= foav)-Eae ast) So far, this applies to any material. Now, if the medium is a linear dielectric, then E, 80 J.B) = Jacek?) = e(AB) +E = (AD)-E (for infinitesimal increments), Thus awaa(}[v-801) Theta work donee swith fecha op ome finale wed [pear (438) 2 as anticipated.!? Itmay puzzle you that Eg, 4.55, which we derived quite generally in Chapter 2, does not seem to apply in the presence of dielectrics, where itis replaced by Eq, 4.58. The point is ‘ot that one or the other of these equations is wong, but rather that they speak to somewhat different questions, The distinction is subtle, so let's go right back to the beginning: What «do we mean by “the energy of a system”? Answer: Ibis the work required to assemble the system, Very well—but when dielectrics are involved there are two quite different ways. ‘one might construe this process: (1) We bring in all the charges (free and bound), one by ‘one, with tweezers, and glue each one down in its proper final location, If chs is what you ‘mean by “assemble the system,” the Eq. 4.55 is your formula for the energy stored. Notice. ‘however, that this will not include the Work involved in stretching and twisting the dielectric ‘molecules (if we picture the positive and negative charges as held together by tiny springs. it does not include the spring energy, 44x, associated with polarizing each molecule),!* (2) With the unpolarized dielectric in piace, we bring in the ree charges, one by one, allowing the dielectric to respond as it sees fit. If chs is what you mean by “assemble the system’ (and ordinarily itis, since free charge is what we actually push around), then Bq. 4.58 isthe formula you want. In this case the “spring” energy is included, albeit indirectly, because the force you must apply to the free charge depends on the disposition of the bound charge: as ‘you move the free charge you are automatically stretching those “springs.” To put it another In case you are wondering why ¥ did not do this mow simply by the method of Sect. 24.3, stating with 4p dr the reasons tht shi formulas unre, in genera. Sey the derivation of Eq 2.42 and you will sc thal t applies only to the sl charge. Foe linear dielectics it happens to hol forthe fee charge alone but hiss scarcely obvious prior and in act, most easily confirmed by working Backwerd fram Ea 458 "She “spring” ise may be eleccal in nature, batts il not neaded in Eq, 4.55, 1 Bis cake to be the Imacroscopie fll4.4, LINEAR DIELECTRICS 193 way, in method (2) the total energy of the system consists of three parts: the eleetrostati energy of the free charge, the electrostatic energy of the bound charge, and the “spring” energy: Whot = Wire + Woouna + Weprng: ‘The last two are equal and opposite (in procedure (2) the bound charges are always in equilibrium, and hence the net work done on them is zero); thus method (2), in calculating Wc, actually delivers Wi, whereas method (1), by calculating Weac+ Wounds Feaves out Wecin Incidentally, itis sometimes alleged that Eq, 4.58 represents the energy even for nonlinear dielectrics, but this is false: To proceed beyond Eq. 4.57 one must assume linearity. Infact, {or dissipative systems the whole notion of “stored energy” loses its meaning, because the ‘work done depends not only on the final configuration but on how it got here. Ifthe molec- ‘ular “springs” are allowed to have some friction, for instance, then Wizrig ean be made as large as you like, by assembling the charges in such a way that the spring is obliged to expand and contract many times before reaching its final state. In particular, you get nonsensical results if you try to apply Eq, 4.58 w electrets, with frozen-in polarization (see Prob. 4.27), Problem 4.26.\ spherical conductor, ofradiusa, carriesacharpe Q (Fig. 4.29). Itissurrounded by linear dielectric material of susceptibility xe, out to radius b. Find the energy of this configuration (Eq. 4.58). Figure 4.29 Problem 4.27 Calculate W, using both Ea, 4.55 and Bq, 438, fora sphere of radius R with froven-in uniform polarization P (Ex, 4.2). Comment onthe discrepancy. Which (if ether) is the “tue” energy ofthe system? 444 Forces on Dielectrics Just as a conductor is attracted into an electric feld (Eg, 2.51), so too is a dielectric—and for essentially the same reason: the bound charge tends to accumulate near the free charge of the opposite sign. But the calculation of forces on dielectrics can be surprisingly tricky.194 CHAPTER 4, ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER Dielectric Figure 4.30 Consider, for example, the case of a slab of linear dielectric material, partially inserted between the plates of a paralle-plate capacitor (Fig. 4.30). We have always pretended tha the field is uniform inside a paralel-plate capacitor, and 2ero outside. If this were literally tnue, there would be no net force onthe dielectric a al, since the field everywhere would be Perpendicular to the plates. However, there is in reality a fringing field around the edges. ‘hich for most purposes canbe ignored but in this case is responsible for the whole effect. Aindced, the field could not terminate abruptly atthe edge ofthe capacitor, fori it did the line integral of E around the closed loop shown in Fig. 4.31 would not be zero.) Iti this nonuniform fringing field that pulls the dieletre into the eapacitor ringing fields are notoriously dficultto calculate: luckily, we can avoid ths altogether. by the following ingenious method. Let W be the energy ofthe system—it depends, of course, on the amount of overlap. IF I pull the dielectric out an infinitesimal distance dx the energy is changed by an amount equal tothe work done: dW = Fredx (459)195 44, LINEAR DIELECTRICS fone ringing region Figure 431 where Fine isthe force I must exert, to counteract the electrical force F on the dielectric: Fie = ~F. Thus the electrical force on the slab is aw —. (4.60) Fa (4.60) "Now, the energy stored in the capacitor is W=jcv?, (461) (4.62) and the capacitance inthis case is eel x00). ec d where Fis the length ofthe plates (Fig. 4.30), Let's assume thatthe total charge onthe int, as the dielectric moves. In terms of Q, plates (Q = CV) is held con (4.63) rie (64) dW _10%dc _ 12d “2Cde 2° de But _eoretw (4.65) and hence196 (CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER (The minus sign indicates that the force is in the ne into the capacitor.) Its @ common error to use Eq. 4.61 (with V constant), rather than Eg. 4.63 (with Q constant), in computing the force. One then obtains tive x direction; the dielectric is pulled oe é Ee which is off by asign. Itis, of course, possible to maintain the capacitor ata fixed potential, bby connecting it up toa battery, But in that ease the battery also does work as the dielectric ‘moves: instead of Eq, 4.59, we now have dW = Fre dx + VdQ, (4.66) ‘where V'd@ is the work done by the battery. I follows that aw do ie ic A de tM de 773 ae tae 2 4.67) the same as before (Eq. 4.64), withthe correct sign. (Please understand, the force on the dielectric eannot possibly depend on whether you plan to hold Q constant or V constant—i is determined entirely by the distribution of charge, free and bound. I's simpler to calculate the force assuming constant Q, because then you don't have to worry about work done by the battery; but if you insist, it can be done correctly either way.) Notice that we were able to determine the force withou knowing anything about the {ringing fields tha are ultimately responsible for itt OF cours, its built ito the whole structure of electrostatics that V x E = 0, and hence thatthe fringing ficlds must be present; we're not really getting something for nothing here—just cleverly exploiting the internal consistency of the theory. The energy stored in the fringing fields themselves (ovhich was not accounted for inthis derivation) stays constant asthe slab moves; what does change is the energy well inside the capacitor, where the field s nie and uniform. Problem 4.28 Two long coaxial cylindrical metal tubes (inner radius a, outer radius b) stand vertically in @ tank of dielectric oil (susceptibility ye, mass density p). ‘The inner one is ‘maintained at potential V, andthe outer one is prounded (Fig. 4.32). To what height (1) does the ol rise in the space between the tubes?4.4. LINEAR DIELECTRICS 197 ‘More Problems on Chapter 4 Problem 429 (a) For the configuration in Prob. 45, calculate the force on pp due to py, and the force on py due to pp. Are the answers consistent with Newton's tir law? (b) Find the total torque on p with respect tothe center of p. and compare it with Ue torque ‘on py about shat same point. (Hint: combine your answer to (a) with the result of Prob. 4.5.) Problem 4.30 An elec dipole p, pointing inthe y direction, is placed midway between two large conducting plates, as shown in Fig 4.33. Each plate makes a small angle? with respect tothe x axis, and they are maintained at potentials V. What isthe direction ofthe net force fn p? (There's nothing to calculate, here, but do explain your answer qualitatively) Figure 4.33198 CHAPTER 4, ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER Problem 4.31 A dielectic cube of side a, centered atthe origin, caries a “frozen-in” polar- ization P = kr, where kis a constant. Find all the bound charges, and check that they add up Problem 4.32 A point charge q isimbedded at the center ofa sphere of linear dielectric material (th susceptibility ze and radius R). Find the electric fel, the polarization, and the bound charge densities, 2p and op What is the total bound charge on the surface? Where isthe ‘compensating negative bound charge located? Problem 433 Atibe interface between one linear dielectric and another the electric field lines bend (see Fig. 4.34), Show that tands/tan 0s = e2/er, (4.68) assuming there sno five charge tthe boundary. [Comment: Eq 4.68 is reminiscent of Snes Taw in optics. Would 2 convex “lens” of dielectric material tend to “focus” or “defocus,” the ‘lect field?) Figure 4.34 Problem 434 A point dipole pis imbedded atthe contr ofa sphere of incur dielectric material (ith radius & and dielectric constant ¢-)- Find the electric potential inside and outside the sphere. peosd (, | Ph ler=0) eos (_3 lnswer 25 LR): o> [s aren? (+ ess) Ee Seer (=a) ‘ =n] Problem 4.35 Prove the following uniqueness theorem: A volume V contains a specified free charge distribution, and various pieces of linear dielectric material, withthe susceptibility of cach one given, Ifthe potential is specified on the boundaries S of V (V = O at infinity ‘would be suitable) then the potential throughout P is uniquely determined, (Hint: integrate V-(VsD3) over P)4.4. LINEAR DIELECTRICS 199 % Figure 435 Problem 4.36 A conducting sphere at potential Vishal embedded in linear dielectric material of susceptibility ze, which occupies the region z < 0 (Fig. 4.35). Claim: the potential ‘everywhere is exactly the same as it would have beet in the absence of the dilectic! Check this claim, as follows: (a) Weite down the formula forthe proposed potential V(r) in terms of Vp, R, and r. Use it to determine the field, the polarization the hound charge, andthe ree charge distribution on the sphere () Show that the total charge configuration would indeed produce the potential V(r). (6) Appeal tothe uniqueness theorem in Prob 4.35 to complete the argument. (4) Could you solve the configurations in Fig. 4.36 with the same potential? If not, explain vy. Figure 4.36 Problem 4.37 According to Eq, 4.5, the force on a single dipole is (p VP, so the net force ‘ona dielectric object is Pf. 6a ae, {Here Feat is the field of everything excep the dielectric. You might assume that it wouldn't ‘matter if you used the total ld; afer all, the dielectric can't exer a force on itself However, because the field ofthe dielectric is discontinuous a he location of any bound surface charge, the derivative introduces a spurious delta function, and you must either add 2 compensating surface term, or (beter) slick With Fext, hich suffers no such discontinuity,] Use Eq. 469 to determine the force on a tiny sphere of radius R, composed of linear dielectric material ‘of susceptibility xe, which is situated a distance s from a fine wire carrying a uniform fine charge 2,200 (CHAPTER 4. ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER Problem 4.38 In a linear dielectc, the polarization is proportional the field: P = cox. Ifthe material consists of atoms (or nonpolar molecules), the induced dipole moment of each ‘one is likewise proportional tothe fcld p = a. Question: What is the relation between the atomic polarizability and the susceptibility 7.” Since P (the dipole moment per unit volume) is p (dhe dipole moment per atom) times NV (de number of atoms per unit volume), P= Np = ak, one’s first inclination i to say that Ne nea 470) 0 ‘Andin fact this not far off, the densityis low. But closer inspection reveals.a subtle problem, forthe field Ein Bg. 4.30 is the total macroscopic field in the medium, whereas te fed in Fg. 41 is due to everything excep the panicular atom under consideration (polarizability was ‘defined fo an isolated stom subject to speified external fel); eal this fed lye. Imagine thatthe space allotted to each atom isa sphere of radius R, and show that am Use this to conclude that an Equation 4.72 i known as the Clausius-Mossoti formula or, in its application to optics, the Lorente-Lorent equation Problem 4.39 Check the Clausius-Mossott relation (Eq, 4.72) forthe gases listed in Table 4.1. (Dielectic constants are given in Table 42.) (The demites here are so small hat Eqs, 4,70 and 4.72.aeindistinguishable. For experimental data that confirm the Clausius-Mossot correction lermsee, for instance, the fist edition of Purcell’ Electricity and Magnetism, Problem 9.28 4 Problem 4.40. The Clausius-Mossoti equation (Prob. 4.38) tells you how to calculate the susceptibility of nonpolar substance, in terms of the atomic polarizability a. The Langevin ‘equation tells you how to caleulate the susceptibility of a polar substance, in terms ofthe ‘permanent molecular dipole moment p. Here's how it goes: (a) The energy of a dipole in an extemal field Kis u = —p-K (Eq. 4.6); it ranges from =pE to +pE, depending on the orientation. Statistical mechani say that fora material in equilibrium at absolute temperature T, the probability ofa given molecule having energy u is proportional tothe Boltzmann factor, exp(-u/ A) “The average energy ofthe dipoles therefore uct [oa "EM. Parcel, etry and Magntion Berkeley Physics Course, Vl, 2), (New York; McGraw-Hill, 1963)44. LINEAR DIELECTRICS 201 ‘where the integrals un from —p£ to +E. Use thisto show that the polarization ofa substance containing N’ molecules per unit volume is P ipleoth(pE/AT) ~ (&T/ pe) an ‘That’ the Langevin formula, Sketch P/Np asa function of pE/AT. (b) Notice that for large fildvlow temperatures, virally all the molecules are fined up, and the material is nonlinear, Ordinarily, however, £7 is much greater than pE. Shows that in this régime the material cs linear, and calculate its susceptibility, in terms of Ny py T. ant k. ‘Compute the susceptibility of water at 20° C, and compare the experimental vale in Table 4.2. (The dipole moment of waters 6.1 x 10? Cm.) Thisis rather far of, because we have ‘again neglected the dstintion between E and Eajge. The agreement is better in low-density ses, for which the diference between F and Eye is negligible. Try it for water vapor at 100° and atm,Chapter 5 Magnetostatics 5.1 The Lorentz Force Law 5.1.1 Magnetic Fields Remember the basie problem of classical electrodynamics: We have a collection of charges Qs Gs Gs charges), and we want to calculate the force they exert on some other charge Q (the “test” charge). (See Fig. 5.1.) According to the principle of superposition, itis sufficient to find the force of a single source charge—the total is then ‘the vector sum of all the individual forces. Up to now we have confined our attention tothe simplest case, electrostatis, in which the source charge is at rest (though the test charge need not be). The time has come to consider the forces between charges in motion. Source charges Test charge Figure 5.1 ‘To give you some sense of what is in store, imagine that I set up the following demon stration: Two wires hang from the ceiling, afew centimeters apart; when Itura on a current. so that it passes up one wire and back down the other, the wires jump apart—they evident repel one another (Fig. 5.2(a)). How do you explain this? Well, you might suppose that the battery (or whatever drives the current) is actually charging up the wire, and that the force is simply due to the electrical repulsion of like charges. But this explanation is in correct. T could hold up a test change near these wires and there would be no force on i 202Sil, THE LORENTZ FORCE LAW 203, (4) Currents in opposite (©) Currens in same irections repel 1 ‘Magnetic field a Wire 1 Wire? Figure 5.3, Figure 5.4 hhand—thumb in th dircetion ofthe curent—your fingers curt around in the direction of the magnetic fed (Fig, 5.3). How can suc fed lead toa force of attraction ona nearby Pamllel current? At the second wire the magnetic field points into the page (Fig. 54), the ‘locity ofthe charges is upward, and yet the resulting force isto the left. I's gong to take strange law to account for these directions Il introduce this law in the next section. Later on, in Sect. 5.2, we'll tur to what is logically the prior question: How do you calculate the magnetic field of the first wire? 5.1.2 Magnetic Forces It may have occurred to you that the combination of directions in Fig. 5.4 is just right for ‘2 cross product. In fact, the magnetic force in a charge Q, moving with velocity v in a ‘magnetic ficld B, is! Frag = Q(v x B) 6 ‘This is known as the Lorentz force law. In the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the net force on Q would be F= QE +(x B), 62 | do not pretend to have derived Eq, 5.1, of course; it isa fundamental axiom of the theors. ‘whose justification isto be found in experiments such as the one I described in Sect. 5.1.1 Our main job from now on is to calculate the magnetic field B (and for that matter the electric field F as wel, for the rules are more complicated when the source charges are in motion). But before we proceed, itis worthwhile to take a closer look atthe Lorentz force law itself; itis a peculiar law, and it leads to some truly bizarre particle trajectories. "Since and re vectors, Bs acually a poeudovete.Sil. THE LORENTZ FORCE LAW 205 Example 5.1 Cyclotron motion ‘The archetypical motion of «charged particle ina magnetic field i circular, withthe magnetic force providing the centripetal acceleration, In Fig. 55, uniform magnetic eld points into the page: ifthe charge @ moves counterclockwise, with speed v, around a circle of radius R, the magnet force (5.1) points inward, and has a fixed magnitude Quét—just righ to sustain uniform circular motion OuB =m. or p=QBR, (53) Where m is the particle's mass and p = mv i its momentum, Equation 5.3 is known as the cyclotron formula because it describes the motion of a particle in a cyclotron—the first ofthe modem particle accelerators. TC also suggests a simple experimental technique for finding the ‘momentum of a particle: send it through a region of known magnetic field, and measure the radius of ts circular trajectory. This infact the standard means for determining the momenta ‘of elementary particles. Incidentally, T assumed that the charge moves ina plane perpendicular to B. fit starts out With some additional speed vp parallel to B, tis compancnt of the motion is unaffected by the ‘magnetic field, and the particle moves in a helix (Fig 5.6). The radius is sil given by Eq, 5.3, ‘but the velocity in question is now the component perpendicular 0 B, Figure 5.6 Example 5.2 Cycloid Motion A more exotic trajectory occurs if we include a uniform electric fel, at right angles to the ‘magnetic one. Suppose, tor instance, that B point in the x-direction, and E inthe z-direction, as shown in Fig 5.7. A particle a rest is released from the origin; what path will follow’? Solution: Let’ think it through qualitatively, first. Initially, the particle is at rest, 90 the magnetic fore is zero, andthe electric field acoclertes the charge inthe z-direction. As it Picks up speed a magnetic force develops which according to Eg 5.1, pulls the charge around206 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Figure 5.7 to the right. The faster it goes, the stronger Fug becomes; eventually, it curves the particle back around towards they axis, At this point the charge is moving against the electrical force. sit begins o slow down-—the magnetic force then deereases, and the electrical Force takes inging the charge to rest at point a. in Fig. 5:7. There the entire process commences anew, carrying the particle over to point b, and soon Now lets doit quantitatively. There being no foree inthe x-direction, the position ofthe particle at anytime 1 can be described by the vector (0, y(2),2(2)): the velocity is therefore and hence, applying Newton's second la, F=O8+vxB) treating the and 2 components separately, QBE= my. QE ~ QBS = mi. For convenience, let a ono 64 (This isthe eyelotron frequeney. at which the particle would revolve in the absence of any electric eld) Then the equations of motion take the Form : «(E3) es ‘Their general solution? is YO) = Cycoser + C2 siner + (E/B) + C3, | 2) = Cyeosan —C) sina +Cs es "as coupled differential equations, thy are casi solved by difeenating th fist and using the second «> sliminae 85.1. THE LORENTZ FORCE LAW 207 But the particle started from rest (0) = #(0) =D) atthe origin (y(0) four conditions determine the constants Cy. C2, C3, and Cy E E HO) = (or —sinat), 200) = 1 ~ case s7 = 5 J. 2) = ". 67 In this form the answer isnot terribly enlightening, buf we fet E a 68) and eliminate the sines and cosines by exploiting the trigonometric identity sin® on -+eox? wt = |. we find that (y= Ron? += Ry 69) "hit fora ifs wh cen, Ra, inthe a 6510 "Me ptm ech ite gt onthe in wc ng down ey aia spb Those gem n io) weal ali Nee ttt nl mee ‘inh tonsa om tet een One feature of the magnetic force law (Eq. 5.1) warrants special attention: “Magnetic forces do no work. v di, the work done is Foci Q moves an amount dl Wong = Fag “dl = Q(W x B)-vat ‘This follows because (v x B) is perpendicular tov, so (v x B)-v = 0, Magnetic forces may alter the direction in which a particle moves, but they cannot speed it up or slow it down. ‘The fact that magnetic forces do no work is an elementary and direct consequence of the Lorentz force law, but there are many situations in which it appears so manifestly false that ‘one’s confidence is bound to waver. When a magnetic crane lifts the carcass of a junked car, for instance, something is obviously doing work, and it seems perverse to deny that the ‘magnetic force is responsible, Well, perverse or not, deny it we must, and it can be a very subtle matter to figure out what agency does deserve the credit in such circumstances. I'll show you several examples as we go along. uy Problem S.1 A particle of charge g enters a region of uniform magnetic eld B (pointing into the page), The field deflects the particle a distance d above the original ine of light, as shown in Fig. 5.8. Is the charge positive or negative? In terms ofa, dB and g, find the momentum ofthe particle, Problem 5.2 Find and sketch the trajectory of the particle in Ex. 5.2 fit starts atthe origin with velocity (2) ¥(O) = (E/BY}, @) V0) = (E/2B)3, (MO) = (E/BNG +H,208 (CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Feld region Figure 5.8 Problem 5.3In 1897 J.J. Thomson “discovered” the electron by measuring the charge-to-mass ratio of “cathode rays" (actualy, streams of electrons, with charge q and mass m) a follows: (a) First he passed the beam through uniform crossed electric and! magnetic flelds K and B (cnutually perpendicular and both of them perpendicular othe bear), and adjusted the electric field until he go zero deflection, What, then, was the speed of the particles (in terms of E and ay (©) Then he tumed off the electric field, and measured the radius of curvature, R, of the beam, as deflecod by the magnetic field alone. In terms of , B. and R, what i the charge-to-mass ratio (¢/m) ofthe particles? 5.1.3 Currents The current in a wire is the charge per unit rime passing a given point, By definition, negative charges moving to the left count the same as positive ones to the tight. This conveniently reflects the physica! fact that almost all phenomena involving moving charges depend on the product of charge and velocity—if you change the sign of q and v, you get the same answer, so it doesn't really matter which you have, (The Lorentz force law is a case in point; the Hall effect (Prob. 5.39) is a notorious exception.) In practice, itis ordinarily the negatively charged clectrons that do the moving—in the direction opposite the electric current, To avoid the petty complications this entails, I shall often pretend it’s the positive charges that move. as in fact everyone assumed they did for a century or so after Benjamin Franklin established his unfortunate convention.’ Current is measured in ‘coulombs-per-second, or amperes (A): IA=IC/s 612 Aine charge } traveling down a wire at speed v (Fig, 59) constitutes a current Tah, (1) because a segment of length vir, carying change Aud, pases point P in a time interval ‘At. Current i actually a vector Tao oy if we called the cksiron pus andthe proton mis, the pablem would ever aris. In the context of Franklin experimen with ears fur and glass ods, the ehoice was completely arity,Sil, THE LORENTZ FORCE LAW 209 Figure 5.9 since the path of the flow is dictated by the shape of the wire, most people don’t bother to display the vectorial character of I explicitly, but when it comes to surface and volume currents we cannot afford 10 be So casual, and for the sake of notational consistency it is good idea to acknowledge this right from the start. A neutral wire, of course, contains as many stationary positive charges as mobile negative ones. The former do not contribute to the current—the charge density 2 in Eq. 5.13 refers only to the moving charges. Tn the unusual situation where both types move, L = }.4¥4 + AV. ‘The magnetic force on a segment of current-carrying wire is evidently Fas foo mae fovxwnar=faema 6a Inasmuch as I and dl both point in the same direction, we can just as well write this as E Typically, the current is constant (in magnitude) along the wire, and in that ease comes outside the integral: rag = f T(dl x B). 6.16) Frog =! fal) 6.17) xample 5.3 ‘A rectangular loop of wire, supporting a mass m, hangs vertically with one end in a uniform ‘magnetic field B. which points into the page in the shaded region of Fig. 5.10, For what current in the loop, would the magnetic force upward exactly balance the gravitational force downward? Solution: First ofall, the current mustcieulate clockwise, in onder for (1B) in the horizontal segment to point upward. The force is Fag = 1Ba, where ais the width ofthe loop. (The magnetic forces onthe ewo vertical segments cancel) Por Fru to balance the weight (mg), we must therefore have Ba The weight just hangs there, suspended in mid-air! (5.18)210 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS = Figure 5.10 “What happens if we now increase the current? Then the upward magnetic force exceed the ‘downward force of gravity, and the loop rises lifting the weight. Somebod’s doing work, and itsure looks as though the magnetic foree is responsible. Indeed, ote is tempted to write Winag = Figg = 1Bah, 6.191 where is the distance the Joop rises, But we know that magnetic forces never do Work ‘What's going on here? ‘Well, when the loop starts ose, the charges in the wire ae no longer moving horizontally — their velocity now aequiresan upward component, the speedof the loop (Fig. 511) inaddition to the horizontal component w associated withthe current (I = Aan). ‘The magnetic force. hich is always perpendicular tothe velocity, no longer points straight up, but tls back. It is perpendicular tothe ner displacement of the charge (whichis in the dtccton of ¥), and therefore ir does no work on g.. It does have a vertical component (gw B); indeed, the net vertical force on all the charge (2a) inthe upper segment of the loop is awB = 1Ba (520) Feat {as before); but now it also has a horizontal component (guB). which opposes the flow of ‘current, Whoever isin charge of maintaining that curren, therefore, must now push thone ‘charges along, against the backward component ofthe magnetic force. ub Figure 5.115.1. THE LORENTZ FORCE LAW 2 Foon Figure 5.12 ‘The foal horizontal force on the top segment is evidently Frees = dau, (521) tee pee ee ue a oe on eee aeons Vins =a foe ‘which is precisely what we naively attributed tothe magneric force in Eq. 5.19, Was work done inthis process? Absolutely! Who did it? The battery! What, then, Was the roe ofthe ‘magnetic force? Well, it redirected the horizontal force of the battery into the vertical motion ‘of the loop andthe weigh may helpo considera mechanical analogy. Imagine you're pushing a trunk up fitionless ramp, by pushing on it horizontally with a mop (Fig. 5.12). The normal force (N) does no work, because itis perpendicular fo the displacement. But it does have a vertical component (sich infact is what its the trunk, anda (backward) horizontal component (which you have tw overcome by pushing on the mop). Who is doing the work here? You are, obviously —and yet your force (which is purely horizontal) i not (at least, not directly) wha its the box. The normal force plays the same passive (but croial role asthe magnetic force in EX. 5.3: while doing no work itself it redirects the efforts ofthe active agent (you, or the batery, asthe case may be), from horizontal to vertical Bah, When charge flows over a surface, we describe it by the surface current density, K, defined as follows: Consider a “ribbon” of infinitesimal width dl, running parallel to the slow (Fig. 5.13). Ifthe current in this ribbon is df the surface current density is a ay Inwords, & isthe current per unit widih-perpendicular-to-flow. In particula,if the (mobile) surface charge density is @ and its velocity isv, then K=ov. (5.23) 6.22) Jn general, K will vary from point to point over the surface, reflecting variations in and/or ¥. The magnetic force on the surface current is Fray = forte da = fk x Bd. 62212 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Figure 5.13 Caveat: Just as F suffers a discontinuity at a surface charge, so B is discontinuous at « surface current. In Eq, 5.24, you must be careful to use the average field, just as we did in Sect. 2.5.3. ‘When the flow of charge is distributed throughout a three-cimensional region, we de- scribe it by the volume current density, J, defined as follows: Consider a “tube” of infinitesimal eross section da, running parallel to the flow (Fig. 5.14). Ifthe current in this tube isd the volume current density is a day 6.25) In words, J is the current per unit area-perpendicular-o-flow, If the (mobile) volume charge density is p and the velocity is v, then pv. 5.26) ‘The magnetic force on a volume current is therefore x Bydr, 6.27) [ore mode5.1. THE LORENTZ FORCE LAW 213 Figure 5.15 Figure 5.16 Example 54 (@) A current is uniformly distibued over a wire of circular oss section, with radius a (Fig. 5.15). Find the volume current density J Soluti 2 : The area-perpendicular-to-low isa, so ac This was trivial because the current density was uniform (©) Suppose the current density inthe wie proportional othe distance fom the axis, Jaks (for some constant). Find the ttl curtentin the wire Sol patch Because J varies with s, we must imtegrate Eq, 5.25. The current in the shaded ig. 5.16) is Jda,and day =sdsd9. So, 1 = fbsvedsaey= ane f yy = Me fb 3 According to Eq. 5.25, the current crossing a surface S can be written as ftdan= faa (528) s Is (The dot product serves neatly to pick out the appropriate component of a.) In particular, the total charge per unit time leaving a volume V is fires [over franf,24 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Because charge is conserved, whatever flows out through the surface must come at the expense of that remaining inside: fe Dar=-F fede (The minus sign reflects the fact that an ourward flow decreases the charge left in V.) Since this applies to uny volume, we conclude that ae vd 5.29) ar This is the precise mathematical statement of local charge conservation; it is called the continuity equation, For future reference, let me summarize the “dictionary” we have implicitly developed for translating equations into the forms appropriate to point, line, surface, and volume currents: Down~ fona~ fo Cowde~ fone. 30 x i fe | ‘This correspondence, which isanalogous tog ~ 2d! ~ da ~ p dr forthe various charge distributions, generates Eqs. 5.15, 5.24, and 5.27 from the original Lorentz force law (5.1). Suppose that the magnetic fed i some region has the form Bakes (ovhere & is @ constant), Find the force on a square loop (side a, lying inthe yz plane and centered atthe origin, fit caries a current lowing counterclockwise. when you look dowa the x axis, Problem 5.5 A current J flows down a wire of radius . (a) Wits uniformly distributed over the surface, what isthe surface current density K? (@) I it is distebuted in such a way thatthe volume cuerent density is inversely proportional to the distance from the axis, what is J? Problem 5.6 (@) A phonograph record caries uniform density of "static electricity” 0. If t rotates at angular velocity», what isthe surface current density K ata distance r fom the cemer? (©) A uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and total charge Q. is centered atthe origin and spinning ata constant angular velocity « about the = axis. Find the cutent density J at any point (r, 8, ) within the sphere, Problem §.7 For a configuration of charges and currents confined within a volume V, show that fe pit, here pis the total dipole moment. [Hints evaluate fy ¥- (xD)5.2, THE BIOT-SAVART LAW 25 5.2. The Biot-Savart Law 5.2.1 Steady Currents Stationary charges produce electric fields that are constant in time; hence the term electro- staties.* Steady currents produce magnetic fields that are constant in time; the theory of steady currents is called magnetostatics. Stationary charges > constant electric fields: electrostatics. Steady currents’ => constant magnetic fields: magnetostatic By steady current I mean a continuous flow that has been going on forever, with- ‘out change and without charge piling up anywhere. (Some people call them “stationary currents”; t0 my ear, that’s a contradiction in terms.) Of course, there's no such thing in practice as a sruy steady current, any more than there is a cruty stationary charge. In this sense both electuostatics and magnetosttics describe artificial worlds that exist only in textbooks. However, they represent suitable approximations as long asthe actual fluctua- tions are reasonably slow; in fact, for most purposes magnetostatics applies very well to household curents, which altemate 60 times a second! Notice that a moving point charge cannot possibly constitute a steady current. If t's here one instant, it’s gone the next. This may seem like a minor thing to you, but i's @ 1ajor headache Yor me. I developed each topic in elecrostatcs by starting out with the simple case ofa point charge at rest; then I generalized to an arbitrary charge distribution by invoking the superposition principle. This approach is not open to usin magnetostaics because a moving point charge does not produce a static field in the first place. We are {forced to deal with extended current distributions, right from the start and asa result the arguments are bound to be more cumbersome, ‘When a steady current flows in a wire, its magnitude J must be the same all along the line; otherwise, charge would be piling up somewhere, and it wouldn't be a steady current. By the same token, 89/81 = 0 in magnetostatics, and hence the continuity equation (5.29) becomes v5 31 5.2.2. The Magnetic Field of a Steady Current ‘The magnetic field of a steady line current is given by the Biot-Savart law: (5.32) “Actually is nt necessary tat the charges be stationary, but only that the charge density at each pat be constant For example, the sphere in Prob, 5.60 produces a eletrosai eld 1/4/72), even though ti rotating, beease p doesnot depend ot.216 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS av Figure 5.17 ‘The integration is along the current path, in the direction of the lows dis an element of length along the wire, and a, as always, isthe vector from the source tothe point r (Fig, 5.17). The constant j1o is called the permeability of free space:' ay = 4 x 107 NAP, 6.33) “These units are such that B itself comes out in newtons per ampere-meter (as required by the Lorentz force law), or teslas (T):° 1T=1N/(A-m). (34) As the starting point for magnetostatics, the Biot-Savart law plays a role analogous to ‘Coulomb's law in electrostatics. Indeed, the 1/2? dependence is common to both laws. Example 5.5 Bee mo ld sas om ee wie ing ely ie Noe 518 Solution: Inthe diagram, (AV > 4) points ou ofthe page, and has the magaitude sings = al e088. Also," = stand, so © cote av a0, and s £086, 0 1 _ costo SThisisanexact umber notan empirical constant serves (va Bg, 5.37) to define the ampere andthe ampere Jn .wn defines the coulomb ‘For some reson otis one case the cps unit the gaws) is more commonly sed than the I unit: 1 ves 10" guus. The earth's magnetic eld is abourhalf «gauss afuely song aboratry magnetic elds, sy. 10,000 nw5.2. THE BIOT-SAVART LAW 217 ‘Wire segment Figure 5.18, Figure 5.19 = GL (S")(Ga)ow % hol faa fc 040 = Gaetsines~ sin, 635) Equation 5.35 gives the field of any straight segment of wire, in terms of the initial and final angles 6 and > (Fig. 5.19). Ofcourse, a finite segment by itself could never suppor a steady current (were would the charge go when it got tothe end?), but it might be a piece of some closed circuit, and Bq, 5.35 would then represent its contribution tothe total field. In the ease of an infinite wire, 6) = —x/2 and 6 = 7/2, so we obtain vol ol 5.36) as cae Notice that the field is inversely proportional t the distance from the wire—just like the cleetc feld ofan infinite tine charge. Inthe region below the wire, B point into the page, and in general, it "circles around” the wire, in accordance with the right-hand rue stated cartier i. 53) {,_Asamapplication,ler's find the force of traction between two long, parallel wires a distance spar, carying eurens /; and Jp (Fig. 5:20) The field at (2) due vo (1) is Hol 2rd and it points into the page. The Lorentz force law (in the form appropriate to line currents, Eq, 5.17) predicts a force directed towards (1), of magnitude oh ron(Si) fa “The total fore, ot suprisingly, ini, bathe force pr oni lengths 637)218, CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS 0 ® Figure 5.20 Ifthe currents are antiparallel (one up, one down), the force is epulsive—consistent again with the qualitative observations in Sec. 5.11. Example 5.6 Find the magnetic field distance z above the center of a cirelar loop of radius R, which carries a steady eurent 1 (Fig. 5.21) Figure 5.21 Solution: The etd dB atribuable tothe segment a points as shown. AS we integrated” around the loop, dB sweeps outa cone, The horizontal componente cancel, and the vertical ‘components combine to give ho, fat $1 [ Scoso (Notice that and are perpendicular, in this case the ator of e080 projets out the vec component.) Now, cos @ and? ae constants and fais simply the ccumference, 2 R80 ey re Be)5.2, THE BIOTSAVART LAW 219 For surface and volume currents the Biot-Savart law becomes of See) x ta POE wr sos we 2/9 Rl Pee. 639 Bo) respectively. You might be tempted to write down the corresponding formula for a moving point charge, using the “dictionary” 5.30: Ho av xh Bo =F (5.40) but this is simply wrong.” As Lmentioned earlier, « point charge does not constitute a steady ‘current, and the Biot-Savart law, which only holds for steady currents, does not correctly determine its field, Incidentally, the superposition principle applies to magnetic flelds just as it does to electri fields: If you have a collection of source currents, the net field is the (vector) sum of the fields due (0 each of them taken separately Problem 58 (a) Find the magnetic field at the centr of a square oop, which carries a steady current J. Let be the distance Irom center o side (Fig. 5.22) (b) Find thefeld at he center ofa regula n-sided polygon, carrying a steady curent 1. Again, [eX be the distance fom the center to any side, (©) Check that your formula reduces to the field atthe center of circular loop, in the fim Problem 5.9 Find the magnetic field at point P for each of the steady current configurations shown in Fig, 5.23, T « o Figure 5.22 Figure 5.23 7 sy this loud and clear to emphasize te pon of pnp actualy, Ea. 840i aprsinaey igh or bonrclassticcarges v0), der onion where etanation can be este (6 EX. 10.220 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS : Ty x a. | a | Figure 5.24 Problem 5.10 (a) Find the force on a squaze loop placed as shown in Fig, 5.24), near an infinite straight Wire. Both the loop and the wire carry a steady current J () Find the Force on the triangular loop in Fig. 5.24%). Figure 5.25 Problem 5.11 Find tie magnetic field point P onthe axis ofa tightly woured solenoid (belicl coil) consisting of tums per unit lengua wrapped around cylindrical tube of radius @ and ‘camying current / (Fig. 525). Express your answer in terms of 6 and 6 (i's easiest that way). Consider the tums to be essentially circular, and use the result of Ex. 5.6. What isthe field on the axis ofan infinite solenoid (infinite in both directions)? he AG Figure 5.26 Problem 5.12 Suppose you hae two infinite suaight line charges A, adistanced apart, moving along ata constant speed v (Fig. 5.26). How great would v have tobe in order forthe magnetic attraction to balance the electrical repulsion? Work out the actual umber... Isthisareasonable sont of speed’ i you've studied special eaiiry, you maybe tempted to 10k fr complexes in this problem tht ae not really there and vare both measire inthe labora frane, and thsis ordinary elects (se face)53. THE DIVERGI (CE AND CURL OF B 221 3.3. The Divergence and Curl of B 5.3.1 Straight-Line Currents ‘The magnetic field of an infinite straight wire is shown in Fig, 5.27 (the current is coming ‘out of the page). Ata glance, it is clear that this field has a nonzero curl (something you'll xr see in an electrostatic field); let's calculate it Figure 5.27 According to Eq. 5.36, the integral of B around a circular path of radius s, centered at the wire is tal y= tl f Bol y= HS ay = yh foeam fou = oa ho Notice that the answer is independent of s; that’s because B decreases atthe same rate as the circumference increases. In fact, it doesn’t have to be acircle; any old loop that encloses the wire would give the same answer. For if we use cylindrical coordinates (s, 6, :), with the current flowing along the < axis, _ Hol g ~ os B Gan, and dl = ds8-+sdog + dzé, so fant f sare dg = pol. ‘This assumes the loop encircles the wire exactly once: ifit went around twice. the ¢ would run from 0 to 4, and ft didn't enclose the wire at all then would go from ¢ to 2 and buck again, with J dp = 0 (Fig. 5.28)22 CHAPTER 5, MAGNETOSTATICS Wire Figure 5.28 Now suppose we have a bundle of straight wires. Each wire that passes through our loop contributes o/, and those outside contribute nothing (Fig. 5.29). The line integral will then be f Ba = nol 6.42) ‘where fey Stands forthe total current enclosed by the integration path. Ifthe flow of char is represented by a volume current density J, the enclosed cutrent is [oa 4 ‘with the integral taken over the surface bounded by the loop. Applying Stokes" theorem to for mana f sein, Vx B= nod. (5.44 eos and hence ‘With minimal labor we have actually obtained the general formula for the curl of B. But our derivation is seriously flawed by the restriction to infinite straight line currents (and combinations thereot). Most current configurations cannot be constructed out of infinite straight wires, and we have no right to assume that Eq, 5.44 applies to them, So the next section is devoted tothe formal derivation ofthe divergence and cutl of B, starting from the Biot-Savart law itself 5. ‘The Biot-Savart aw for the general case of a volume current reads _ Ho fe x4, : Br) = ef ae 45) 2. The Divergence and Curl of B53, THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF B 23 ager Figure 5.30 ‘This formula gives the magnetic field ata point r = (x, yz) interms ofan integral over the ccurent distribution J(x’. y’,') (Fig. 5.30), Itis best to be absolutely explicit at this stage: B isa function of (x, y,2), J isa function of (’,y',2'), (ea x)R +O YIP + E294, dc! = dx' dy’ dz. ‘The integration is over the primed coordinates: the divergence and the curl are to be taken ‘with respect to the unprimed coordinates, Applying the divergence to Eg. 5.45, we obtain: ho Ae vB 8 fv(sx 3) ae (5.46) Invoking product rte amber (6), v. (04) 5-wx9-a(ex4) a7) ©, because J doesn't depend on the unprimed variables (x,y, 2), Whereas 0 (Prob. 1.62), so VB=0. 6.48) Evidently, the divergence of the magnetic field is zero, Applying the curl to Eq. 5.45, we obtain: vane Bt fvx(sx 3) art 49) Again, our strategy isto expand the integrand, using the appropriate product rule—in this ‘ease number 8 vx(te§)-s(v 8)-aewd, 650)224 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS (Thave dropped terms involving derivatives of J, because J does not depend on x, y,z.) The second term integrates to zero, as we'll see in the next paragraph. The fist term involves the divergence we were at pains to calculate in Chapter I (Eq. 1.100) Thus 20 f year = vxp= i [eres (ir —r')de' = wod(n), which confinms that Eg. 5.44 is not restricted to straight-line currents, but holds quite ‘generally in magnetostatcs. To complete the argument, however, we must check that the second term in Eq. 5.50 integrates to zero. Because the derivative acts only on 4/22, we can switch from V to V’ at the cost of a minus sign:? (I-¥) (552) ‘The x component, in particular, is on(5 ]-(SZ)o" d (using product rule 5). Now, for steady curens the divergence of J is zero (Bq, 5.31), so [-o v): and therefore this contribution to the integral (5.49) can be written [v-[252u]ar =f 52 p- a os , i z (The reason for switching from V to V! was precisely to permit this integration by parts.) But what region are we integrating over? Well, it's the volume that appears in the Biot Savart law (5.45)—large enough, that is, to include all the current. You can make it bigger than that, if you like; J = 0 out there anyway, so it will add nothing to the integral. The essential point is that on the boundary the current is zero (all current is safely inside) and hhence the surface integral (5.53) vanishes." * The point bee is tat A depends only onthe dliference between the coorinaes ad (8/0x) fir — x") - (ajax) fe) "81 F sit extends to infinity (a inthe case of am inte stat wir), the surface integrals stil ypc 2er0, hough the analysis cll fo seater cae.5.3, THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF B 25 533° Ap ations of Ampére’s Law The equation for the curl of B VxB=nol,| (5.54) is called Ampére’s law (in differential form). It can be converted to integral form by the usual device of applying one of the fundamental theorems—in this case Stokes" theorem: foed=wo fade Now, / J -da is the total current passing through the surface Fig. 5.31), which We cll eye (dhe eurrent enclosed by the amperian loop). Thus fovxp-da FB dl = pole (5.55) ‘This is the integral version of Ampére’s law; it generalizes Eg. 542 to arbitrary steady currents, Notice that Eq. 5.55 inherits the sign ambiguity of Stokes’ theorem (Sect. 1.3.5): ‘Which way around the loop am I supposed to go? And which direction through the surface corresponds to a “positive” current? The resolution, a always, is the right-hand rule: Ifthe fingers of your right hand indicate the direction of integration around the boundary, then ‘your thumb defines the direction of a positive current Boundary line meets Surtace Figure 5.31 Just as the Biot-Savart law plays a role in magnetostatics that Coulomb's law assumed in electrostatics, so Ampete's plays the role of Gauss's Electrostatics: Coulomb > Gauss, Magnetostaties : BiotSavart > Ampére. In particular, for currents with appropriate symmetry, Ampére’s law in integral form offers a lovely and extraordinarily efficient means for calculating the magnetic field.26 Example 57 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Find the magnetic field « distance strom a long straight wir (Fig. 5.32), earying a steady ‘current 7 (the same problem we solved in Ex. 5.5, using the Biot-Savart a, Solution: We know the direction of Bis “circumerential," circling around the wires indicated by the right hand rule. By symmet, the magnitude of B is constant around an amperian loop of radius s, centered onthe wire. So Ampére's law gives fra 8 f dl = ans = tole = Hol Hol tre This is the same anower we go ere (536), but was atime this time wih fares etn Amperian loop B Figure 5.32, Example 5.8 te uniform surface current Find the magnetic field of an inf plane (Fig, 5.33), Solution: First ofall, what isthe direction of B?Couldithave any x-componenit? No: A glance atthe Biot Savart law (5.39) reveals that Bis perpendicular K. Could ithavea z-component? ‘No again. You could confi this by noting that any venical contribution from a filament at +) iscanceled by the corresponding filament at —y, But there isa nicer argument: Suppose the field pointed away from the plane. By reversing the direction of the current, I could make it point roward the plane (in the Biot-Savar law, changing the sign of the current switeles the sign of the field). But the z-component of B cannot possibly depend onthe direction of the current in the xy plane. (Think about it!) So B can only have a y-component, ad a quick check with your right hand should convince you that it points othe feft above the plane and {othe right below it 1.3, Hlowing over the xy53. THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF B 2 ‘With this in mind we draw a rectangular amperian loop as shown in Fig. 53, parallel to the yz plane and extending an equal distance above and below the surface, Applying Ampére's Taw, we find feat = 281 = won = 10K {one BI comes from the top segment, and the other from the bottom), 90 = (up /2)K., or more precisely. { +WU9/DKG for 2 <0. A (uo/DK§ for => 0. 659) Notice that the fed is independent ofthe distance from the plane just ike the electric field of ‘uniform surface charge (Ex.2.4). Example 5.9 Find the magnetic field of avery long solenoid, consisting of » closely wound wns per unit length on a cylinder of radius ® and earying a steady current (ig. 5.3). [The point of ‘making the windings so close is that one can then pretend each tum is circular. I this troubles {ou alterall there isa net current in the direction ofthe solenoids exis, no matter how ight ‘the winding), picture instead shoet of aluminum oil wrapped around the cylinder carrying the ‘equivalent uniform surface curent K = n/ (Fig. 5.35). Or make a double winding. going up ‘o.one end and then—always in the same sense—going back down again, thereby eliminating ‘the net longitudinal current. Bur, in truth, this is all unnecessary fastidiousness. for the field inside a solenoid is huge (relatively speaking), andthe field of the kmgitudinal current is a tiny refinement] most. Solution: First of all, what is dhe direction of B? Could it have a radial component? No. For suppose By wore postive; if we reversed the direction of the curent, 8, would then be negative. But switching J is physically equivalent to turing the solenoid upside down, and = ® Figure 5.34 FigureS.35228, CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS | > Figure 5.36 Figure 5.37 that certainly should not alter the radial field, How about a * component? No, For Bj would be constant around an amperian loop concentric with the solenoid (Fig. 5.36) — fra since the loop encloses no curent ‘So the magnetic eld ofan infinite, closely wound solenoid runs parallel tothe axis. From the tight hand rule, we expect that it points upward inside the solenoid and downward ousige, Moreover, it certainly approaches zero as you go very far away. With this in mind, les apply Ampére’s law tothe two rectangular loops in Fig. 5.37. Loop {ties entirely ouside the solenoid, with is sides at distances a and b from the axis: 39(2rs) = Holene = 0. f= 190) ~ m= pale ia =) ey fe on den dp on eo ears Be bt crust mtateonsero ssn ta fe Ba Sata mh Sec Pot 28) -strp2 ihis ha ad b o Are' es frac ‘where B isthe Held inside the solenoid. (The right side of the loop contributes nothing, since B =O ont there.) Conclusion olene = wont L, a tenth nie tat, fo 6, jutside the solenoid [Notice thatthe fet inside is uniform; in this sense the solenoid is to magnetosatics what the parallel plate capacitor is to electrostatics: a simple device for producing strong uniform fields5.3. THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF B 29 Like Gauss's law, Ampére’s law is always rue (for steady currents), but its not always useful. Only when the symmetry of the problem enables you to pull B outside the integral J B+ dl can you calculate the magnetic field from Ampére’s law. When it does work, i's iy far the fastest method; when it doesn’t, you have to fall back on the Biot-Savart law. The ‘current configurations that can be handled by Ampére’s law are 1. Infinite straight lines (prototype: Ex. 5.7). 2. Infinite planes (prototype: Ex. 5.8). 3. Infinite solenoids (prototype: Ex. 5.9). 4, Toroids (prototype: Ex. 5.10). ‘The last ofthese is a surprising and elegant application of Ampére’s law; it is treated in the following example. As in Exs. 5.8 and 5.9, the hard partis figuring out the direction of the field (which we will now have done, once and forall, for each of the four geometries); the actual application of Ampére’s law takes only one line Example 5.10 A toroidal co consists of a circular ring, or “donut,” around which a long wire is wrapped (Fig, 5.38). The winding is uniform and tight enough so that each tum can be considered a closed loop, The cross-sectional shape ofthe col is immaterial. T made it rectangelar in Fig, 5.38 forthe sake of simplicity, but it could just as well be circular or even some weird asymmetrical form, 36 in Fig. 5.39, just as long asthe shape remains the same all the way’ around the ring. In that ease i follows that the magnetic field of the toroid es circumferential at all poins, book inside and outside the col. Figure 5.38 Proof: According tothe Biot Savart law, the field at r due tothe curent element at is We may as well putt inthe xz plane (Fig. 5.39), so its Caresian components are (x0, 2) while the source coordinates are cong s'sing’,') Then 1s cos, -s'sin 22’). nponent, I = 1,8-+ 1,4 r (in Cartesian coordinates) Since the eurent has no $ T= (1,008. Ipsin 6 1)230 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Figure 5.39 Accordingly, ba Tease hysing” (e=s'e0s6) (-s'sing') Ising’ Uae ~ 2) +8 4 Ube = s'c0s9") ~ feos glte— 215 +[-hexsing' But there is asymmetrically situated current element ate” with the same s' the same 2, the samme d’, the sime /,, andthe same /c, bur negative @” (Fig, 5.39). Because sin” changes sign the & and z contributions from and e” cancel, leaving only a § term. Thus the field a isin the § direction, and in general the field points in the @ dtection. ged Now that we know the fld is circumferential, determining its magnitude bs ridiculously easy. Just apply Ampére's law to a cree of radius about the ais of the toroid: Bows = nolere and hence yr fe }. for points inside the coil, B=] 2 (3.581 0, for points outside the coil, where Vis the total number of turns.5.3, THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF B 21 Problem 5.13 A steady current J flows down along cylindrical wire of radius a (Fig. $40), Find the magnetic field, both inside and ouside the wire, if (@) The currents (b) The current is distributed in such a way that J is proportional to s, the distance from the iformly disuibured over the outside surface ofthe wire. Figure 5.40 Figure 5.41 Problem $.14 A thick slab extending from 2 = ~a to, = +a carves a uniform volume current J = J & (Fig. 541), Find the magnetic eld, as auction ofc, both inside and outside the slab Problem 5.18 Two long coaxial solenoids each earry current /, bat in opposite ditectons, as shown in Fig, 542, The iner solenoid (radius a) has m} turns per unit length and the outer ‘one (rads b) has np. Find B in each of the thee regions: (i) inside the inner solenoid, (i) between them, and (i) outside both Figure 5.42 Figure 5.43 Prublem 5.16 A latge parallel-plate capacitor with uniform Surface charge a on the upper plate and ~2 on the lower is moving with a constant speed v, as shown in Fig 5.43, (@) Find the magnetic field berween the plates and also above and below them, (b) Find the magnetic force per unit area on the upper plate including its direction (©) At what speed » would the magnetic force balance the electrical force?!! TT footnote 8Problem 5.17 Show thatthe magnetic field of an infinite solenoid runs parallel to the axis regardless ofthe cross-sectional shape ofthe coi, as long as that shape is constant along the length of the solenoid. What i the magnitude of the fied, inside and ouside of such a coil? ‘Show thatthe toroid field (5.58) reduces to the solenoid field, when the radius of the donut is ‘0 larg that a segment can be considered essentially’ straight, Problem §.18 In calling the cument enclosed by an amperian loop, one must in genera vate an integral ofthe form fe = [3d Is ‘The trouble i, there are infinitely many surfaces dat share the same boundary tne, Which ‘one are we supposed 10 use? 5.3.4 Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostatics ‘The divergence and curl of the electrostatic field are | VeE=+p, Gauss’stawy; « VxE=0, — (noname), ‘These are Maxwell's equations for electrostatics. ‘Together with the boundary condition E ~ 0 far from all charges, Maxwell's equations determine the field, ifthe source charge density p is given; they contain essentially the same information as Coulomb's law plus the principle of superposition. The divergence and curl of the magnetostatic field are V-B=0, (n0 name), Vx B=suoJ, (Ampere’s law). ‘These are Maxwell's equations for magnetostaties. Again, together with the boundary condition B > 0 far from all currents, Maxwell’s equations determine the magnetic field: they ate equivalent to the Biot-Savart law (plus superposition), Maxwell's equations and the force law. F= QE +vxB) constitute the most elegant formulation of electrostaties and magnetostatic. ‘The electric field diverges away from a (positive) charge; the magnetie field line curls around a current (Fig. 5.4). Electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate ‘on negative ones; magnetic field lines do not begin or end anywhere—to do so would require a nonzero divergence. They either form closed loops or extend out to infinity To put it another way, there are no point sources for B, as there are for B; there exists ‘no magnetic anatog to electric charge. This is the physical content of the statement V B =0. Coulomb and others believed that magnetism was produced by magnetic charges (magnetic monopoles, as we would now call them), and in some older books you will still53. THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF B 233 E B (4) Electrostatic etd (b) Magnetostatic field of a point charge: of along wire Figure 5.44 find references to a magnetic version of Coulomb's law, giving the force of attraction or repulsion between them. It was Ampére who first speculated that all magnetic effects are autributable to electric charges in motion (currents). As far as we know, Ampére was right nevertheless it remains an open experimental question whether magnetie monopoles exist in nature they are obviously pretty rave, or somebody would have found one!2), and in fact some recent elementary particle theories require them. For our purposes, though, B is sivergenceless and there are no magnetic monopoles. It takes a moving electric charge (0 rodiice a magnetic field, and it takes another moving electric charge to “feel” a magnetic field. ‘Typically, electric forees are enormously larger than magnetic ones. That's not some- thing you can tell from the theory as such; it has to do with the sizes of the fundamental constants €9 and jo. 1n general, itis only when both the souree charges and the test charge are moving at velocities comparable tothe speed of light thatthe magnetic force approaches the electric force in strength, Problems 5.12 and 5.16 illustrate this rule.) How is i, then, that we ever notice magnetic effects at all? The answer is that both in the production of a magnetic field (Biot-Savart) and in its detection (Lorentz) it is the current (charge times velocity) that enters, and we can compensate fora smallish velocity by pouring huge quan- tities of charge down the wire. Ordinarily, this charge would simultaneously generate so large an electric force as to swamp the magnetic one. But if we arrange to keep the wire neutral, by embedding in it an equal amount of opposite charge at rest, the eleetic field cancels ou, leaving the magnetic field to stand alone. It sounds very elaborate, but of course this is precisely what happens in an ordinary current carrying wie. 7g apparat detection (B, Cabrera, Phys. Re, Let. 48, 1378 (1982) as never ben eprdoced—and not for want of uying. Fora delighfl bie history of des about magnetism, ee Chaper 1a D.C Matis, The Theory ‘of Magaetin (New Yor: Harper and Row 1965)234 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Problem 5.19 (a) Find he density p of motile charges in apiece of copper, assuming each atom contributes ‘one fee electron, [Look up the necessary physical constants] (b) Cateutate the average electron velocity in @ copper wire 1 mm in diameter, carrying a ‘current of 1 A. [Note this is literally a snal’s pace. How, then, can you carry on along distance telephone conversation?] (6) What is the fore of attraction between two such wires, I em apart? (4) If you could somehow remove the stationary positive ions, what would the electrical repulsion force be? How many times greater tha the magnete force isi? Problem 5.20 Is Ampére’s law consistent withthe general rule (Eg 146) that divergence-of- curl is always zero? Show that Ampere’s law cannot be vali, in general, outside magneto- ies. Is there any such “deteet” inthe other three Maxwell equations? Problem .21 Suppose there did exis magnetic monopoles. How would you modify Maxwell's equations and the Force law, to accommodate them? If you think there ae several plausible ‘options ist them, and suggest how you might decide experimentally which one is right. 5.4 Magnetic Vector Potential 5.4.1 The Vector Potential Just as V x E = 0 permitted us to introduce a scalar potential (V) in electrostaties, E=-vv, so B= 0 invites the introduction of a vector potential A in magnetostatic: B=VxA. (5.59) ‘The former is authorized by Theorem 1 (of Sect. 1.6.2), the later by Theorem 2 (the proof ‘of Thearem 2 ig developed in Prob. 5.30). ‘The potential formulation automatically takes care of VB = 0 (since the divergence of a curl is always zero); there remains Ampére's law: VxB=Vx(VxA)=V(V-A)—~VA= pod, (5.60) Now, thelectic potential hada built-in ambiguity: you canaddto V any function whose sradient is zero (which is o say, any constant), without altering the pinsical quantity E. Likewise, you can add to the magnetic potential any function whose cur! vanishes (wich is to say; the gradient of any scalar), with no effect on B. We can exploit ths freedom to climinate the divergence of A: vA (3.61)54. MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 235 ‘To prove that this is always possible, suppose that our original potential, Ag, is not divergenceless. If we add to it the gradient of 3 (A = Ay + V2), the new divergence is VAS VATA, ‘We can accommodate Eq, 5.61, then, if a function 4 can be found that satisfies Wha Vy. But this is mathematically identical to Poisson's equation (2.24), 2 vy a=- © ‘with V-Ag in place of p/¢9 asthe “source.” And we knowhow to solve Poisson's equation— that’s what electrostatics is all about (“given the charge distribution, find the potential”). In particular, if p goes o zero at infinity, the solution is Eq, 2.29: L feye x [ear Grea / oe and by the same token, if V - Ay goes to zero at infinity, then Lp veAy rs av’ IF V- Ay does not go to zero at infinity, we'll have to use other means to discover the Appropriate A, just as we get the electric potential by other means when the charge distribu- tion extends to infinity. But the essential point remains: Iris always possible to make the vector potential divergenceless. To put it the other way around: The definition B = V x A specifies the curl of A, but it doesn’t say anything about the divergence—we are at 1 pick that as we see fit, and zero is ordinarily the simplest choice. ‘With this condition on A, Ampére’s law (5.60) becomes VA = wl, 5.62) ‘This again is nothing but Poisson’s equation —or rather, itis three Poisson's equations, one for each Cartesian'® component. Assuming J goes 10 zero at infinity, we can read off the on Ho f Je) a0) 88 f Mae os "Stn Caresian cooatinates, VA = (VAY R + (VPA, § + (0A; }% 50 Bg, SA2eeduces 10 V2AL = —Ho VPAy = ~14ys and V?Ae = —ygde. In curvilinear coordinates the unit Vectots emacs ate Functions of Psion, an must be diferemiated, so ii not the case, for example, that V2 A, = —up/p. The safest way 10 Calculate the Laplacian ofa vector. ners ofits curilinear components, sto we 2A = W(V-A}—W xi A) Remember lsothateven you coculte integrals sachas 63 wing eurlineds connate. yo thst fis expres interms of its Cartesian components (see See. 1.1)236 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS For line and surface currents, is [mol ft, elt a (lf the curent does nor go to zero at infinity we have to find other ways o get A; some of these are explored in Ex. 5.12 and in the problems at the end ofthe section.) must be said that Ais not as wsefid a8 V. For one thing, it’ stil a vector, and although Eqs. 5.6 and 5.64 are somewhat easier to work with than the Biot-Savart la, you stil have to uss with components. It would be nice if we could getaway with a scalar potential bs Fy a2 [Ea 60 B=-vu, (5.65) but this is incompatible with Ampér’s law, since the curl ofa gradient is always zero. (A ‘magnetostatic scalar potential can be used, if you stick scrupulously o simply-connected curtent-free regions, but as theoretical tool itis of limited interest. See Prob. 5.28.) More- over, ince magnetic forces do no work, A does not admit a simple physical interpretation in terms of potential energy per unit charge. (In some contests it can be interpreted as ‘momentum per unit charge."*) Nevertheless, the vector potential has substantial theoretical importance, as we shall se in Chapter 10. Example 5.11 A spherical shell, of radius R, carrying a uniform surface charge , i set spinning at angular velocity @, Find the vector potential it produces at point r (Fig. 5.45). Solution: It might seem natural to align the polar axis along @, but in fat the integration is ‘easier if we ltr lie on the z axis, so that is tilted at an angle W. We may as well orient the 1 ax so that ies in the « plane, as shown in Fig. 5.46, According to Ey. 5.64, — ao f KO) ay n= tt [ 82a, Figure 545 Figure 5.46 "3M D. Semon and R, Taylor A.J Phys. 64,1361 (196).54, MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 237 where K = ov,2 = VR? +72 — 2Rrcasd, and da’ = R? sind’ do’ dq’. Now the velocity of point ina rotating rigid body is given by @ x rs in this case, x i a sin 0 cosy Rsind'cosg’ Rsind’ sing’ Reosd" 10 ~(cos sind sing") + (c0s ¥ sind cos” —sin y-cos6")§-+(sin V sing’ sing) 2} "Notice that each ofthese terms, save one, involves either sing or cos". Since such terms contribate nothing. There remains cy = —tatbewing (f*__emeisn _) 2 lb VRE rE BRr cose Letting u = cos’, the integral becomes pr 2Rrw Ba w P12 + Rew) _p i py =H + RW) ar Rr SRIF [oP oP mnie ane rn] Ifthe point rlies inside the sphere, then R > r,andthis expression reduces to (2r/3R2):ift les curse the sphere, so that R-< rit educes 0 (2K /3r2). Noting that ( x r) = —or'sin yf, we have, finally, woRe. s Aq = (566) poR‘o a (@ x), for points inside the sphere, (w 1), forpoints ouside the sphere. Having evaluated the intogral, I revert tothe “natural” coordinates of Fig. 5.45, in which w coincides withthe ¢ axis and the point risa (8) HOR sna, (ER) N00) 36) HoRtwo sing re eg vem Curiously, the fll inside this spherical shel is uniform: Ba vx A= HOR? 59% sin6) = 2yyoRwd = InyoRw. (S68)238 CHAPTER 5, MAGNETOSTATICS Example 5.12 Find the vector potential of an infinite solenoid with m turns per unit length, radius R, and ceurcent 1 Solution; This time we cannot use Eq, 5.64, since the current itself extends to infinity. But Dee's a cute method that does the job. Notice that fra foorayann frame, 0 ‘where @ is the flux of B through the loop in question. This is reminiscent of Ampere’ law in the integral form (5.55), fra In fact, i's the same equation, with B > A.and plone > ©. Wesymmetry permits, we can determine A from @ in the same way we gor B rom lene. n Sect. 5.3.3. The present problem (ith a uniform longitudinal magnetic feld ey inside the solenoid and no field outside) is analogous to the Ampere’ law problem ofa fat wite carrying « uniformly distributed curren ‘The vector potential is “circumferential” (it mimics the magnetic field of the wire); using a circular “amperian loop” at radius s inside the solenoid, we have alee frsa=aarsy= [a= poten? . an HOG, fsck 670) Foran amperian loop outside the solenoid, the fx is [-au=nortarR sinc the field only extends out &. Thus = OES sok 70 Ifyou have any doubs about thi answer checkit+ Does V «A= BY Doss V-A 0° Ifo se done ‘Typically, the direction of A will mimic the direetion ofthe current For instance, both ‘were azimuthal in Exs. 5.11 and 5.12, Indeed, ial the current flows in one direction, then Eg. 5.63 suggests that A muse point that way too, Thus the potential of a finite segment of straight wire (Prob. 5.22) is in the direction ofthe current. OF course ifthe current extends to infinity you can’t use Eq 5.63 in the frst place (see Probs. 5.25 and 5.26). Moreover. you can always add an arbitrary constant vector to A—this is analogous to changing the reference point for V, andit won't affect the divergence or cul of A, which ill that matters {in Eq. 5.63 we have chosen the constant so that A. goes to zero at infinity). In principle you could even use a vector potential that isnot divergenceless, in which case all bets are Off, Despite all these caveats, the essential point remains: Ordinarily the direction of A will match the direction ofthe current5.4. MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 239 Problem 5.22 Find the magnetic vector potential ofa finite segment of straight wire, carrying current 1. (Put the wire on the ¢ axis, from zy t0 <2, and use Eq. .64,] Check that your answers consistent with Eq, 5.35. Problem 5.23 What current density would produce the vector potential, A = kg ¢where kis ‘constant in cylindrical coordinates? Problem 524 If B i uniform show tat Ace) = —J(r x B) works. Thats check that V-A =O and ¥ x A = B. Is this rst unique. o ae thee othcr functions with the sme divergence and un? Problem 5.25 (2) By whatever means you can think of short of looking it up, find the vector potential a distance s from an iafinite straight wire carrying @ current. Check that V -A = O and VxA=B () Find the magnetic potential inside the wire if thas radius R and the curent is uniformly disteibuted ‘Problem 5.26 Find the yector potential above and below the plane surface current in Ex. 5.8 Problem 5.27 (a) Check that Eg, 5.63 is consistent with Eg, 5.61, by applying the divergence, (b) Check that Eq 5.63 is consistent with Eq. 5.45, by applying the eur, {) Check that Eq. 5.63 is consistent with Ex, 5.62, by applying the Laplacian Problem 5.28 Suppose you want to define a magnetic scalar potential U (Eq, 5.6), in the vicinity of a current-carrying wie, First ofall, you must stay away from the wire itself there Vx B40); butthats not enough. Show, by applying Ampére’s fw to a path that starts at a and circles the wire, returning 1 (Fig. 5.47), thatthe scalar potential cannot be single valued. (that is, U(a) # U(b), even if they represent the same physical point). As an example, find the sealar potential for an infinite straight wie, (To avoid a multivalued potential, you must restrict yourself to simply- connected regions that remain on one side or the other of every wire, never allowing you to go all the way arqund) Amperan top J ~ A << Figure 547240. CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Problem 5.29 Use the reslis of Ex. 5.1] to find the fold inside a uniformly charged sphere of total charge Q and radius R, which is rotating at a constant angular velocity 2. Problem 5.30 (2) Complete the proof of Theorem 2, Sect 1.6.2. Tati, show that any divergenceless vector field F can be waiten a the cur ofa vector potential A. What you have to doi find Ay. and Az such that: ) 84/8) ~ BAy/2 = Fy3 (I) @Ay/9z ~ BA-/Ox = Fy and (i ‘BAy/dx — Ay /By = Fe, Here's one way to do itt Pick Ay =O, and solve (i) and (ii for Ay and Az. Note that the “constants of integration” here are themselves functions of y and they're constant only with respect tox. Now plug these expressions into (i), and use the fact that V-F =O 0 obtain (b) By direct differentiation, check thatthe A you oblained in part (a) stiles Vx A= F. Is [A divergenceless? [This was a very asymmetrical construction, and it would be surprising if itwere—although we know that there exist vector whose cut is P and whose divergence is 2210.) L ; (©) Asanexample, let F = yi}: 4.2 Calculate A, and confirm that V x A= F. (For ander discussion see Prob 551.) $4.2 Summary; Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions In Chapter 2, I drew a triangular diagram to summarize the relations among the three fundamental quantities of electrostais: the charge density p, the electric field E, and the potential V. A similar diagram can be constructed for magnetostatics (Fig, 5.48), relating Figure 5.48‘Sa. MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 2a the current density J, the field B, and the potential A. There is one “missing link” in the diagram: the equation for A in terms of B, I's unlikely you would ever need such & formula, but in case you are interested, see Probs. 5.50 and 5.51 Just asthe electric field suffers a discontinuity ata surface charge, so the magnetic field is discontinuous at a surface current. Only this time it is the tangential component that changes. For if we apply Eq. 5.48, in the integral form fea 10 a wafer-thin pillbox straddling the surface (Fig. 5.49), we get 0, Bone = Bion (6.72) As for the tangential components, an amperian loop rung perpendicular tothe current Fig. 5.50) yields fea q 1 Batove ~ Breton 7 q Barove — Brew 6.73) ‘Thus the component of B that is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the current is discontinuous in the amount jo. A similar amperian loop running parallel to the current reveals that the parallel component is continuous. These results can be summarized in a single formula: Batove ~ Bretow = st0(K x fi), 6.74) ‘where fis a unit vector perpendicular to the surface, pointing “upward: Figure 5.49)242 CHAPTER 5, MAGNETOSTATICS Figure 5.50 Like the scalar potential in electrostatics, the vector potential is continuous across any boundary: Aanove = Abelows (75 for VA = 0 guarantees" that the normal component is continuous, and V x A = B. in the form farca= [o-d=0, ‘means thatthe tangential components are continuous (the flux through an amperian loop of vanishing thickness is zero). But the derivative of A inherits the discontinuity of B: Aare _ @Arelow ‘an an 0K. (5.16 Problem $31 (a) Check Bq, 5.74 for the configuration in Ex. 5.9 (b) Chock Eqs. 5.75 and 5.76 forthe configuration in Ex. 5.1. Problem 5.32 Prove Eq, 5.76 using Eqs. 5.61, 5.74, and 5.75. (Suggestion: setup Cartesian coordinates atthe surface, with < perpendicular tothe surface andx parallel to the curren.) 5.4.3 Multipole Expansion of the Vector Potential 1f you want an approximate formula for the vector potential ofa localized current di bation, valid at distant points, a multipole expansion isin oder. Remember: the idea of multipole expansion isto write the potential inthe form ofa power series in 1/r, where ris the distance tothe point in question (Fig. 5.51); if is sufficiently large, the series will be "se at gs 575 an 5.76 espe ta Ais divergences54. MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 8 Figure 5.51 dominated by the lowest nonvanishing contribution, and the higher terms can be ignored, As we found in Sect. 3.4.1 (Eq. 3.94), leyry" LYE) racose 67m Drr'eose) 7 Ae 2” Pee Accordingly, the vector potential of a current loop can be written intel f La oor, more explicitly foresee, cam Aw) 6.79) Asin the multipole expansion of V, we ell the first term (which goes like I/r) the monopole term, the second (which goes like 1/r?) dipole, the third quadrupole, and so on. Now, it happens that the magnetic monopole term is always zero, for the integral is just the total vector displacement around a closed loop: far=o ‘This reflects the fact that there are (apparently) no magnetic monopoles in nature (an as. sumption contained in Maxwell's equation V : B= 0, on which the entire theory of vector potential is predicated). 0)244 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS In the absence of any monopole contribution, the dominant term is the dipole (except in the rare case where it, t00, vanishes): Aap) = Boh fr coset a = be ry dt 81) ‘This integral can be rewritten in a more illuminating way if we invoke Eq, 1.108, withe =F: pera Aaptr) = To (5.83) 6.82) Then where m is the magnetic dipole moment: mel fda=la (584) Here ais the “vector area’ of the loop (Prob. 1.61) if the loop is flar, ais the ordinary area enclosed, with the direction assigned by the usual right hand rule (fingers in the direction of the current). Example 5.13 Find the magnetic dipole moment ofthe “bookend-shaped loop shown in Fig. 5.52. All sides have length w, and it caries a current J Solution: This wie could be considered the superposition of two plane square loops (Fig. 5.53) ‘The “extra” sides (A B) cancel when the two ae put together, since the currents flow in opposite directions. The net magnetic dipole moment is m= 1029 + fw? its magnitude is /2/v?, and it points along the 45° line Figure 5.525.4, MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 245 + Z Figure 5.53 Itis clear from Eq, 5.84 that the magnetic dipole moment is independent of the choice of origin. You may remember that the electric dipole moment is independent of the origin only When the total charge Vanishes (Sect, 3.4.3). Since the magnetic monopole momentis always 2zer0, it is not really surprising that the magnetic dipole moment is always independent of origin. Although the dipote term dominates the multipole expansion (unless m = 0), and thus offers a good approximation to the true potential, it is not ordinarily the exact potential; there will be quadrupole, octopole, and higher contributions. You might ask, isit possible to devise a current distribution whose potential is “pure” dipole—for which Eq, 5.83 is exacr? Well, yes and no: like the electrical analog, itcan be done, but the model isa bit contrived, ‘To begin with, you must take an infinitesimally small loop atthe origin, but then, in order to keep the dipole moment finite, you have to crank the current up to infinity, with the product ‘m = 1a held fixed. In practice, the dipole potential is a suitable approximation whenever the distance r greatly exceeds the size ofthe loop. ‘The magnetic field of a (pure) dipole is easiest to calculate if we put m at the origin and let it point in the z-direction (Fig. 5.54). According to Ea. 5.83, the potential at point Figure 5.54246 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS (a) Fe ofa "pure dipole (a) Fick ofa Figure 5.55 (8. bvis : 0 msin agin) = noms (sass and hence ho . Bapit) = V x A= TO caso + sino), (5.861 ‘Surprisingly, this is identical in structure to the field of an electric dipole (Eg. 3.103)! (Up. close, however, the field of a physical magnetic dipole—a small current loop—looks quite ferent from the field of a physical electric dipole—plusand minus charges a short distance apart, Compare Fig. 5.55 with Fig. 3.37.) ‘© Problem 5.38 Show thut the magnetic field ofa dipole can be writen in coordinate-ree form a7) Problem 5.34 A circular loop of wire, with radius R, Hiesin che xy plane, centered atthe origin, and carries a curren / running counterclockwise as viewed from the positive = axis, (a) What is ts magnete dipole moment” ©) What isthe (approximate) magnetic field st points far from the origin? (€) Show that, for points on te = axis, your answer is consistent withthe exact fleld (Ex. S61 when 2 3 R. Problem 5.38 A phonograph record of radius R, carrying a uniform surface charge 0. rotating constant angular velocity Find its magnetic dipole moment Problem 5.36 Find the magnetic dipole moment of the spinning spherical shel in Ex, 5.1 ‘Show that fr points r > 2 he potential is that of perfect dipole, Problem 5.37 Find the exact magnetic fel a distance z above the center ofa square loop ot Side w, carrying a current J. Verify that it reduces tothe feld ofa dipole, withthe appropriate dipole moment, when >> w,Sat. MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 247 More Problems on Chapter $ "6 tuner discussion eee D.C. Problem 5.38 It may have occurred to you that since parallel currents attract, the curent within ‘single wire should contract nto atiny concentrated stream along the axis, Yet in practice the ‘current typically distributes itself quite uniformly over the wire. How do you account fr this? 1 the postive charges (density p.) are at rest, and the negative charges (density p) move at speed v (and none ofthese depends onthe distance from the axis), show that p.. = —p.y?, where y = 1/yT— (ufo) and c? = 1/ugea. If the wire as a whole is neutral, where is the compensating charge located?"® [Notice that for typical velocities (see Prob, 5,19) the ‘wo charge densities are essentially unchanged by the current (since y ~ 1), In plasmas, however, where the positive charges are also free to mee, this so-called pinch effect can be very significant} Problem 5.39 A current / flows tothe right through a rectangular bar of conducting material, Inthe presence of a uniform magnetic field B pointing out ofthe page Fig. 5.56). (@) Ifthe moving charges are posiive, in which direction ae they deflected by the magnetic field? This deflection results in an accumulation of charge on the upper and lower surfaces of the bar, which in tum produces an cece force to counteract the magnetic one. Equilibrium occurs when the (woexsely cancel. (This phenomenon is known as the Hall effect.) (©) Find the resulting potential ditference (ihe Hall voltage) between the top and bottom of the bar, in terms of B,v (the speed ofthe charges), and the relevan} dimensions ofthe bar. !7 (© How would your analysis change i the moving charges were negative? [The Hal effec is the classic way of determining the sign ofthe mobile charge carers in a material | Figure 5.56 Figure 5.57 Problem 5.40 A plane wire loop of iregular shape is situated so that part oft sin uniform ‘magnetic field B (in Fig, 5.57 the feld occupies the shaded region, and points perpendicular to the plane ofthe loop). The loop carries a curent 7. Show thal the net magnetic fore®on the loop is F = 1 Bw, where w isthe chor subtended. Generalize this result to the case where the magnetic field region ise has an irregular shape. What isthe direction of the force? rls, Am. J. Phys. 61,360 (1993). "The potential within the bar makes an interesting boundary -alve problem, See M.J, Mock, J, Evans. and « its mJ. Phys. 66, 658998),248, CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Field region \ Figure 5.58, Particle trajectory Problem 5.4 A circularly symmetrical magnetic eld (B depends only om the distance trom tho axis), pointing perpendicular to the page. ocupis the shaded pon in Fig. 538. I the total x B-da s eo, show that charged parti ht tars ot atthe center wl omcege ftom tefl reion om a i! path (provided escapes at all—if the nial velocity ito area, it may simply circle around forever. On te reerse alectory, patil ied atthe ents rom tie wil tts argc, hog it may follow «weird route Bting there (Hint Calculate the wot angular momentum acquired bythe price sing the Lorentz fre ln Problem $42 Calculate the magnetic force of atraction between the norte and southern hemispheres ofa spinning charged spherical shell (Ex. 5.11). (Answer: (or/4)nig@70? R4.) Problem 543 Consider the motion of apatite with mass m an elect charge inthe Bld of hypoth staionary magnetic monzpole gy athe oii: Hoa at (a) Find he aceteraton of ge, expressing your answer in term of 4, gm (he positon of the partic, andv Gis veloc). ¢b) Show that he speed = js constant ofthe movin, (©) Show thatthe veetor quantity Qemexy- Hoge, at isa constant ofthe motion [Hint diferemiat it with respect time, and prove—using the ‘equation of motion from (a)—that the derivatives zero (4) Choosing spherical coordinates (7,6, ), withthe polar (2) axis slong Q, {clean ©. 3 od show ta i constant of he motion (0 4g moves onesie ‘of a cone—something Poincaré first discovered in 1896)'*; Win pint of fc the charge follows «geodesic onthe cone, Te original papers H, Poincaré, Comptes rend de Academie des Sciences 123,530 (1896) for a moe modem treatment seeB. Ros nd, Olbet, Jnradacion 1 the Phsics of Space (New York: MeGra-il, 1970,5, MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 249 i) calculate Q -, and show thatthe magnitude of Q is Gi) calcutate Q +6, show that an determine the constant (©) By expressing v? in spherical coordinates, obtain the equation forthe trajectory, im the fort ia ry (avis: determine the function FP) (0 Sole this equation for 16) Problem 5.44 Use the Biot-Savart law (most conveniently in the form 5.39 appropriate (0 surface cutents) to find the field inside and outside an infinitely long solenoid of radius R, ‘wih tums per unit length, carrying a steady current 7 Problem 5.45 A semicircular wire caries steady curent / (itmustbe hookedupto ome other wires to complete the circuit, but we're not concerned with them here). Find the magnetic field ata point P onthe other se Figure 5.59 Figure 5.60 Problem $46 The magnetic fed om he axis oF a circular eurent loop (Ea. 5.38) i far rom niform (falls of sharply with increasing 2). You ean produce a more nearly uniform field by using nv such loops a distanced apart (Fig. 5.60). (@) Find the field (B) as funtion of z, and show that 9/02 is ero at he pint midway between them (< = 0). Now, ifyou pick justright the second derivative of B will als vanish a the midpoin. This arrangement is known as « Helmholtz coi; isa convenient way of producing elatively uniform fel inthe laboratory (b) Determined such that 9B /:2 = Oat the midpoint, and find the resulting magnetic field atthe comer Aner: 819 1/5V5R)250 CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Problem $.47 Find the magnetic field ata point z > R on the axis oF (a) the rotating disk and (b) the rating sphere, in Prob. 5.6. Problem 5.48 Suppose you wanted (0 find the field of a circular loop (Ex. 5.6) ata point that is nor directly above the center (Fg. $.61)- You might as well choose your axes so that r lies inthe yz plane at (0, y, 2). The source point is (R cos, sin, 0), and 6 runs from 0 to 2n. Set up the integrals from which you could calculate By, By, and explicitly. and evaluate By a, Figure 5.61 Figure 5.62 Problem 5.49 Magnctostates treats the “source current” (the one that sets up the fleld) and the “recipient current” (the one that experiences the force) so asymmetrically tha itis by no ‘means obvious thatthe magnetic force between two current loops is consistent with Newton's third law. Show, starting with the Biot-Savart aw (5.32) and the Lorentz force law (5.16), that the force on loop 2 due to loop 1 (Fig. 5.62) can be writen as ita g f adhd 88) R Jn this form itis clea that F> = —Fy, since & changes direction when the roles of 1 and 2 are interchanged. (If you seem to be geting a “xtra term it wil ep 0 ote that dp Protea 889 Schatpequson tr Ai Ach YA Bat ael season eB 6 Be TxD pu Enea Ae oD sae Bp (9 hele wag yore 1 fEe)-4 von-d [4a5.4, MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL 251 Problem$.S1 Another way to illinthe “missing link” in Fig. $.48is to look fora magnetostatic analog (o Eq. 2.21, The obvious candidate would be f (Test hs formula forthe simplest possiblecase—unifirm B (ase the ovigin as yoursefrence ping I he result consistent with Pro. 5.24? You could cue this problem by throwing ina factor of}. but he fain this equation rans decper (©) Show that ((B % dl) is nor independent of path, by caleslaing (Bb x dl) around the rectangular loop shown in Fig. $63 ‘As far as T know!? the best one can do along these lines is the pair of equations (V«) =—F- fd BAR ad, GAC) == x ff BONA (Favation (mounts to sleting a radi! path forte itgral ing. 2.21: easton (i) consis more “symmetrical” solaton to Prob 5.30 (©) Use ito find the vector potential for uniform B (2) Use (i) to find the vector potential of an infinite straight wire carying a steady current / Does (i) automatically satisfy V A = 0? (Answer: (ug! /25)(28— 2), Figure 5.63 Problem $.82 (2) Construct the scalar potentil U(r) fora “pure” magnetic dipole m. (©) Consiruct scalar potential forthe spinning spherical shell (Ex. $.11). [His for r > R this is a pure dipole field, as you can see by comparing Eqs. 5.67 and 5.85.) (6) Try doing the same forthe interior ofa soldspinning sphere. (Hint: ityousolved Prob. 5.29, you already know the field ett equa to —VU' and solve for U. Whats the trouble?) "RL Bishop and 5.1. Gelber, Tensor Anal on Manolde, Sesion 4S (New York: Macmillan, 1968).(CHAPTER 5. MAGNETOSTATICS Problem 5.53 Just as V -B = 0 allows us to express B as the cusl of a vector potential (B= V x A), so V-A = 0 permits us to write A itself as the curl of a “higher” potential: ‘A= V x W, (And this hierarchy canbe extended ad infinitum.) (a) Find the general formula for W (as an integral over IB, which holds when B > 0 a (6) Determine W forthe case of a uniform magnetic field B. [Hint: see Prob. $.24,) () Find W inside and outside an infinite solenoid. Hint: see Ex. 5.12] Problem 5.$4 Prove the following uniqueness theorem: If the current density J is spovtied throughout a volume V, and either the potential A or the magnetic field B is specified on the surface S bounding V. then the magnetic field itself is uniquely determined throughout V. [itine First use the divergence theorem to show that for xo. ay ue xvas flexi > R. (@) Find the exact potential at a point (r, 0) outside the sphere, and check that itis consistent with (€). ine: refer to Ex. 5.11] (6) Find the magnedc field ata point (, 8) inside the sphere, and check that itis consistent with (b). Problem 5.59 Using Ei, 5.86, calculate the average magnetic field of a dipole over a sphere of radius & centered at the origin. Do the angular integrals first. Compare your answer with ‘the general theorem in Prob, 5.57. Explain the discrepancy, and indicate how Eq, 5.87 can be corrected i resolve the ambiguity ar = 0. (Ifyou get stuck, refer to Prob. 3.42)CHAPTER 5, MAGNETOSTATICS Evidently the sue feld of a magnetic dipole is : 2H 35 Sm 23%) + Omir. (5.90) Compare the electrostatic analog. Fg. 3.106, [Incidentally the deta-function term i respon- sible for the hyperfine spiting in atomic speetra—se, for example, D. J. Griflihs, Am. J Phys. $0,698 (1982),] Problem 8.60 I worked out the multipole expansion for the vector potential ofa fine current ‘because that’s the most common type, andin some respects the easiest to handle, Fora volume current F (a) Write down the multipole expansion, analogous to Eg. $78, {(b) Write down the monopole potential and prove that it vanishes, {(€) Using Eqs. 1.107 snd 5.84, show thatthe dipole moment can be writen mat foes 9» Problem 561 A thin glass rod of radius and Iength carries uniform surface charge @ Ieis set pinning aboot its axis, tan angular veloety «Find the magnetic field la distance 2 > from the center ofthe ra (Eg 5.66). (int: weal it as. sak of mapetie ips [answers uqwo LY 4s? + (L/2)7]Chapter 6 Magnetic Fields in Matter Magnetization 6.1.1 Diamagnets, Paramagnets, Ferromagnets If you ask the average person what “magnetism” is, you will probably be told about horse shoe magnets, compass needles, and the North Pole—none of which has any obvious ‘connection with moving charges or current-carrying wires. Yet all magnetic phenomena are due to electric charges in motion, and in fact, if you could examine a piece of magnetic ‘material on an atomic scale you would find tiny currents: electrons orbiting around nu and electrons spinning about their axes. For macroscopic purposes, these current loops are so small that we may treat them as magnetic dipoles. Ordinarily, they cancel each other ‘out because of the random orientation of the atoms, But when a magnetic field is applied, net alignment of these magnetic dipoles occurs, and the medium becomes magnetically polarized, or magnetized, Unlike electric polarization, which is almost always in the same direction as K, some ‘materials acquire a magnetization parallel (© B (paramagnets) and some opposite to B (diamagnets). A few substances (called ferromagnets, in deference to the most common example, iron) retain their magnetization even after the external field has been removed— for these the magnetization is not determined by the present field but by the whole magnetic “history” of the object. Permanent magnets made of iron are the most familiar examples fof magnetism, though from a theoretical point of view they are the most complicated; T'Il save ferromagnetism for the end of the chapter, and begin with qualitative models of pparamagnetism and diamagnetism. 6.1.2. Torques and Forces on Magnetic Dipoles [A magnetic dipole experiences a torque in a magnetic field, just as an electric dipole does in an electric field. Let’s calculate the torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform field B. (Since any current loop could be Built up from infinitesimal rectangles, with all 255256 CHAPTER 6. MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER Figure 6.1 the “intemal” sides canceling, as indicated in Fig. 6.1, there is no actual loss of generality in using this shape; but if you prefer to start from scratch with an arbitrary shape, see Prob, 6.2.) Center the loop at the origin, and tilt it an angle @ from the z axis towards the y axis (Fig. 6.2). Let B point in the z direction. The forces on the (wo sloping sides cancel (they tend to stretch the loop, but they don’t rotate it). The forces on the “horizontal” sides are likewise equal and opposite (so the net force on the loop is zero), but they do generate a torque: N=aF sinos, ‘The magnitude of the force on each of these segments is F=1bB, and therefore LabB sind & @ © Figure 626.1. MAGNETIZATION 237 [Nomxw] cn oe exact torque on any localized current distribution, in the presence of a uniform field; in a nonuniform field itis the exact torque (about the center) fora perfect dipole of infinitesimak Notice that Eq, 6.1 is identical in form to the electrical analog, Eq. 4.4: N= px E. In particular, the torque isagainin such a direction as toTine the dipole up paralfelto the field. It is this torque that accounts for paramagnetism. Since every electron constitutes magnetic ipole (picture it, if you wish, as a tiny spinning sphere of charge), you might expect paramagnetism to be @ universal phenomenon. Actually, the laws of quantum mechanics (specifically, the Pauli exclusion principle) dictate that the electrons within a given atom Tock together in pairs with opposing spins, and this effectively neutralizes the torque on the combination, AS a result, paramagnetism normally occurs in atoms or molecules with an odd number of electrons, where the “extra” unpaired member is subject to the magnetic ‘orque. Even here the alignment is far from complete, since random thermal collisions tend todestroy the order. In a uniform field, the net force on a current loop is zero: Parfaxw=1(faa) B, Problem 6.3 Find he force of atraction between two magnetic dipoles, m and mp, oriented as shown in Fig. 6.7, a distance” apar, (a) using Bq. 6.2, and (b) using Fg. 6.3. . I > Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Problem 6.4 Derive Ba, 6.3. [Here's one way to doit: Assume the dipole isan infinitesimal ‘square, of side ¢ (if iS not, chop it up into squares, and apply the argument to each one). ‘Choose axes as shown in Fig. 68, and calculate F = /(dl x B) along each of the four sides Expand B ina Taylor series—on te right sie, fr instance, an. B ® ao.) (0.6.2) = BO. Fora more sophisticated method, see Prob. 6.22.1260 CHAPTER 6. MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER Problem 6.5 A uniform current density J “atx = Ha. A magnate dipole m Jo ls sla straddling the y= plane, from 19% is Situated atthe origi, (a) Find the force on the dipole, using Fg. 6.3 {b) Do the same for 2 dipole pointing in the y direction: m = mo. (6) Inthe elecrostatic case the expressions F = Vip E) and F = (p- V)E are equivalent (prove it, ut this is nor the case forthe magnetic analogs (explain Why). Asan example. calculate (m- V)B forthe configurations in (a) and (). 6.1.3 Effect of a Magnetic Field on Atomic Orbits Electrons not only spin; they also revolve around the nucleus—for simpli the orbit isa circle of radius R (Fig. 6.9). Although technically this orbital motion does not constitute a steady current, in practice the period T = 2: Rv is so short that unless you blink awfully fas, it’s going to ook like a steady current: mR Accordingly, the orbital dipole moment (IR?) i. —5e0Rh A) (The minus sign accounts for the negative charge of the electron.) Like any other magnet dipole, this one is subject toa torque (m x B) when the atom is placed in a magnetic field, But it's a lot harder to tlt the entite orbit than it is the spin, so the orbital contribution to paramagnetism is small. There is, however, a more significant effect on the orbital motion: Figure 6.96.1. MAGNETIZATION 261 oh > Figure 6.10 ‘The electron speeds up or slows down, depending on the orientation of B. For whereas the centripetal acceleration v?/R is ordinarily sustained by electrical forces alone," Le Are R? 5) in the presence of a magnetic field there is an additional force, ~e(¥ x B). For the sake of argument, let's say that B is perpendicular co the plane of the orb, as shown in Fig. 6,10, then a (66) Under these conditions, the new speed @ is greater than v’ or, assuming the change Av = @ — vis small, RB 67) 2m. ‘When B is turned on, then, the electron speeds up? ‘A.change in orbital speed means a change in the dipole moment (6.4): L eR Am =—Le(AnyRa=— 68) eae am fe Notice that rhe change in m is opposite tothe direction ofB. (An electron circling the other way would have a dipole moment pointing upward, but such an orbit would be slowed To vo onfinon with th magnets ile moment, wi the ton ms with sobre 21 said eae (Eq, 5.11 tht magnets fs dono work dae incapbl of spesting & partic up and by that However ak we shall sei Chaper 7. changing maple eld aduces eerie el, an ii he Inver that acs the eectons in hin nan.262 (CHAPTER 6, MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER down by the field, so the change is still opposite © B.) Ordinarily the electron obits ate tandomly oriented, and the orbital dipole moments cancel out. But in the presence of a ‘magnetic field, each atom picks up a litle “extra” dipole moment, and these increments ‘ate all aniiparael tothe field. This isthe mechanism responsible for diamagnetism. t {sa universal phenomenon, affecting all atoms. However, itis typically much weaker than Paramagnetism, and is therefore observed mainly in atoms with even numbers of electons ‘where paramagnetism is usually absent. In deriving Eg 6.81 assumed that the orbit remains circular, wit ts original radius R. 1 cannotofera justification for thisat the present stage. Ifthe atoms stationary whilethe field is tumed on, then my assumption can be proved—this is not magnetostaics, however, and the details will have to await Chapter 7 (see Prob, 7.49). Ithe atom is moved into the field, the situation is enormously more complicated. But never mind—I'm only tying to give ‘you qualitative account of diamagnetism. Assume, if you prefer, that the velocity remains ihe same while the radius changes—the formula (6.8) is altered (by a factor of 2), but the Conclusion is unaflected. ‘The truth is that this classical model is fundamentally flawed (Giamagnetism is really a quantum phenomenon), so there's not much point in refining the details.’ What important is the empirical fact that in diamagnetic materials the induced dipole moments point opposite to the magnetic fel. 6.1.4 Magnetization In the presence of a magnetic field, matter becomes magnetized: tha is, upon microscopic ‘examination it will be found to contain many tiny dipoles, with a net alignment along some direction, We have discussed two mechanisms that account for this magnetic polarization (1) paramagnetism (the dipoles associated with the spins of unpaired electrons experience a {torque tending to line them up parallel to the field) and (2) diamagnetism (the orbital speed of the electrons is altered in such a way as to change the orbital dipole moment ina direction ‘opposite to the field). Whatever the cause, we describe the state of magnetic polarization by the vector quantity Ms magnetic dipole moment per unit volume. 69 ‘M is called the magnetization; it plays a role analogous to the polarization P in elec- trostatics, In the following section, we will not worry about how the magnetization gor there—it could be paramagnetism, diamagnetism, or even ferromagnetism-—we shall take Mas given, and calculate the field this magnetization itself produces. Incidentally, it may have surprised you to lear that materials other than the famous ferromagnetic trio (iron, nickel, and cobalt) ate affected by a magnetic field at all, You ‘cannot, of course, pick up a piece of wood or aluminum with a magnet, The reason is that M. Referring back to Ex. 5.11, 1 conclude that n= to, 16 inside the sphere, whereas the field outside isthe same as that ofa pure dipole, 4 m= 22M. Notice tht the intra felis amor, like the electric eld inside a uniformly polarized sphere (414), althogh the aca formulas forthe two cases are curiously rent place of —4), Te external fis ae also analogous: poe diol in both instances Problem 6.7 An infinitely long circular cylinder caries « uniform magnetization M parallel toits axis. Find the magnetic field (due to M) inside and outside the cylinder Problem 6.8 long circular ylinder of radius R caries a magnetization M = ks? , where k is constant, s isthe distance from the axis, and @ isthe usual azimuthal unit vector (Fig. 6.13). Find the magnetic field due to M, for poins inside and outside the eylinder. Problem 6.9 A short circular cylinder of radius a and length L carries a “frozen-in” uniform magnetization M parallel to its axis. Find the bound current and sketch the magnetic field of the eylinder. (Make three sketches: one for >> a, one for L i). (627) Ex. 6.2 of Prob, 6.14, ‘You might want to cheek them, for Problem 6.14 For the har magnet of Prob 69, make careful sketches of M, By and H, assuming Lis about 2a, Compare Prob. 4.17 Problem 6.15 If J = O everywhere the curl of H vanishes (Eq, 6.19) and we can express H asthe gradient of a scalar potential W: vw, According to Eq, 6.23, then, vw =(-M) 0 W obeys Poisson's equation, with V - M as the “source:” This opens up all the machinery ‘of Chapter 3. As an example ind the field inside a uniformly magnetized sphere (Fx. 6.1) bs separation of variables. [Hint: V-M =O everywhere except atthe surface (r = R), so satisfies Laplace’s equation in the regions r < R and > R;use Eq, 3.65, and from Eq, 6.24 figure out the appropriate boundary condition on W. 6.4 Linear and Nonlinear Media 64,1 Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability Inparamagnetic and diamagnetic material, the magnetization issustained by the field; when B is removed, M disappears. Infact, for most substances the magnetization is proportional tothe field, provided the field is not too strong. For notational consistency with the electrical cease (Eg. 4.30), I should express the proportionality thus’ M= Lyn Cincore (628) io But custom dictates that it be written in terms of H, instead of B: 629 ‘The constant of proportionality x is called the magnetic susceptibility; itis a dimen- sionless quantity that varies from one substance to another—positive for paramagnets and negative for diamagnets, Typical values are around 10° (see Table 6.1).64, LINEAR AND NONLINEAR MEDIA 215 Material Susceptibility. | Material Suscepiibiity Diamagnetic Paramagnetic: Bismuth =1.6 x 10-4 | Oxygen 1.9 x 10-6 Gold =3.4x 1075 | Sodium 85 x 10-¢ Silver =24x 105 | Aluminum 2 x 10-5 Copper 9.7 x 10-8 | Tungsten 78x 105 Water ~9.0 x 10° | Platinum 2.8 x 10-4 Carbon Dioxide =1.2 x 10-* | Liquid Oxygen (—200°C) 3.9.x 10-3 Hydrogen =2.2 x 10-9 | Gadolinium 4.8 x 107! iydroge Table 6.1 Magnetic Susceptiilities (unless otherwise specified, values are for 1 atm, 20° C), Source: Handbook of Chemistry and Physies, 67th ed, (Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc. 1986) Materials that obey Bg, 6.29 are called linear media, In view of Eq, 6.18, B= ig(H+M) = j00(1 + xm HL (630) for linear media, Thus B is also proportional to H:S Bau 631) where = Holl + En). (6.32) vis called the permeability of the material In a vacuum, where there is no matter to ‘magnetize, the susceptibility Zm vanishes, and the permeability is 449. That's why jzo is called the permeability of free space. Example 6.3 An infinite solenoid (n turns per unit length, curent 1) is flled with linear material of suscep- ibility 7. Find the magnetic field inside the solenoid Solutlon: Since B is due in part to bound currents (which we don’t yet know), we cannot ‘compute it directly. However, this is one of those symmetrical cases in which we can get H from the free curent alone, using Ampére's law in the form of Eq, 6.20; ant ‘Physicaly,cherefore, Ey 628 would say exactly the same as Eg. 6.2, only the constant yy would havea sitferene value Equation 6.29 ia ite more convenient because experimentalist hander to work with than Hf you factor out, whit’ eft is called the relative permeability: 1, = fxm for Hin terns of B (Eg 6.31, inthe ese of linar media ar cl those or Din tems o + te = 1/10, BY the way constitatve relations just Tike216 CHAPTER 6. MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER Figure6.22 (Fig. 6.22), According to Eg. 6.31, then, B= oll + xml IF the medium is paramagnetic, the fled is slightly enhanced; if t's diamagnetic, the field is somewhat reduced. This reflects the fat that the bound surface current Ky =M x i= ym(H x A) = yl is inthe same direction as 1, inthe forme cse (im > 0). and opposite inthe later (ym < 01 ‘You might suppose that linear media avoid the defect in the parallel between B and H. since M and H are now proportional to B, does it not follow that their divergence, ike B's ‘must always vanish? Unfortunatly, it does nor: at the Boundary between two materials of different permeability the divergence of M can actually be infinite. For instance, at the end of a cylinder of linear paramagnetic material, M is zero on one side but not on the other. For the "Gaussian pillbox” shown in Fig. 6.23. f M -da # 0, and hence, by the divergence theorem, ¥ - M cannot vanish everywhere within, Gaussian pillbox Figure 6.2364, LINEAR AND NONLINEAR MEDIA 21 Incidentally, the volume bound current density in a homogeneous linear material is proportional to the free current density J=¥xM Vx (emH And (633) In particular, unless free current actually flows through the material, all bound current will be at the surface Problem 6.16 A coaxial cable consists of two very long cylindrical tubes, separated by linear insulating material of magnetic susceptibility jy. A current / flows down the inner conductor and returns along the outer one: in each case the curent distributes itself uniformly over the surface (Fig. 624). Find the magnetic field in the egion between the tubes, As a check, calculate the magnetization andthe bound currents and confiem tat (together, ofcourse, with the fee curents) they generate the correct fel Figure 6.24 Problem 6.17 A current F lows down along straight wire of radius a. Ifthe wire is made of linear material (copper say, or aluminum) with susceptibility zm, and the eurentis distributed uniformly, whut isthe magnetic field a distances from the aki? Find all the bound currents ‘What isthe ner bound current flowing down the wite? Problem 6.18 A sphere ofinear magnetic materials placed in an otherwise uniform magnetic field Bp. Find the new field inside the sphere, Hint: See Prob. 6.15 or Prob, 4.23.) Problem 6.19 On the basis ofthe naive model presented in Sect. 6.1.3, estimate the magnetic susceptibility ofa diamagnetic metal such as copper. Compare your answer with the empirical value in Table 6.1, and comment on any discrepancy.278 CHAPTER 6. MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER 6.4.2. Ferromagnetism In a linear medium the alignment of atomic dipoles is maintained by a magnetic field in posed from the outside, Ferromagnets—which are emphatically not linear’—require no ‘extemal fields to sustain the magnetization; the alignment is “frozen in.” Like paramag- netism, ferromagnetism involves the magnetic dipoles associated withthe spins of unpaired electrons. Thenew feature, which makes ferromagnetism so different from paramagnetism. is the interaction between nearby dipoles: In a ferromagnet, each dipole “likes” to point in the same direction as its neighbors. The reason for this preference is essentially quantum ‘mechanical, and I shall not endeavor to explain it here; it is enough to know that the cor- relation isso strong as to align virtually 100% of the unpaired electron spins. If you could somehow magnify a piece of iron and "see" the individual dipoles as tiny arrows, it would 100k something like Fig, 6.25, with all the spins pointing the same way. Figure 6.25 Butif thats tue, why isn’tevery wrench and nail a powerful magnet? The answeris that the alignment occurs in relatively small patches, called domains. Each domain contains billions of dipoles, all ined up (these domains are actually visible under @ microscope. using suitable etching techniques—see Fig. 6.26), but the domains themselves are randomly oriented. The household wrench contains an enormous number of domains, and their ‘magnetic fields cancel, so the wrench asa whole is not magnetized. (Actually, the orientation of domains is not completely random; within a given crystal there may be some preferential alignment along the crystal axes. But there will be just as many domains pointing one way as the other, so there is still no large-scale magnetization, Moreover, the crystals themselves are randomly oriented within any sizable chunk of metal.) How, then, would you produce a permanent magnet, such as they sellin toy stores? IT {you puta piece of iron into a strong magnetic field, the torque N = m x B tends to align the dipoles parallel to the field, Since they like to stay parallel to their neighbors, most of the dipoles will resist this torque. However, atthe boundary between two domains, there "In his sense tis misleading ro speak ofthe susceptibility or permeability of «ferromagnet. The ses ar ed for such materi, bu they refer to the proportionality factor between a ferential increase in Hund the resuking diferent change in M (or B): moreover. they are net constants, but Sanctions of H.64, LINEAR AND NONLINEAR MEDIA 279 Ferromagnetic domains. (Photo courtesy of R. W. DeBlois) Figure 6.26 are competing neighbors, and the torque will throw its weight on the side of the dom most neatly parallel to the field; this domain will win over some converts, at the expense Of the less favorably oriented one. The net effect of the magnetic field, then, is to move the domain boundaries. Domains parallel to the field grow, and the others shrink. Ifthe field is strong enough, one domain takes over entirely, and the iron is said to be “saturated. Ictuns out that this process (the shifting of domain boundaries in response to an external field) is not entirely reversible: When the field is switched off, there will be some return to randomly oriented domains, but itis far from complete—there remains a preponderance of domains in the original direction, The object is now a permanent magnet. A simple way to accomplish this, in practice, is to wrap a coil of wire around the object to be magnetized (Fig. 6.27). Run a current I through the coil; this provides the extemal _magnetic field (pointing to the left in the diagram). As you increase the current, the field increases, the domain boundaries move, and the magnetization grows. Eventually, you reach the saturation point, with all the dipoles aligned, and a further increase in current has 1no effect on M (Fig. 6.28, point b), Now suppose you reduce the current, Instead of retracing the path back to M there is only a partial retum to randomly oriented domains, M decreases, but even with the ‘current off there is some residual magnetization (paint ¢), The wrench is now a permanent280, CHAPTER 6, MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER (Urn IITs) sal Figure 6.27 magnet. Ifyou want to eliminate the remaining magnetization, you'll have to run a current ‘backwards through the coil (a negative /). Now the external field points tothe right, and as ‘you increase / (negatively), M drops down to zer0 (point d). Ifyou tun J still higher, you soon reach saturation in the other direction —all the dipoles now pointing tothe right(e). At this stage switching of the current will eave the wrench with a permanent magnetization to the right (point f), To complete the story, turn on again inthe positive Sense: M returns to zer0 (point g), and eventually tothe forward saturation point (b), ‘The path we have traced out is called a hysteresis loop. Notice that the magnetization ‘of the wrench depends not only on the applied field (that is, on J), but also on its previous magnetic “history."® For instance, at three different times in our experiment the current was zeto (a, and f), yet the magnetization was diferent for each of them, Actually, itis customary to draw hysteresis loops as plots of B against rather than M against I. (Ifour coil is approximated by a long solenoid, with n turns per unit length, then H = nf, so H and I are proportional, Meanwhile, B = jzo(H + M), but in practice M is huge compared to H, s0 0 all intents and purposes B is proportional to M.) M (Permanent (Satan) € f (Permanent (Saturation) Magnet Figure 6.28 Exymologically the word hysteresis has nothing to do wit he word hstry—nor with the word Aysteria _ecves rom a Greek verb meaning “to lag Debit”64, LINEAR AND NONLINEAR MEDIA 281 ‘To make the units consistent (tesla) I have plotted (jn) horizontally (Fig. 6.29); notice, however, that the vertical scale is 10* times greater than the horizontal one. Roughly speaking, jzoH is the field our coil would have produced in the absence of any iron; B is What we aciwally got, and compared to joH its gigantic. A litte current goes a long way when you have feromagnetic materials around. That’s why anyone who wants to make a powerful electromagnet will wrap the coil around an iron core, It doesn’t take much of an external field to move the domain boundaries, and as soon as you've done that, you have all the dipoles in the iron working with you. 15 20” (Hg 10") Figure 6.29 One final point concerning ferromagnetism: It all follows, remember, from the fact that the dipoles within a given domain line up parallel to one another. Random thermal motions, ‘compete with this ordering, but as Jong as the temperature doesn’t get too high, they cannot budge the dipoles out of line. It’s not surprising, though, that very high temperatures do destroy the alignment. What is surprising is that this occurs at a precise temperature (770° C, for iron), Befow this temperature (called the Curie point), iron is ferromagnetic; abov paramagnetic. The Curie point is rather lke the boiling point or the freezing point in that there is no gradual transition from ferro- to para-magnetic behavior, any more than there is between water and ice. These abrupt changes in the properties of a substance, occurring at sharply defined temperatures, are known jn statistical mechanics as phase transitions. Problem 6.20 How vould you go about demagnetizing a peemanent magnet (such as the ‘wrench we have been discussing, at point cin the hysteresis loop)? That i, how could you restore ito its original state, with M = Oat = 0? Problem 6.21 (@) Show thatthe energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field B is given by mB (634)282 CHAPTER 6. MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER A DA % Figure 6.30 [Assume thatthe magnitude ofthe dipole moments fxed, ad all you have to dois move it inte place and rotate it int its final orientation, The energy required to keep the curent flowing i= different problem, which we will conftont in Chapter 7.] Compare Eg. 46. (b) Show thatthe interaction energy of two magnetic dipoles separated by a displacement rs given by my ~ my 96m +), (638) Compare Bq. 47. (©) Express your answer to (b) in terms of the angles 0) and 0 in Fig. 6.30, and use the result to find the stable configuration two dipoles would adopt itheld a fixed distance apart, bu eit fee to rate, (@) Suppose you hada large collection of compass needles, mounted on pins at regular intervals along a straight line. How would they point (assuming the earth’s magnetic field can be neglected)? [A rectangular aray of compass needles also aligns itself spontaneously, and thi is sometimes used asa demonstration of “ferromagnetic” behavior on a large scale. I's abit of fraud, however, since the mechanism here is purely classical and much weaker than the {quantum mechanical exchange forces tat ste actually responsible for ferromagnetism. More Problems on Chapter 6 Problem 6.22 In Prob 6.4 you calculated the force ona dipole by “brute fore.” Here's a more clogunt approach. First wrile B(r) asa Taylor expansion about the center of the loop: Ber) = Beto) + U(r — r0) -VolBiro). where tg is the positon ofthe dipole and Vo denotes differentiation with respect 10 Fp. Put this into the Lorentz force law (Ea, 5.16) to obtain Far fax e- von) numbering the Cartesian coordinates from | to 3 Yap { fr a} [0 24(e0)] jhe B64, LINEAR AND NONLINEAR MEDIA 283 wre cjg the LevCivta symbol (+1 jk = 123,231, of 3125 =U af ik = 13: 213, oF 21; 0 otherwise, in tems of which the cross product canbe writen (A xB), = Spore ly Use By. 1.108 toevalate the nee, Note that 3 Leite = 55in mbt where Jy isthe Kronecker delta (Prob. 3.45) Problem 6.23 Notice the following parallel 0, VxE=0, @E=D—P, (no free charge) 0. VxH=0, oH =B—joM, (no fee current) ‘Thus, the eanscripsion D— B, E> H, P—> jroM, eo —> so turns an electrostatic problem io an analogous magnetostatic one. Use this observation, together with your knowledge of (a) the magnetic field inside a uniformly magnetized sphere (Eq. 6.16): (b) the magnetic field inside a sphere of linear magnetic material in an otherwise uniform magnetic eld (Prob. 6.18): {the average magnetic field overa sphere, duetosteady curtents within the sphere (Eq, 5.89) Problem 6.24 Compare Eqs. 2.15, 4.9, and 6.11, Notice that if, P, and M ae uniform, the same integrals involved i all three: dae Tesi pen oe ss el iy ged a yon can inci ae nn el oy rt et Pen my napefagc tame ito Treaties opt} mA nd say ‘magnetized sphere (Ex. 6.1). Problem 625 A ‘nila oy consists of donut shaped pemanent magnets (magnetization parallel the axis, which slide fctionesly on vertical od (Fig, 6.31). Test the magnets as dipoles, wih mass mg and dipole moment m (2) IF you put two back-o-back magnets onthe rd, the upper one will “out"—the magnetic force upwani balancing the gravitational force downward. At what height (2) oes it oat? (©) you now ada shird magnet (parallel tthe bottom one), whats the ro of the two Insights? (Determine dhe actual number, to three significa digits) Answer: (a) [3y:om™/24m,gl"/4;(b) 0.8501] Problem 6.26 At the interface berween one lineut magnetic material and another the magnetic field lines bend (see Fig. 6.32), Show tha tan >/tan 0, = 413/341, assuming there is no free current at the boundary. Compare Eg, 4.68.284 CHAPTER 6, MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER y @ o Figure 6.31 Figure 6.32, Problem 6.27 A magnetic dipole m i imbedded atthe centr of a sphere (radius R) of linear magnetic material (permeability). Show thatthe magnetic field inside the sphere 0 > athe outerradins() is ielevant, How do you account for tat? Exploit this observation fo determine the curent lowing between two metal spheres, each of radius 4, immersed deep in the sea and held quite far apart (Fig, 7.46), ifthe potential difference between them is V. (This arangement ean be used to measure the conductivity of sea water © Figure 7.4 Problem 7.2 A capacitor Chas been charzed up to potential Vp: at time r = 0 itis connected (oa resistor Rand begins o discharge (Fig. 75a). (a) Determine the charge on the capacitor asa function of time, Q(t). What isthe current through the resistor, 140)?7, ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 21 @ o Figure 7.5, (by What was the original energy stored nthe capacitor (Eq, 255)? By inpratng Ea. 7.7 contr that the heal delivered othe esiors eal othe nergy lot bythe apa. Now imagine charging te capacitor, by coecing it and Ue rex toa tery of fined volage Vo, atime 0 (p79 (©) Aan, dtemine 0() 8 1, (2 Fin the tl energy ou of he ater (f Yor dr, Detemine the het deter the Testor, What isthe final energy stored inthe eapacitor? What action ofthe work done By the ater shows pa energy the captor? [Note that he angers indepenent of Problem 7.3 (4) Two metal objects are embedded in weakly conducting material ofconductvity (Fig. 7.6), ‘Show tha the esistance between them is related tothe eapcitance ofthe arrangement by na oc () Suppose you connected a battery between 1 and 2 and charged them up to a potential Uilference Vo, Ifyou then disconnect the battery he charg will gradually leak of. Show that V(t) = Voe- 1, and find the time constant, r, in terms of ey and « cf Figure 7.6 Problem 7.4 Suppose the conductivity of the material separating the eylinders in Ex. 7.2 is not uniform; specially, @() = ks. for some constant k. Find the resistance between the cylinders. [fint: Because i a function of postion, Fg. 7.5 does not hold the charge density 5s not zero in he resistive medium, and F does nt go lke 1/s. But we do know that for steady ‘currents 1 isthe same across each cylindrical surface. Tak i from there)202 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS 7.1.2, Electromotive Force Ifyou think about a typical electric circuit (Fig. 7.7)—a battery hooked up to alight bulb, say—thete arises a perplexing question; In practice, the current is the same all the way ‘around the oop. at any given moment; why is this the case, when the only obvious driving force is inside the battery? Off hand, you might expect this to produce a large current, the battery and none at all in the lamp. Who's doing the pushing in the rest of the circuit, and how does it happen that this push is exactly right to produce the same current in each segment? What's more, given thatthe charges in a typical wire move (literally) at a snail’s pace (see Prob. 5.19), why doesn’t it take half an hour for the news to reach the light bulb? How do all the charges know to start moving atthe same instant? Wy Figure 7.7 Figure 7.8 Answer: Ifthe current is nor the same all the way around (For instance, during the frst split second after the switch is closed), then charge is piling up somewhere, and—here’s the crucial point—the electric field of this accumulating charge is in such a direction as to even ‘out the flow. Suppose, for instance, thatthe current jaro the bend in Fig, 7.8 is greater than the current out, Then charge piles up at the “knee,” and this produces afield aiming away from the kink. This field opposes the current flowing in (slowing it down) and promotes the current flowing out (speeding it up) until these currents are equal, at which point there is no further accumulation of charge, and equilibrium is established. It’s a beautiful system, automatically self-correcting to keep the current uniform, andl it does it all so quickly that, in practice, you can safely assume the current is the same all around the circuit even in systems that oscillate at radio frequencies ‘The upshotof all thisis that there are really two forces involved in driving current around ‘circuit: the source, f,, which is ordinarily confined to one portion of the loop (a battery, say), and the eleetrostaric force, which serves to smooth out the flow and communicate the influence of the source to distant parts ofthe cireuit f=0+E, (78) ‘The physical agency responsible for f, can be any one of many different things: ina battery ‘chemical force; in a piezoelectric crystal mechanical pressure is converted into an7.1. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 293 electrical impulse; in a thermocouple it’s a temperature gradient that does the job; in a photoelectric cell its light; and in a Van de Graaff generator the electrons are literally loaded onto a conveyer belt and swept along. Whatever the mechanism, its net effect is determined by the line integral of f around the circuit: [en frean foal a9 (Because FE dl = 0 for electrostatic fields, it doesn't matter whether you use f oF fy.) E is called the electromotive foree, or emf, of the citcuit. It’s a lousy term, since this nota force atall—it’s the integral of a force per unit charge. Some people prefer the word ‘electromotance, but emf isso ingrained that I think we'd better stick with it Within an ideal source of emf (a resistanceless battery.’ for instance), the ner force on the charges is zero (Eq, 7.1 with o = 00), so E. = =f,. The potential difference between the terminals (a and 6) is therefore » [iva . - fea (we can extend the integral to the entre loop because f, = 0 outside the souree). The function of a battery, then, is to establish and maintain a vollage difference equal to the electromotive force (a 6 V battery, for example, holds the positive terminal 6 V above the negative terminal), The resulting electrostatic field drives current around the rest of the circuit (notice, however, that inside the battery f, drives current in the direction opposite to B®, Because it’s the line integral off, & can be interpreted asthe work done, per unit charge, by the source—indeed, in some books electromotive force is defined this way. However, as you'll see in the next section, there is some subtlety involved in this interpretation $0 I prefer Eq. 7.9. fromne 7.10) Problem 7.5.6 battery of emf € and intemal resistance r is hooked up to variable “load” resistance, &. Ifyou want to deliver the maximum possible power to the load, what resistance should you choose? (You can't change € and r of cours.) Problem 7.6 A rectangular loop of wire is situated so that one end (height fh) is between the plates ofa parallel-plate capacitor (Fig. 7.9, oriented parallel to the field F, The other end is way outside, where the field is essentially zero. What is the emf in this loop? Ifthe total resistance is R, what current lows? Explain, (Warning: this sa trick question, so e careful if you have invented a perpetual motion machine, theres probably something wrong with it] a diference between thet terminal is ow batteries Work, see D. Rats, Am cal ates ave 9 ceain internal resistance, andthe pot Tr, when acurent sowing. Foran laminating discus J. Phys SE 829 (198)204 CHAPTER 7, ELECTRODYNAMICS 7.1.3. Motional emf Inthe last section listed several possible sources of electromotive force inacireuit, batteries ‘being the most familiar. But I did not mention the most common one ofall: the generator, Generators exploit motional emf’s, which arise when you move a wire through a magnetic field. Figure 7.10 shows a primitive model for a generator, In the shaded region there is a ‘uniform magnetic field B, pointing into the page, and the resistor R represents whatever it is (maybe a light bulb or a toaster) we're trying to drive current through. IF the entire loop is pulled to the right with speed v, the charges in segment ab experience a magnetic force whose vertical component qv drives current around the loop, in the clockwise direction ‘The em é f tone d= vBh, aay where isthe width ofthe loop. (The horizontal segments be and ad contribute nothing since the fore here is perpendicular othe wite) Notice thatthe integral you perform to calculate € (Eg, 7.9 7.11) is carted out at one instant of tne—take "snapshot of the loop, i you lke, and work from that Ths dl for the segment ab in Fig. 7.10 points straight up, eventhough the loop is moving to the right You can't quarel with this--is simply the way emf is defned-bat it is mportant 10 be clear about i. — Figure 7.107.1. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCI 295 Figure 7.11 In particular, although the magnetic force is responsible for establishing the emf, itis certainly not doing any work—magnetic forces never do work. Who, hen, is supplying the energy that heats the resistor? Answer: ‘The person who's pulling on the loop! With the current flowing, charges in segment ab have a vertical velocity (cal itu) in addition to the horizontal velocity v they inherit from the motion of the loop. Accordingly, the magnetic force has @ component qu B to the left. To counteract this, the person pulling on the wite ‘must exert a force per unit charge Spa = UB to the right (Fig. 7.11), This force is transmitted to the charge by the structure of the wire, Meanwhile, the particle is actually moving in the direction of the resultant velocity w. and the distance it goes is (/ eos). ‘The work done per unit charge is therefore £ (sin@ coming from the dot product). As it turns out, then, the work done per unit charge is exactly equal to the emf, though the integrals are taken along entirely different paths (Fig. 7.12) and completely different forces are involved. To calculate the emf you integrate around the loop at one instant, but to calculate the work done you follow a charge in its ‘motion around the loop; fyi contributes nothing to the emf, because itis perpendicular to the wite, whereas fap Contributes nothing to work because itis perpendicular to the motion of the charge ‘There is & particularly nice way of expressing the emf generated in a moving loop. Let be the flux of B through the loop: oe [ods ay) For the rectangular loop in Fig. 7.10, © = Bhs “For funher discussion, se EP Mosca, Am. Phys 42,295 1978)296 CHAPTER 7, ELECTRODYNAMICS 4 « b © h hicos a a a o a (2) Integration for computing (©) Integration path for calculating. work (follow the wire at one instant done (follow the charge around te loop), of ime), Figure 7.12 As the loop moves, the lux decreases: do _ pdx 2 = ant = —Bhw. adr ae (The minus sign accounts for the fact that die/dr is negative.) But this is precisely the ‘emf (Eq, 7.11); evidently the emf generated in the loop is minus the rate of change of flux through the loop: ae at 7.13) ‘This isthe lux rule for motional emf. Apart from its delightful simplicity, it has the vietwe of applying to nonrectangular loops moving in arbitrary directions through nonuniform ‘magnetic fields; in fact, the loop need not even maintain a fixed shape Proof: Figure 7.13 shows a loop of wire at timer and also.a short time dt later ‘Suppose we compute the flux at time 1, using surface S, and the flux at time 1 +d1, using the surface consisting of S plus the “ribbon” that connects the ‘new position of the loop to the old. The change in flux, then, is LP vn Focus your attention on point P: in time dt itmoves to P’, Let ye the velocity Of the wire, and u the velocity of a charge down the wire; w= v + u is the resultant velocity of a charge at P. ‘The infinitesimal element of area on the ribbon can be written as ao (1 dt) ~ (0) = ee a (x dbdr7.1, ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 297 Surface S Loop at Loop at timer time (1+ dt Enlargement of da Figure 7.13 (sce inset in Fig. 7.1). Therefore a $8 few xd oh = f Bc xab Since w = (¥ + u) and u is parallel to dl, we ean also write this as do ap Btw x ab Now, the scalar triple-produet can be rewritten: B-(w x dl) = ~(w x B)-dl, 00, find E(s,). [Incidentally this is not at all the way electric fields actually behave in coaxial cables, for reasons suggested in footnote 10. See Sect. 9.5.3, of JG. Cherveniak, Am. J. Phys, 54, 946 (1986), for a more realistic treatment Problem 7.17 A long solenoid of radius a, carrying m turns per unit length, i looped by a wire with resistance R, as shown in Fig. 7.27 (a) If the current inthe solenoid is increasing ata constant rate (d/dt =k), what eurtent flows inthe loop, aad which way (lft or right) does it passthrough the resistor? (©) Ifthe curent 1 in the solenoid is constant but the solenoid is pulled out of the loop and reinserted inthe opposite direction, what total charge passes through the resistor? ont lone R Figure 7.27310 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS Figure 7.28 Problem 7.18 A square loop, side a resistance lies a distance s from an infinite straight ‘wie tat carries curent£ (Fig, 7.28). Now someone cuts the wire, so that I drops o 20. ‘what direction docs the induced current in the square loop flow, and what total charge passes a iver point in the loop during the time ths curent lows? If you don’t like the scissors model ‘urn the current down gradually aah, feast sti w-=[! fort > 1a Problem 7.19 A toroidal col ha a rectangular cross section, with inner radius a, outer radius ‘a +, and beighth. Itcaries a total of NV tightly wound tums, and the curent i increasing a aconstant rate (dF /de =k). 1 w and h are both much less than a, find the electsc field at point z above the center ofthe toroid, (Hint: exploit the analogy between Farad fields and ‘magnetostatic fields, and refer to Ex. 5.6 7.2.3, Inductance Suppose you have two loops of wire, at rest (Fig. 7.29). If you run a steady current around loop I, it produces a magnetic field By. Some of the feld ines pass through loop 2; et > be the flux of By through 2. You might have a tough time actually calcularing By but a glance atthe Biot-Savart law, aly xt B= ng. reveals one significant fact about his fla: Iris proportional ro the current. Therefore S000 is he fax through loop 2: [odn oe7.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 3 — Loop 1 —— Figure 7.30 4 ‘Thus 02 = Mah 721) s itis known as the mutual induetance of the where Mz is the constant of proportional ‘wo loops, ‘There is a cute formula for the mutual inductance, which you can derive by expressing the ux in terms of the vector potential and invoking Stokes” theorem: O2= fBrodia= fev xan -dn=f ar-aty Now, according to Eg. 5.63, poh f dh ya Holt f dh an Pa mB ff) a Ma = He ff eat amy This is the Neumann formula; it involves a double line integral—one integration around. loop 1, the other around loop 2 (Fig. 7.30). It's not very useful for practical calculations, but it does reveal two important things about mutual inductance: and hence Evidently 1. Mz, is apurely geometrical quantity, having to do with the sizes, shapes, and relative positions ofthe two loops. 2. The integral in Eq. 7.22 is unchanged if we switch the roles of loops | and 2; it follows that 1 = Mi, 723)312 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS This isan astonishing conclusion: Whatever the shapes and positions ofthe loops. the fx through 2 when we run a current I around I is identical to she flux through I when we send the same current I around 2. We may as well drop the subscripts and call them both M. Example 7.10 {A short solenoid (length and radius a, with n; turns per unit length) Hies on the ais of avery Jong solenoid (radius b n2 turns per unit length) as shown in Fig. 7.31. Current J flows inthe ‘short solenoid. What is the flux through the long solenoid? Figure 7.31 Solution: Since the inner solenoid is shot it has a very complicated fel: moreover, it puts ‘different amount of lux through cach turn of tbe outer solenoid. It would be a miserable task to compute the total ux this way. However, if we exploit the equality ofthe mutual inductances, the problem becomes very easy. Just look atthe reverse situation: run the curent 1 through the ower solenoid and calculate the flux through the inner one. The field inside the long solenoid is constant onal (Eq, 5.57), so the ux through a single loop ofthe short solenoid is Bra? = wonlna’, ‘There are y/ urns in all, so the total flux through the inne solenoid is © = nora’njngll ‘This is also the flux a eureat Fin the shor solenoid would put through the long one, which is What we set out to find. Incidentally, the mutual inductance. in this cas, is M = yora?ninal. Suppose now that you vary the current in loop 1. The flux through loop 2 will vary accordingly, and Faraday’s law says this changing flux will induce an emf in loop 2: dor gdh “dt dt (In quoting Bq, 7.21—which was based on the Biot-Savart Iaw—I am tacitly assuming that the currents change slowly enough for the configuration to be considered quasistatic.) What & a2)7.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 313 = Figure 7.32, ‘a remarkable thing: Every time you change the current in loop 1, an induced current flows, in loop 2—even though there are no wires connecting them! ‘Come to think of it, a changing current not only induces an emf in any nearby loops, it also induces an emf in the source loop itself (Fig 7.32). Once again, the field (and therefore also the flux) is proportional to the current: =I. (7.25) ‘The constant of proportionality L is called the self-inductance (or simply the inductance) of the loop. As with M, it depends on the geometry (size and shape) of the loop. If the ‘current changes, the emf induced in the loop is at a Inductance is measured in henries (H); a henry isa volt-second per ampere. Example 7.11 Find the sef-inductance ofa toroidal coil with rectangular cross section (inner radius a outer radius b, height), which caries a total of tums, Solution: The magnetic fel inside the toroid is (Eq, 5.88) oN Be ‘Qxs (7.26) ‘The lux through a single turn (Fig. 7.33) is wr, pf? th [oa HOR fP Las = wan (2) ‘The foal flux is N times this, so the self-inductance (Eq. 7.25) is 2, a) 02) ae Na34 (CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS ds Axis Figure 7.33 Inductance (like capacitance) isan intrinsically positive quantity. Lenz's law, which is enforced by the minus sign in Eq. 7.26, dictates that the emf is in such a direction as to ‘oppose any change in current, For this reason, itis called a back emf. Whenever you try to alter the current in a wire, you must fight against this back emf. Thus inductance plays somewhat the same role in electric circuits that mass plays in mechanical systems: The greater L is, che harder itis to change the current, just asthe langer the mass, the harder it is to change an object's velocity Example 7.12 ‘Suppose a current J is flowing around a loop when someone suuidenly cuts the wire. The current drops “instantaneously” to zero. This generates a whopping back emf, for although 1 may be stall, d/d1 38 enormous. That's why you often draw a spark when you unplug ‘an jon or toaster—electromagnetic induction is desperately tying to keep the current going. {even if thas to jump the gap inthe cireuit, Nothing so dramatic occurs when you plug in a toaster ot iron, In this ease induction ‘opposes the sudden increase in curren, prescribing instead a smooth and continuous buildup. ‘Suppose, fr instance, that battery (which supplies aconstantemf £9) is connected oa circuit of resistance and inductance L (Fig. 7.34). What curtent flows? Figure 7.347.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 3s eR i Gun at Figure 7.35 tis that provided by the battery plus that resulting. from, the selFinductance. Ohm’s law, then, says! ‘This is first-order differential equation for 7 asa function of time, The general solution, as you can ewily derive for yourself, is eo 1 = 2 keer, where fis constant to he determine bythe inl contin In parc if th ict is “plugasd in atime = 0 (6070) = 0, then Khas the vale —/R and he & eu ‘Ths foto i pln i738, Ha he been mo inductance cure ‘eld hte pmesinnedacly in G(R. Inpasce every cuca hon cinco, Inde cen ippares (espa The quny t= L/h cd he tse Sons Sou how ong een ae ah asabaan eaten woah oe th fs alae Ri) 728) Problem 7.20 A small loop of wit (radius a) lesa distance = above the center of large loop (adi 6, as shown in Fig. 7.36. The planes ofthe two loops are parallel, and perpendicular to the common axis. (a) Suppose current Flows inthe ig loop. Find the Mux dough the litle oop. (The little loop isso small that you may consider the field ofthe big loop to be essentially constant.) (b) Suppose current 1 lows in the little loop. Find the flux through the big loop. (The litle Joop isso small that you may teat it as & magnetic dipole.) (©) Find the mutual inductances, and confirm that Mj = Moy Notice that ~L0d7 dr) goes om the Jf side ofthe equations part of the em tal (ogeter with Eo) ‘esublishes the voltage dors the resistor (Eg. 710),316 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS ol ee Figure 7.36 Figure 7.37 Problem 7.21 A square loop of wire, of side a, lies midway between two long wires, 3a apart. and im the same plane. (Actually the long wires are sides of a large rectangular loop but the short ends are so far away that they can be neglected.) A clockwise current Fin the square loop is gradually increasing: df /dt = k (a constant). Find the emi induced in the big lop. ‘Which way will the induced current flow’? Problem 7.22 Find the sel-inductance per unit length of long solenoid, of radius R, carrying ‘re tars per unit length, Problem 7.23 Try to compute the scf-nductance ofthe “hairpin” loop shown in Fig, 7.37. (Neglect the contribaton fom the ends; most of the fax comes from the long straight section.) ‘You'll run into a snag that is characteristic of many self-inductance calculations. To get a efinite answer, assume the wire hasa tiny radius ¢, and jgnore any fux through the wire itself. Problem 7.24 An alternating current [y cos(o) (amplitude 0.5 A, frequency 60 H,) flows. down a straight wire, which runs along the axis of «toroidal coil with rectangular cross section (inner radius 1 em, outer radius 2.em, height! cm, 1000 tums). The colli connected to 4500 resistor. (4) In the quasistatic approximation, what emf is induced in the toroid?’ Find the eurent, (1). inthe resistor () Calculate the back emf in the coil, due to the curtent fp(F). What is the ratio of the amplitudes ofthis back emf and the “direct” em in (2)? Problem 7.25 A capacitor C is charged up o a potential V and connected to an inductor Z. 1s shown schematically in Fig, 7.38, ALtimie f= Othe switch Sis closed. Find the current in the cieuit asa function of time, How does your answer change if resistor R is included in series with C and £2?7.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 317 Figure 7.38 7.2.4 Energy in Magnetic Fields takes @ certain amount of energy to start a current flowing in a circuit. I'm not talking bout the enetgy delivered tothe esisors and converted into heat-that i irretrievably lost a far as the circuit is concemmed and can be large or small depending on how long you let ‘the current run. What I am concerned with, rather, i the Work you must do against the back emfto get the current going. This isa fived amount, and itis recoverable: you get it back ‘when the current is tuned off. In the meantime it represents energy latent in the circuit: as ‘welll see in a moment, it can be regarded as energy stored in the magnetic fed ‘The work done on a unit charg, against the back emt, in one tip around the circu =€ (the minus sigm records the fect that ths isthe work done by you agains the emf, not the work done by the emf). The amount of charge per unit time passing down the wie is So the total work done per unit time is aw al paeaug If we start with zero current and build i up 0 final value /, the work done (integrating the last equation over time) is (7.29) I does not depend on how long we take 10 crank up the current, only on the geometry of the loop (in the form of L) and the final current / ‘There is a nicer way to write W, which has the advantage that iti readily generalized to surface and volume currents. Remember that the flux © through the loop is equal to L1 (Eq, 7.25). On the other hand, o=[o tam [ox nydn=f ana, Is fp I> where P isthe perimeter of the loop and Sis any surface bounded by P. Thos, =p aoa,318. (CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS faa ‘faa oan and therefore w ‘The vector sign might as well go on the /: w In this form, the generalization to volume currents is obvious: wa} [saa sn th But we can do even better, and express W entirely in terms of the magnetic field Ampare’s law, V x B= pio), lets us eliminate J Sag | Ase x ar 3) Ho Integration by parts enables us 10 move the derivative from B to A: specifically, product V (Ax B)=B-(V x A)—A.(V xB). AL(Y xB) =B-B-V (Ax B) w= Lffra- [ranma] - ao[ fre faxm aa. aan uo Ly fs where S is the surface bounding the volume V Now, the integration in Eq, 7.31 is to be taken over the entire volume occupied by the current. But any region larger than this will do just as well, for J is zero out there anyway In Eq, 7.33 the larger the region we pick the greater is the contribution from the volume integral, and therefore the smaller is that of the surface integral (this makes sense: as the surface gets farther from the current, both A and B decrease). In particular, if we agree to Integrate over all space, then the surface integral goes to zer0, and we are left with Consequently, = Bar. 34) 20 Ja space [In view of this result, we say the encrgy is “stored in the magnetic field,” in the amount (B? 20) per unit volume. This is @ nice way to think of it, though someone looking at Eq, 7.31 might prefer to say that the energy is stored in the current distribution, in the7.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 319 amount {(A J) per unit volume. ‘The distinction is one of bookkeeping: the important quantity isthe total energy W, and we shall not worry about where (ifanywhere) the enerey is “located.” ‘You might find it stringe that is takes energy to set up a magnetic fiekd—after all, ‘magnetic fields hemselves do no work. The point i that producing a magnetic field, where previously there was none, requires changing the field, and a changing B-field, according to Faraday, induces an electric field. The latter, of course, can do work. In the beginning there is no F, and at the end there is no K: bat in between, while Bis building up there isan E, and itis against his that the work is done. (You see why I could not calculate the energy stored in a magnetostatic field back in Chapter 5.) Inthe light of ths, i is extraordinary how similar the magnetic energy formulas ae to their eletrostatic counterparts Won = 3 fvprdr= 2 f ear, (243 and 2.45) Waa = 5 fdar= 51 f wae. (731 and 734) 2 2no Example 7.13 A ong coaxial eable carries current F (the current flows down the surface of the ier cylinder, radius a, and back along the outer cylinder, radius b) a shown in Fig, 7.39. Find the magnetic energy stored ina section of length > Figure 7.39) ‘According to Ampére’s law, the Hild between the cylinders is : at [Elsewhere the field is zero, Thus, the energy per unit volume is (mt) = 8 2ug \ 225, 82s? “The energy in cylindrical shell of length radius s, and thickness ds, then is320 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS Integrating trom ato 6, we have: By the wa; this suggests a very simple way to calculate the sefindutance ofthe cable ‘According to Eq. 729, the energy can abo be writen as 4.LI2, Comparing the two expres - o() ‘This method of calculating self-inductance is especialy useful when the current isnot confined to.a single path, but spreads over some surface of volume, In such cass diferent parts ofthe current may citele different amounts of flux, and it ean be very tricky to get ditectly from Eq, 725. "Node te siarity wo Bq 727 Problem 7.26 Find the energy stored in a section of length of along solenoid (radius ‘eurrent 1, tums per unit length, (2) using Eq, 7.29 (you found L in Prob. 7.22): (b) using Eq, 7.30 (we worked out A in Ex. 5.12); (e) using Eq, 7.34; (using Eq, 733 (ake as your volume the cylindrical tube from radius a = R out to radius b > R). Problem 7.27 Calculate the energy store inthe toroidal coi of Ex. 7.11, by applying Ba. 7.34, Use the answer to check Ea. 7.27. Problem 7.28 A long cable carries current in one direction uniformly distributed over is (circular) cross section. The current returns along the surface (there isa very thin insulating sheath separating the currents). Find the sel-inductance per unit length, Problem 7.29 Suppose the circuit in Fig. 7.40 has been connected for a long time when suddenly, atime 1 = 0, switch Sis thrown, bypassing the hater s i R Figure 7.407.3. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 32 Figure 7.41 (2) What i the current a any subsequent dime £2 (b) What isthe total energy delivered to the resistor? (6) Show that this i equal to the energy originally stored inthe inductor Problem 7.30 Two tiny wire loops, with areas ay and a2, are situated a displacement @ apart, (Fig. 740). (a) Find their mutual inductance. int: "Treat them as magnetic dipoles, and use Eq. 5.87] Is your formula consistent with Eq, 7.23? (6) Suppose a current 1 is flowing in loop 1, and we propose 1 tum on a current 2 in loop 2. How much work must be done, against the mutually induced emf, 1 keep the current J flowing in loop 17 In light ofthis esult, comment on Eq. 6.35. Maxwell’s Equations 7.3.1 Electrodynamics Before Maxwell So far, we have encountered the following laws, specifying the divergence and curl of electric and magnetic fields: @ V-E= (Gauss's law), Gi) V-B=0 (a0 name), aB —S Paraday's law), Sp araday's 1a), Gi) VxE (iv) Vx B= pod (Ampere’s tow), ‘These equations represent the state of electromagnetic theory over a century ago, when Maxwell began his work, They were not written in so compact a form in those days, but their physical content was familiar. Now, it happens there is a fatal inconsistency in these322 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS formulas, It has to do with ihe old rule that divergence of curl is always zero. If you apply the divergence to number (ii), everything works out: ‘The left side is zero because divergence of curl is zero; the right side is zero by virtue of equation (ji). But when you do the same thing to number (iv), you get into trouble: VV xB) = nn(¥ 7.351 the left side must be zero, but the right side, in general, is nor, For steady currents, the divergence of J is zero, but evidently when we go beyond magnetostaties Ampere’s la ‘cannot be right. ‘There's another way to see that Ampére’s law is bound to fail for nonsteady currents ‘Suppose we're in the process of charging up a capacitor (Fig. 7.42). In integral form, Ampére’s law reads, f Bal sol | want to apply it to the Amperian loop shown in the diagram, How do T determine fen.” Well, it’s the total current passing through the loop, or, more precisely, the current piercing ‘a surface that has the loop for its boundary. In this case, the simplest surface lies in the plane of the loop—the wire punctuies this surface, 50 Jey. = 1. Fine—but what if I draw. instead the balloon-shaped surfate in Fig. 742? No current passes through this surface, and conclude that Jey: = 0! We never had this problem in magnetostatics because the contlict arises only when charge is piling up somewhere (in this case, on the capacitor plates), But for nonsteady currents (such as this one) “the current enclosed by a loop” is an ill-defined ‘notion, since it depends entirely on what surface you use, (If this seems pedantic you— “obviously one should use the planar surface”—remember that the Amperian loop could! bbe some contorted shape that doesn’t even lie ina plane.) Amperian lo _7 Ampetian loop Capacitor es | ee Batery Figure 7.427.3. MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS 323 Of course, we had no right to expect Ampére’s law to hold outside of magnetostaties; after all, we derived it from the Biot-Savart law. However, in Maxwell's time there was no experimental reason to doubt that Ampere’s law was of wider validity. The flaw was a purely theoretical one, and Maxwell fixed it by purely theoretical arguments, 7.3.2. How Maxwell Fixed Ampére’s Law ‘The problem ison the right side of Eq. 7.35, which should be zet0, but isn’t. Applying the continuity equation (5.29) and Gauss's law, the offending term can be rewritten: ap ar v 1k might occur to you that if we were to combine ¢9(E/31) with J, in Ampére's law, it would be just right to kill off the extra divergence: (7.36) (Maxwell himself had other reasons for wanting to add this quantity to Ampére’s law, To him the rescue ofthe continuity equation was ahappy dividend rather than a primary motive, But today we recognize this argument asa far more compelling one than Maxwell's, which ‘was based on a now-discredited model of the ether.) Such @ modification changes nothing, as far as magnetostaties is concerned: when Eis constant, we still have V x B= s1oJ. In fact, Maxwell’s term is hard to detect in ordinary electromagnetic experiments, where it must compete for recognition with J; that’s why Faraday and the others never discovered it in the laboratory. However, it plays a crucial role in the propagation of electromagnetic waves, as we'll see in Chapter 9. ‘Apart from curing the defect in Ampere’s law, Maxwell’s term has a certain aesthetic appeal: Just as a changing magnetic field induces an electric field (Faraday's law), $0 A changing electric field induces a magnetic field. Of course, theoretical convenience and aesthetic consistency are only suggestive—there might, after all, be other ways to doctor up Ampére’s law. The real confirmation of ‘Maxwell’s theory came in 1888 with Hertz’s experiments on electromagnetic waves, Maxwell called his extra term the displacement current: 37 ar t's a misleading name, since «(9B /01) has nothing to do with current, except that i adds to in Ampére’s law. Let's se now how the displacement current resolves the paradox of the charging capacitor (Fig. 742). Ifthe capacitor plates are very close together (I didn't "for the history of this wbjet, see A. M. Boek. Am J. Phy 3H, 884 (1963).34 CHAPTER 7, ELECTRODYNAMICS (Faraday’s law), aE 6s) Vx B= Hol + j0%0 5, (Ampore’s law with ‘Together withthe force law, FaqE+v~B), (7.40) ‘they summarize the entire theoretical content of classical electrodynamics" (save for some special properties of matter, which we encountered in Chapters 4and 6). Even the continuity equation, ae ar which is the mathematical expression of conservation of charge, can be derived from Maxwell's equations by applying the divergence to number (iv. Thave written Maxwell's equations in the traditional way, which emphasizes that thes specify the divergence and curl of Zand B. In this form they reinforce the notion tha electric fields can be produced either by charges (p) or by changing magnetic fields (@B/ 4), and ‘magnetic fields can be produced either by currents J) orby changing electric fields (9K /@1 Actually, this is somewhat misleading, because when you come right down to it @B/ar and ‘Bar are shemselves due to charges and currents, I think itis logically preferable to write veg=— a4, 1 Be OVE=s, Gi) VxR4 74a aE Gi) V-B=0, (is) Vx B~ joe = Hol, With the fields (E and B) om the left and the sources (p and J}) on the right. This notation ‘emphasizes that al electromagnetic fields are ultimately attributable to charges and currents. “Maxwells equations fell you how charges produce fields; reciprocally, the force law tells you how fields affect charges. "Tike any diferent equations, Maxis must be supplemented by suitable Boundary conditions. Becane these are typically “obvious rom the contexte. E and B gow zc at lange distances from alized charge ition i ise to frst that hey playa essential role7.3. MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS 327 Problem 7.34 Suppose 1 Socer— nis Bee.) B= Teor (the theta function is defined in Prob. 1.456). Show that these fields satisfy all of Maxwell's ‘equations, and determine p and J. Describe the physical situation that gives rise to these fields 7.34 Magnetic Charge ‘There is pleasing symmetry about Maxwell's equations; space, where p and J vanish: is panicularly striking in free VE vxe=-%, ae aE vx a. B= noeos- I you replace E by B and B by —o¢oE, the first pair of equations turns ito the second, and vice versa. This symmetry'® between E and B is spoiled, though, by the charge term in Gauss’ law and the current term in Ampére’s las, You can’t help wondering why the corresponding quantities are “missing” ftom V -B = Oand V x E = —aB/dt, What if we had i ) V-R= Sm. Gil) Vx B= 743) aE GD) Y-B=HoPm, Gv) VX B= pole + Hoes, ‘Then m would represent the density of magnetic “charge,” and pe the density of electric ‘charge; J would be the current of maghetic charge, and Je the current of electric charge. Both charges would be conserved: Be and Vede=— (aay ‘The former follows by application of the divergence to (ii, the latter by taking the diver- gence of (iv. In a sense, Maxwell's equations beg for magnetic charge to exist—it would fit in $0 nicely. And yet, in spite of a diligent search, no one has ever found any.!7 As far as we know, pm is ze10 everywhere, and s0 is J; B is nor on equal footing with F: there exist TD be distracted y the pesky constants ane’ these are present only because the S system measures and Bin diferent unis, and would not oven, frinstnce, i the Cassin system "Foran extemsive bibiozaphy, see AS, Goldhaber and W, P Trower, dm J. Phys $8,429 (1990),328 (CHAPTER 7, ELECTRODYNAMICS stationary sources for K (electric charges) but none for B. (This is reflected in the fact that ‘magnetic multipole expansions have no monopole term, and magnetic dipoles consist of ‘current loops, not separated north and south “poles.”) Apparently God just didn’t make ‘any magnetic charge. (In the quantum theory of electrodynamics, by the way, it's a more than merely aesthetic shame that magnetic charge does not seem 10 exist: Dirac showed that the existence of magnetic charge would explain why electric charge is quantized. See Prob. 8.12.) Problem 7.35 Assuming that “Coulomb's law” for magnetic charges (gn) reads 109 msdn gous (745) ‘work outtbe force law for monopole gn moving wit velocity vthroughelecric and magnetic fields E and B, [For interesting commentary, see W. Rindler, Am. J. Phys. 87,993 (1989),] Problem 7.36 Suppose a magnetic monopole gm passes through a esistanccles loop of wire ‘with selF-ndvctance L. What current is induced inthe loop? (This is one ofthe methods used to search for monopoles inthe laboratory; see B. Cabrera, Phys. Rev. Let, 48, 1378 (1982).] 7.3.5 Maxwell’s Equations in Matter Maxwell's equations in the form 7.39 are complete and correct as they stand. However. when you are working with matetils that are subject to eleciric and magnetic polarization there is a more convenient way to write them. For inside polarized matter there will be accumulations of “bound” charge and current over which you exert no direct control. It ‘would be nice to reformulate Maxwell's equations in such a way asto make explicit reference only to those sources we control directly: the “free” charges and currents We have already learned, from the static case, that an electric polarization P produces abound charge density my = VP 7.46) (Eg. 4.12), Likewise, a magnetic polarization (or “magnetization”) M results in a bound current b=¥xM aay (Eq. 6.13), ‘There's just one new feature to consider in the nonstatic ease: Any change in the electric polarization involves a flow of (bound) charge (call it Jp). which must be included in the total current. For suppose we examine a tiny chunk of polarized material Fig. 745.) The polarization introduces a charge density ¢» = P at one end and —oy atthe other (Bq. 4.11). TF P now increases a bit the charge on each end increases accoedingly. siving a net current7.3. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 329 Figure 7.45 The current density, therefore is 5-2 1.48) ae ‘ This polarization current has nothing whatever to do with the bound current J. The latter is associated with magnetization of the material and involves the spin and orbital ‘motion of electrons: Jp, by contrast, isthe result of the linear motion of charge when the electric polarization changes. If P points to the right and is increasing, then each plus ‘charge moves abit to the right and each minus charge to the left; the cumulative effect isthe polarization current Jp. In this connection, we ought to check that Eq. 7.48 is consistent with the continuity equation: aa vy Blig a » app a Yes: The continuity equation is satisfied; in fact, J, is essential 10 account for the co servation of bound charge. (Incidentally, a changing magnetization does not lead to any analogous accumulation of charge or current. The bound current Jy = V x M varies in response to changes in M, to be sure, but that’s about it.) In view of all this, the total charge density can be separated into two parts P= py + p= py -V-P. 7.49) and the current density into three parts: op Jad t be tly eV 750) vcnasy 422, 3 na3+ 53) where, a before, He 0, (4) Which way should the image dipole point +2 or ~2)? (b) Find the fonce on the magnet due to the induced currents in the superconductor (which is ‘o say, the foree due tothe image dipole). Set it equal to Mg (where At is the mass of the ‘magnet fo determine the height hat which the magnet wil oa.” [int refer to Prob, 6.3.) "The Meisner effects sometimes rete wo as “perfect iamagetim” inthe sens thatthe fel inside sno Imeely reduced, bu canesed ently. However. the surface currents esprsible fr this ate fe, met Dou 0 the atl meaning diferent. ‘SW. ML Saslow, A.J Phys $9, 161991),334 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS Figure 7.50 (a) Calculate this way. () Explain why this method is fundamentally awed. [See J.D. Romano and RH. Price, A J. Phys, 64, 11501996) ] () Suppose the ends are, instead, spherical surfaces, centeredat the apex of the cone. Caleulate the resistance in that ease, (Let be the distance between the centers of the circular perimeters of the end caps.) Answer: (p/2xaby(b —a)?/(Y EE + (b= a)? ~ L)L Problem 7.41 A rate case in which the electrostatic field B for a circuit can actually be ‘calculated isthe following [M. A. Heald, An. J. Phys, 82,522 (1984): Imagine an infinitely long cylindrical sheet, of uniform resistivity and radius a. A slot (corresponding othe battery + is maintained at +-Vp/2, at § = +x, and a steady eurent flows over the surface, as indicated in Fig. 751. According to Ohm's aw, then, Yoo Vad) Pe. cr egctm (a) Use separation of variables in eylindrical coordinates to determine V(s, @) inside and ‘outside the cylinder. (Answer: (Vo/) tants sing)/(a+s cos6)]. (5 < a): (Voi) ean! llasing)/(s-+acosp)l, (s > a) (b) Find the surface charge density onthe eylinder, Answer: (Vota) tan(@/2)] Problem 7.42 Ina perfect conductor, the conductivity is infinite, so. = 0 (Fg. 7.3), and any ret charge resides on the surface Gusta it does for an imperfect conductor, in electrostatics) () Show that the magnetic field is constant (3/2 (0), inside a perfect conductor. (b) Show that the magnetic Mux through a perfectly conducting loop is constant7.3. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 337 arsine AB 4 orbit Lad a Figure 7.52 Figure 7.53 Problem 7.49 An atomic electron (charge q) circles about the nucleus (charge Q) in an obit ‘of radius r; the centripetal acceleration is provided, of course, by the Coulomb attraction of ‘opposite charges. Now a small magnetic field Bis slowly tured on, perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. Show that the increase in kinetic energy, dT, imparted by the induced electric field is just right 10 sustain circular motion at the same radius (That's why, in my discussion of diamagnetism, I assumed the radius is fixed. Sce Sec, 6.1.3 and the seferences ‘ited there.) Problem 7.50 The cient in ang sleds inreasing neal with ime sth te ax isropiona tor: = a Two volts are comeedodametical port pos (Aan) together with resiors (Ryn) shown in ig 7.53- What the ea mach voltmeter? Assume tat thet ar dea ome tha ra neh car hey have hig tral sans) and ha volneter esters [Ef ween he emia and drove he meer, [Aver Vi = a(R + he Vas —eRa/ Ry Ro), Nowe that VV, even hh hy ae cones othe sae ois! See RH: Romer, Ame Pe 8, 1089 1982) Problem 7.51 In the discussion of motional em (Sect, 7.1.3) I assumed thatthe wire loop (ig, 7.10) has a resistance R; the cumrent generated is then 7 = vBh/R. But what ifthe wine is made out of perfectly conducting material, so that is zero? In that case the current is limited only by the back emf associated with the sef-inductance L. ofthe loop (which would ‘ordinarily be negligible in comparison with 1). Show that i this régime the loop (mass m) ‘executes simple harmonic motion, and find its frequency” [Answer: w= Bh/ Vm Problem 7.52 () Use the Neumann formula (Eq, 7.22) 0 calculate the mutual inductance ofthe configuration ig. 7.36, assuming a is very small (a < b,a < z). Compare Your answer to Prob. 7.20, () For the general case (not assuming ais smal) show that, , 1s m= 40 Japp (1+ Bo? +.) “Brora cole arc poems me WM, Sow. AJ Pl: 5,966 (PR HR Ea Jin 8119)338 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRODYNAMICS Primary (tums) Figure 7.54 where ab eee Problem 7.83 Two coils are wrapped around 2 cylindical form in such a way thatthe same fx passes through every surn of both coils. (In practice this is achieved by inserting an iron core through the cylinder: this has the effect of concentrating the flux.) The “primary” coil dhas Nj turns and the secondary has Np (Fig, 7:54). Ifthe current in the primary is changing. show that dhe emf in the secondary is given by 2M am where & is the (hack) emf ofthe primary. [This is primitive trunsformer—a device for raising or lowering the emf of an altemating eurrent source, By choosing the appropriate umber of turns, any desired secondary emf ean be obtained. If you think this violates the conservation of energy. check out Prob 7.54.) as Problem 7.54 transformer (Prob, 7.53) takes an input AC voltage of amplitude Vj, and Gelivers an output voltage of amplitude V2, which is determined by the ts ratio (V3/V) = Na/Ni). If Nz > My the output voltage is greater than the input voltage. Why doesn't this violate conservation of energy? Answer: Power is the product of voltage and current evident! if the voltage goes up, the curent must come down. ‘The purpose of this problem is to see cexaclly how this works out, ina simplified mod. (a) In an ideal transformer the same flux passes through all cums of the primary and of the secondary. Show that inthis ease M? = LL, where M isthe mutual inductance of the coils and £1, L2 are their individual se-inductances. (b) Suppose the primary is driven with AC voltage Vig = Vi 608 (or), and the secondary is ‘connected toa resistor, R. Show thatthe two currents satisfy the relations ah, jdt dh Fh? = Mcoston: ta7.3. MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS 339) () Using the result in (a), solve these equations for J4(2) and J3(2). (Assume J, has no DC component.) (4) Show thatthe output voltage (Vove ‘the tums ratio: Vou Vin = No/N} (€)Caleutate the input power (Fy = Vin/i) and the output power (Pout = VautJ2) and show that their averages over afl eyele are equal oR) divided by the input voltage (Vg) is equal to Problem 7.85 Suppose J(r)isconstantintime but p(r, 1} ismot—conditions that might prevail, for instance, during the charging ofa capacitor, {a Show thatthe charge density at any particular point isa tinea function of time (8.1) = ple, 0) + er, OM, where A(t 0) isthe time derivative of pats =: ‘Thisisnoran electrostatic ormagnetostatic configuration?! nevertheless—rather surprisingly — ‘both Coulomb's taw (in the form of Eg, 28) and the Biot-Savart law (Ea, 3.39) hold as you «can confirm by showing that they satisfy Maxwell's equations. In particular. () Show that Bir) = o [Meda aloe ‘obeys Ampere's la ith Manvel’ displacement curren term Problem 7.56°The magnetic fc of an infinite straight wire carrying a steady curent can be ‘bined from the diplacement cutent term in the Ampre/Maxwell la. as follows: Petre the eurrentas consisting ofa uniform line charge A moving along the < ans a speed (co that 1 = 21), witha tiny gap of length , which reaches the erg tine r= 0. Inthe nex instant {wp © = e/v) there is no ret current passing through a circular Amperian Toop in the x) plan, but theres displacement current, ue tothe "missing charge in heap. (@) Use Coulomb's law to caleuate the zcomponcat of the elect field, for points in the xy plane a distances from the origin, due toa segment of wite with uniform density i extending ftom 2) = 04 e102) =u (b) Determine the fux of this elect Held through a circle of radius inthe xy plane () Find the displacement current through this circle. Show that /y is equal to J in the fimit asthe wap width (€) goes to zero. [Fora slightly different approach fo the sane problem, see W.K. Temy, Am. J. Phys. $0,742 (1982),] Problem 7.57 The magnetic field outside along straight wire carying a steady current / is (of course) vols Some authors woul ear chi 6 magnetostatic, since B sindependent oft Fr ther, the Biot Sav lis «general ul of magnetosatis, but V-J = Oand V xB = jd apply oa ander the adtonlassaptin that 2 constant. In sch a formulation Maxwell’ displacement can (in this very spel eae) be derived fom, ‘%e Biot-Saar lav, by the method of par (b). Soe DF Batt, Ar. J. Phys. 58 1168 (1990), DJ. Grits and ML A.Hleald, AJ Phy. $8, 1111990.340 CHAPTER 7, ELECTRODYNAMICS Figure 7.55 The electric fied inside the wite i uniform: h gle Where p isthe resistivity anda is the radius (See Exs. 7.1 and 7.3). Question: What isthe electric field ouside the wire? This isa famous problem, est analyzed by Sommerfeld, and know in its mos recent incarnation as“Merzbacher's puzzle”? The answer depends om boss ‘you complete the circuit. Suppose the current returns along a perfectly conducting grounded ‘coaxial eylinder of radius b (Fig. 7.55). In the region a < s < b, the potential V(s, 2) satis Laplace's equation, with the boundary conditions Wi VO. Unfort conditions at the two ends, In the lteratue iti customary to sweep this ambiguity under the rug by simply asserting (in So many words) that V(s,)is proportional to: Vis, 2) = =f(s). On this assumption: Jy, thi does not sufie to determine the answer—we still ned to specify boundary (a) Determine Vs () Find BGs, 2), (6) Caleulate the surface charge density (2) onthe wire [Answers ¥ = (=1zp/2ra?)lin(s/b)/ In(a/b)| This sa peculiar rest, since Ey and o(2) are ‘not independent of 2—as one would certainly expect fora truly ingiite wire) Problem 7.88 A certain transmission line is constructed from Wo thin metal “ribbons” of Width 1c, a very small distance f is toward the right, whereas the magnetic field of q> is out of the page (atthe position of qu), and the ‘magnetic force on q is upward. The electromagnetic force of qi on 4x is equal but not ‘opposite to the force of q2 on qi, in violation of Newton's third law. In electtostatics and ‘magnetostatics the third law holds, but in electrodynamics it does not, Figure 8382. MOMENTUM asi ‘Well, that’s an interesting curiosity, but then, how often does one actually use the third law, in practice? Answer: All the time! For the proof of conservation of momentum rests fn the cancellation of internal forces, which follows from the third law. When you tamper with the third law, you are placing conservation of momentum in jeopardy, and there is no principle in physies more sacred than that ‘Momentum conservation is rescued in electrodynamics by the realization that she fields themselves carry momentum. This is not so surprising when you consider that we have already attributed energy to the fields. In the case of the two point charges in Fig. 8.3, ‘whatever momentum is lost to the particles is gained by the fields. Only when the ficld ‘momentum is added to the mechanical momentum of the chargesis momentum conservation restored. You'll see how this works out quantitatively in the following sections. 8.2.2. Maxwell’s Stress Tensor Lets eateuate the total electromagnetic force onthe charges in volume Y: Fa [sv mpdr=[ok+sx mas (15) 5 ‘The force per unit volume is evidently =pE+IxB, 8.16) As before, I propose to write this in terms of fields alone, eliminating p and J by using Maxwell’s equations (i) and (iv) uo 2 ecmya (an) (ent Tex = (5 ~8)+ (FF) and Faraday's law says a8 Oe ar % Se xB +Ex (xB Sex +EX (XE. Thus Bx (Y xB) —@AExB). ID) ° a352 CHAPTER 8. CONSERVATION LAWS Just to make things look more symmetrical, let's throw in a term (V - B)B; since V -B = 0, this costs us nothing, Meanwhile, product rule 4 says V(E%) =2(E- VE +2 x (V x E), s0 j Ex (Vx B) = VCE?) (B-V)E, and the same goes for B, Therefore, 1 f= (VBE E-WBL+ Liv 68+ -¥yB) 3 8) 1 1 a -5V (cE? + —B?) — eg “(Ex By 3 (cof + Ca?) oh exe, Ugly! But it can be simplified by introducing the Maxwel sees tensor, 1 mea(ae—tne)+ (nate) am io 2 ‘The indices i and j refer tothe coordinates x, y, and z, so the stress tensor has a total of nine ‘components (Tx. Tyy, Tr:, Ty. and so on). The Kronecker delta, 5, is | if the indices are the same (8, = Byy = 8:, = 1) and zer0 otherwise (Bxy = Bcc 0). Thus is +5 (BE 2u0 Try = (Es Ey) + : (By By), io and 50 on, Because it carries rvo indices, where a vector has only one, Ty is sometimes written with a double arrow: *T, One can form the dot product of * with a vector a: @ y= T any (8.20) the resulting object, which has one remaining index, is itself a vector, In particular, the divergence of has as its jth component 7) = ofr ne ee-me 9,0] \ 1 + —|(v-B)B; +(B-¥)B; ~ bv,8? [oma 98, - 10,05] ‘Thus the force per unit volume (Eq. 8.18) can be written in the much simpler form 3s. a t VT cons. (8.21) where S is the Poynting vector (Eq. 8.10).8.2. MOMENTUM: 353 “The total force on the charges in V (Eg. 8.15) is evidently F gt da ons, [Sar (822) is ‘a dy (used the divergence theorem fo convert the fist term to a surface integral.) Inthe static cease (ot, more generally, whenever J S.dr is independent of time). the second term drops ‘out, and the electromagnetic force on the charge configuration can be expressed entirely in terms of the stress tensor at the boundary. Physically, is the force per unit area (or stress) acting on the surface. More precisely, 7 isthe force (per unit area) inthe ith tection acting onan element of surface oriented in the jth direction—"‘siagonal” elements (Tay. Tyy, Tx) kepresent pressures, and “off-diagonal” elements (Tr, Tez, €t.) ate shears Example 82 Determine the net force on the “northern” hemisphere of a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius R and charge Q (the same as Prob. 2.43, only this time we'll use the Maxwell sess tensor and Fa, 8.22). Disk Figure 8.4 ‘Solution: The boundary surface consists of to parts—a hemispherical “bowl and a circular disk at # = x/2 (Fig. 8.4), For the bowl, da = R sino dodge and ‘In Cartesian components, (-alzz) sntsmtsng 5 ct 22-5 = 2 (2) (eorto — sinter 29 Sete =9( go) wote—wn'o, a0354 CHAPTER 8. CONSERVATION LAWS ‘The net force is obviously in the z-direction, soit suffices to calculate 2 re Fs days = Ten day + Tey day + 3 (Geog) soomadoas “The ree onthe “owl” is therfore = 2( 2) an [P ainocosoun = + 2 fia (aa) mf" smrmeon= as aan Meanie, forte equi disk, daa -rdrdoe 25 and (since we are now inside the spiere) Thus and hence Te force on the disk is therefore | De\t any 1 @ Fag = 2 (2) an [Par = 8.26 Combining Bas. 8.24 and 8.26, {conclude tal the net fore onthe northern hemisphere is iat = 827 Fre 16R? ) Incidentally, in applying Eq, 8.22. any volume that encloses allo the charge in question (and ‘no other charge) wll do the job. For example in the present case we could use the whole region => 0. In thal case the boundary surface consists of the entire xy plane (plus & hemisphere at r= co, but E = 0 out there anyway, so it contributes nothing). In place ofthe “bowl we now have the outer portion ofthe plane (r > R). Here 96%) 4 2 and R > 7), and da is piven by Eq, 8.25, 0 7 3(G) ae and the contribution from the plane for r > R is ae 1 @ fi ome (Eg. 8.23 with @ the same as forthe bow! (Eg, 8.24),8.2. MOMENTUM 355 Thope you didn’t get to0 bogged down in the details of Ex. 8.2, IF, take a moment appreciate what happened. We were calculating the force on a solid object, but instead of doing a volume integral, as you might expect, Eq. 8.22 allowed us to set it up as a surface integral: somehow the stress tensor sniffs out what is going on inside Problem 8.3 Calculate the force of magnetic attraction between the northern and southern hemispheres ofa uniformly charged spinning spherieal shell, with radius R, angular velocity ‘and surface charge density. [This the sane as Prob 5.42, but tis time use the Maxwell stress tensor and Ea. 8.22.) Problem 8.4 (@) Consider two equal point charges g. separated by a distance 2a, Construct the plane ‘equidistan from the two charges, By integrating Maxwell's stress tensor over this plan {determine the fore of one charge on the other. () Do the same for charges that are opposite in sign 8.2.3. Conservation of Momentum According to Newton's second law, the force on an object is equal to the rate of change of its momentum: can therefore be written in the form AP mech af ¢ = cones [ sar a, 8.28 Pest — anos [Sach fT 628) Equation 8, Where pen is the Cotal (mechanical) momentum ofthe particles contained in the volume V. This expression is similar in structure to Poynting’ theorem (Eq, 8.9), and it invites an anal ‘ogous interpretation: ‘The first imegral represents momentum stored in the electromagnetic fields themselves Pe While the second integral is the momentum per unit time flowing in through the surface. Equation 8.28 is the general statement of conservation of momentum in electrodynamics: Any increase in the foral momentum (mechanical plus electromagnetic) is equal to the ‘momentum brought in by the fields. (IF V is all of space, then no momentum flows in or out, and Pech “+ Pew is Constant.) ‘As in the case of conservation of charge and conservation of energy, ‘momentum can be given a differential formulation. Let Pye be the density ‘momentum, and em the density of momentum in the fields: conservation of of mechanical [Bom = H0e08.] (830)356 CHAPTER 8. CONSERVATION LAWS ‘Then Eq. 8.28, in differential form, says 3 | ar Omer + Pon) = ¥ a] al) Evidently isthe momentum fx density playing the role of (current density inthe continuity equation, or energy Mux density) in Poyting’s theorem, Specialy, ts themomentim in the direction crossing a surface oriented inthe J diecton pert area pe uit time. Notice that the Poynting vector hs appeared in two quite diferent roles: $ itself the energy pe unit area, per unt ime, transporte bythe elecuomagnetic fields hil 98 isthe momentum pe unit volume stored in hose Beds, Similarly. plays a dual role: sets the electromagnetic tess (ore per unit area) acting ona surface, and —* describes the flow of momentum (the momentum current density) transported by the eds Example 83 Along coaxiatcabie, of fength/,consstsof an inner conductor radius) anian outer conductor (adius ). Iris connected to battery at one end and a resistor a the other (Fig. 8.5). The inner conductor caries a uniform charge per unit length A, and «steady current J to the right: the ‘ter conduetor has the opposite charge and current. Wha isthe electromagnetic momentum stored inthe fetds? Solution: ‘The fields are egit ats The Poynting vector i therefore a arto? * Evidently energy is flowing down the line, from the battery to the resistor. Infact, the power ransperted is82, MOMENTUM 357 ast should be. But that’s not what we're interested in right now. The momentum in the fekds em = Horn f Sax = MEL |” ransds = A nijaya eral ‘This isanastonishing result. The cable isnot moving, and the fields are static, and yet we are asked tobelieve that there is momentum in the system, If something tells you this cannot be the ‘whole story, you have sound intuitions. In fact, ithe center of mass ofa localized system is at ‘esti total momentum must be zero. In this case ittums out that theres “hidden” mechanical ‘momentum associated with the flow of current, and this exaetly cancels the momentum in the fields. But locating the hidden momentum isnot easy, and iti actualy a welatvisie eect, so shall save it for Chapter 12 (Ex. 12.12, ‘Suppose now that we (urn up the resistance, so the curent decreases. The changing magnetic field will induce an electric field (Eg. 7.19 Ho dt A [ogrmea] ‘his eld exerts force on 22: 1 [pethne 4] S28 no ]e= 22 warn ‘The total momentum imparted ro the cable, as the current deops fom I to Os therefore ‘which is precisely the momentum originally stored inthe fields. (The cable will not recoil, however, because an equal and opposite impulses delivered by the simultaneous disappearance (of the hidden momentum.) Problem 8.$ Consider an infinite paralel-plate capacitor, withthe lower plate (at : = —d/2) carrying the charge density ~<, and the upper plate (at: = +®) “Thus the torque on the outer eylinder is No=rx(-08) = seth pan ang men 1 ie: t= Sonora [Sa promo | Similarly, the torque on the inner cylinders 1 a Na = jon Qa? and is angular momentum increase is i pont Oa? pion So it all works out: Lem = Ly + Ej. The angular momentum lost by the field i precisely ‘equal to the angular momentum gained by the cylinders, and the frat angular momentum (fields plus matter is conserved82. MOMENTUM. 361 Incidentally, the angular case isin Some respects cleaner than the linear analog (Ex. 8.3), ‘because there is no “hidden” angular momentum to compensate forthe angular momentuan i the fields, andthe cylinders really do rotate when the magnetic fields tured off Ia localized system isnot moving, is toa near momentum has to be 2er0. but there is no corresponding theorem for angular momentum, and in Prob. 8.12 you will see a beautiful example in which Aothing at all is moving—not even currents—and yet the angular momentum is nonzero. Problem 8.7 In Ex. 84, suppose tht instead of turing off the magnetic fel (by reducing 1) we tum off the electric feld, by connecting « weakly® conducting radial spoke between the cylinders. (We'll have to cut a slot in te solenoid, so the cylinders can sll rotate frely.) From the magnetic force onthe current in the spoke, determine the total angular momentum delivered tothe cylinders, as they discharge (hey are now rigidly connected, so they rotate together), Compare the inital angular momentum stored in the fields (Eq, 8.35). (Notice that the mechanism by which angular momentum is transfered from the fields to the cylinders is, entirely different inthe two eases: in Ex. 8.4 it was Faraday’s la, but here it the Lorentz force law.) Problem 8.87 Imagine an iron sphere of radius R that caries @ charge Q and uniform ‘magnetization M = M2, The sphere is initially at rest (2) Compute the angular momentum stored inthe electromagnetic fields, (b) Suppose the sphere is gradually (and uniformly) demagnetized (perhaps by heating it up Pst the Curie point). Use Furaday’s law to determine the induced electric eld, nd the tue this field exerts on the sphere, and calculate he total angular momentum imparted to the sphere in the couse ofthe demagnetization, {) Suppose instead of demagneiing the sphere we discharge it by connecting a grounding Wire to the north pole. Assume the current flows over the surface in such a way thatthe charge density remains uniform. Use the Lorent fore la to determine the tor onthe shee, and calculate the total angular momentum inparted the sphere Inthe ours of he discharge. (The magnetic fields discontinuous tthe surface does this matter [Answer Jno on?) ‘More Problems on Chapter 8 Problem 89° A very long solenoid of radius a, withn turns per unit length, caries a current 1g. Coaxial with the solenoid, at radius b >> a, is a ctcular ring of wire, with resistance R, ‘When the current jn the solenoid is (gradually) decreased, a current J i induced in the ring, 5S, Coleman and H van Vleck, Pigs. Rev 171 1370 (1968), in Es, 8 we tuna the current off slow, to keep things quasistatic ere we reduce the electric Held slowly to keep the dsplacementcurent negligible ‘This version ofthe Feynman disk paradox was proposed by N. L, Sharma (Am. J. Phys. $6,420 (1988) similar models were analyzed by EM. Pugh and GE. Pugh 4m Pye. 35, 1531967) and by R. Rome, Ani Phys, 38.485 (1967) "For extensive discussion, sce M.A. Heald, Am. J. Phos. 6, S40 (1988,362 CHAPTER 8. CONSERVATION LAWS (4) Calculate fin terms of di (©) The power (/2A) delivered tothe ring: must have come fom the Solenoid. Contirm this by calculating the Poynting vector just outside the solenoid (the electric field is due to the changing Bux inthe solenoid: the magnetic fel is due tothe current in the ring). Integrate ‘over the entice surface of the solenoid, and check that you recover the correc otal power. Problem 8.109 A sphere of radius carries a uniform polarization P and a uniform magne zation M (not necessarily inthe same direction). Find the electromagnetic momentum ofthis, configuration. [Answer: (4/9) jg R9(M XP) Problem 8.11" Picture the electron asa. uniformly charged spherical shell, with charge e and radius R, spinning at angular velocity, (4) Calculate the total enesgy contained in the electromagnetic fields, (8) Cateulate the otal angular momentum contained in the feds {€) According to the Einstein formula (E = m2), the energy inthe Fields should contribute to the mass ofthe electron, Lorentz and others speculated thatthe entire mass of the electron might be accounted for inthis way: Ucm = mec. Suppose, moreover thatthe elecron’s spin angular momentum is entirely atibutable to the electromagnetic fields: Lem = f/2. On these tp assumptions determine the radius and angular velocity ofthe electron. What their product, oR? Does tis classical model make sense? Problem 8.12!! Suppose you had an electric charge de and 4 magnetic monopole gm. The field ofthe electric charge is of course, and the field of the magnetic monopole is Hoan 5, ane Find the ctl angular momentum sored in the feds, if the two charges ae separated by a distance d. [Answers (0/4 ged! Problem 8.13 Paul DeYoung, of Hope College, pois out that because the cylinders in Ex. 8.4 are left rotating (at angular Velocities and 17 st), there is aetualy a residual magnetic field, and hence angular momentum in the fields, even after the cutent in the solenoid has been extinguished. Ifthe cylinders are heavy, this correction willbe negligible, but its interesting to do the problem without making that assumption. “Fo an intresting diseusson and eferences, ee R. Rote Amt. Phys. 63,777 (1995) "See J. High, Am. J Phos, $6,378 1988), this stem i known as Thomson's pole. See I. Ads, Am. J Phys. 44, 762 (1976) nd Phy. Rev. DBL 3801 (1985) and K.R- Brownstein. Am J-Phs. 57,420 (1989), fr dseusion an vefeences "Note tha heres is independent ofthe seat distanced) pins from ge twa gn quantam mechanics angulie momentu comes in haltteger mulples off, sO this west suggests tht if magnetic ‘monopoles ens elesrc and magnetic charge must he quantized ged / 48 = 7/2 Torn of Wess proposed by Dra in 1981 Ifeven ane monopole exists somewhere the ives, this would "explain hy elec charge comes in discret nits.8.2, MOMENTUM: 363 (a) Calculate (in terms of iy and wp) the final angular momentum inthe fields. (b) As the cylinders begin to rotate, their changing magnetic field induces an extra azimuthal electric field, which, in tum, will make an additional contribution tothe torques. Find the re- sulting extra angular momentum, an compare it to your result (a). [Answer: jn O79 (07 @ yar Problem 8.141° A point charge q is a distance a > from the axis ofan infinite solenoid (radius R, n tums per unit length, current 1). Find the linear momentum and the angular ‘momentum in the fletds. (Put q on the x axis with the solenoid along 2; teat the solenoid as «4 monconductor, so you don’t need to worry about induced charges on its surface.) [Answer: em = (og R? /2a); Lem = 0] Problem 8.15" (a) Carry through the argument in Sect. 8.1.2, starting with Fa, 8.6, but using 4, in place of J. Show thatthe Poyating vector becomes oe sn hs of gf ten syne ad ‘nen yD dion

0), (9.23) ‘hich continues on to the Fightin sting 2. ‘The incident wave f(z, 1) isa sinusoidal oscillation that extends (in principle) all the way back to = = —co, and bas been doing so for al of history. The same goes for fe and fr (except that the later, of course, extends to 2 = +90). All parts of the system are oscillating at the same frequency w (a frequency determined by the person a2 = oe, ‘who is shaking the string in the fist place). Since the wave velocities ae diferent inthe ‘wo stings, however, the wavelengths and wave numbers are also different. Ahan, on Ar kw9.1, WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 371 tell them apart. You might therefore prefer to consider an incident wave of finite extent— say, the pulse shown in Fig, 9.5. You can work out the details for yourself, if you like (Prob. 9.5). The trouble with this approach is that no finite pulse i truly sinusoidal. The ‘waves in Fig 9.5 may look like sine functions, but they're nor: they're litle pieces of sines, joined onto an entirely different function (namely, zero) Like any other waves, they can be built up as linear combinations of true sinusoidal funetions (Eq, 9.20), but only by puting together a whole range of frequencies and wavelengths. If you want a single incident frequency (as we shall in the electromagnetic case), you must let your waves extend to infinity. In practic, if you use a very fone pulse with many oscillations, it will be close to the ideal ofa singe frequency i (a) Incident pulse (b) Reflected and transmitted pulses Figure 9.5 Fora sinusoidal incident wave, then, the net disturbance of the string is: Alto 4 ApH, for <0, (9.25) Aye, for z > 0. AC the join ( = 0), the displacement just slightly to the left (¢ = 0-) must equal the displacement slightly to the right (z = 0°), or else there would be a break between the two strings. Mathematically, f(z, 1) is continuous at 2 = 0: FO. = FO", (9.26) If the knot itself is of negligible mass, then the derivative of f must also be continuous: afl op 9.21) [oe Otherwise there would be a net force om the kno, and therefore an infinite acceleration (Fig. 96), These boundary conditions apply ciety tothe real wave function f(s) But since the imaginary past off differs fom the real pat only in the replacement of cosine by (Ea. 9.18), follows thatthe compiex wavefunction fc, 1) obeys the same rls af) _ af Ce F0*.1), (9.28)372 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES r ae r Sot (@) Discontinuous slope; force on knot ___(a) Continuous slope; no force on knot Figure 9.6 __ When applied to Eq. 9.25, these boundary conditions determine the outgoing amplitudes (Ag and A) in terms of the incoming one (4,): Ar+Ag= Ap, kA; - Ag) from which it follows that 02) 0.30) Jaret, ardtr = (2a Jaret. 031) Ifthe second string is ighter than the first (12 < 411, 80 that vp > v1), all three waves hhave the same phase angle (3 = 5 = 81), and the outgoing amplitudes are an=( Ifthe second string is heavier than the first (vp < v4) the reflected wave is out of phase by 180° (Sg +27 = Sy = 3). In other words, since 2vz Ara A 32 r (5) : ony £08 (hz — wt +) =) = — cos (~ or +5), the reflected wave ipside down” The amplitudes in this case are (9.33)9,1, WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 3B In particular, if the second string is infinitely massive—or, what amounts to the same thing, if the frst string is simply nazled down at the end—then Ag=Ar and Ar =0. "Naturally, inthis case there is no transmitted wave—all of it reflects back. Problem 9.5 Suppose you send an incident wave of specified shape, g7 (2 ~ v4). down sting ‘number |. It gives rise to a reflected wave, fig(-+ vf), and a transmitted wave, 272 — 020), By imposing the boundary conditions 9.26 and 9.27, ind hg and er Problem 9.6 (2) Formulate an appropriate boundary condition, to replace B4, 9.27 forthe ease oftwo strings lnder tension T joined by a knoe of mass me. (b) Find the amplitude and phase ofthe reflected and transmitted waves forthe case where the Jot as a mass mr and the Second string is massles. 1 Problem 9.7 Suppose string 2is embedded in a viscous medium (such as molasses), whieh imposes a drag force that is proportional to its (transverse) speed: (4) Derive the modified wave equation describing the motion of the sting. (b) Solve this equation, assuming the string oscillates athe incident frequency «2, That is, Took for solutions of the form fz, 1) =e () Show that the waves are attenuated (that is their amplitude decreases with increasing 2) Find the characteristic penetration distance, at which the amplitude is I/e ofits original value, interms of y,T, se, and (Ifa wave of amplitude 4, phase 3 =0, and frequency «is incident from the left (string 1) find the reflected wave's amplitude and phase. 9.1.4 Polarization ‘The waves that travel down a string When you shake it are called transverse, because the displacement is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. If the string is reasonably elastic, it is also possible to stimulate compression waves, by giving the string litle tugs. ‘Compression waves are hard to see on a string, but if you try it witha slinky they're quite noticeable (Fig. 9.7). These waves are called longitudinal, because the displacement from ‘equilibrium is along the direction of propagation. Sound waves, which are nothing but compression waves in ar, are longitudinal; electromagnetic waves, as we shall see, are transverse.374 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Figure 9.7 Now there are, of course, vo dimensions perpendicular to any given line of propagation, Accordingly, transverse waves occur in two independent states of polarization: you can shake the string up-and-down ("ertical” polarization—Fig. 9.8a), Belz. t) = Aco 8, (9.34) ‘or left-and-right horizontal” polarization—Fig. 9.86), fu(z,1) = Aet=-# 5, (9.35) or along any other direction in the xy plane (Fig. 9.8) Fe.) = Ae a, (9.36) ‘The polarization vector‘ defines the plane of vibration ? Because the waves are transverse, is perpendicular to the direction of propagation: has 937) In terms of the polarization angle @, f= cosaR + sin9§, (9.38) ‘Thus, the wave pictured in Fig. 9.8e can be considered a superposition of two waves—one horizontally polarized, the other vertically: Hee.1) = A cossje!@* 8 + sine 5, (039) Problem 9.8 Equation 9.36 describes the most general linearly polarized wave on a string. Linear (or “plane”) polarization (so called because the displacement is parallel 9 a fixed vector fi) results from the combination of horizontally and vertically polarized waves of the same phase (Eq, 9.39), Irth two components are of equal amplitude, but out of phase by 90° (say. bs = 0, 6) = 90°), the result isa cirewarly polarized wave. In that case: (@) Ata fixed point c, show thatthe string moves in a cigcle about the © axis. Does it go ‘clockwise or counterclockwise, as you look down the axis toward the origin? How would you ‘construct wave circling the other way? (In optics, the clockwise cases called right elrealar Polarization, and the coumerclockwise, left circular polarization.) (b) Sketch the sting at time r = 0 (c) How would you shake the string in oder to produce a circularly polarized wave? 2Niwice that you can alvays switch he fg offi, provided you simltaneouy advance the phase constant by 180°, since toh operations change he sigh ofthe wave.9.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN VACUUM. 375 (@) Verical polarization () Horizontal polarization (6) Polarization vector Figure 9.8 9.2, Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum 9.2.1 The Wave Equation for E and B In regions of space where there is no charge or current, Maxwell’s equations read aw @ V-E=0, Gi) VxE=-5 9.40) aE ii) V-B=0, (iv) VxB= poco. Gi) V-B=0, Gv) VxB=Hoe05- They constitute a set of coupled, first-order, partial differential equations for E and B. They can be decoupled by applying the curl to (ii) and (ivy vaivxb) <0.) -v'E=v«(-22) ae = — 2 x B) = poco Ge oe a VW xB) =V-B-V'R=V x (oso) i B = Hoeog, (Vx B) = —Hoeo' Sy376 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Or, since V-E = Oand V-B=0, Cn = #B VE = Wo, VB=u9e 5 9.41) Is 7 10605; ce) ‘We now have separare equations for E and B, but they are of second order; that's the price ‘you pay for decoupling them, In vacuum, then, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies the three-dimensional wave equation, lay va (This is the same as Eq. 9.2, except that 9? //z? is replaced by its natural generaliza- tion, V? f.) So Maxwell’s equations imply that empty space supports the propagation of electromagnetic waves, traveling ata speed 1 or vy (00 x 10° m/s, (9.42) which happens to be precisely the velocity of light, c. ‘The implication is astounding Perhaps light is an electromagnetic wave.? Of course, this conclusion does not surprise anyone today, but imagine what a revelation it was in Maxwell's time! Remember how € and jig came into the theory in the frst place: they were constants in Coulomb's law an the Biot-Savart law, respectively. You measure them in experiments involving charged pith balls, batteries, and wires—experiments having nothing whatever to do with light. And yet, according to Maxwell’s theory you can calculate ¢ from these two numbers, Notice the crucial role played by Maxwell's contribution to Ampére's law (s19¢9@B/a1); without it, the wave equation would not emerge, and there would be no electromagnetic theory of light. 9.2.2 Monochromatic Plane Waves For reasons discussed in Sect. 9.1.2, we may confine our attention to sinusoidal waves of frequency «Since different frequencies inthe visible range correspond to different colors such waves are called monochromatic (Table 9.1). Suppose, moreover, that the waves are traveling in the z direction and have no x or y dependence; these are called plane waves. because the fields are uniform over every plane perpendicular tothe direction of propagation (Fig. 9.9), We are interested, then, in fields of the Form Be, = Boe", Bee) peitene), (9.43) 5s Maxwell himsel putt, "We can scucely ave the inference thet light consists the transverse undulations ofthe same medium which isthe cause of electric and magne phenomena” See Wan Tolstoy. James Clerk Mawel A Biography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985) Fora discussion of spherieal waves, athis eve, soe JR. Rit, FJ. Milf, and R, W. Christy, Foundarins ‘of Electromagnetic Theory, ed, Set. 17-5 (Reading, MA: Aion: Wesley, 1979). Or wrk Prob. 933, OF oure, over small eaoagh regions any wave i essentially plane, a lng asthe wavelength much les tha the radius of the curvature of the wave front92. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN VACUUM. a7 ‘The Electromagnetic Spectrum Frequency (HZ) ‘Type ‘Wavelength (my 102 10" 102 ‘gamma rays 10-2 10? 10-8 10° 10-0 108 xrays 07 10! ultraviolet 10! visible 1o'* infrared 108 102 | jon 100 ‘microwave 10° dt 108 TV.EM 10 107 10 108 AM 10° 108 10! 108 RF 10° io? 108 The Visible Range Frequency (Hz) Color Wavelength (m) [Lox to “pear ultraviolet 3.x 10-7 | 7.5 x 104 shortest visible blue 4.0 x 10-7 6.5 x 104 blue 4.6 x 1077 5.6 x 10'4 green $.4x 1077 3.1 x 10! yellow 5.9 x 107 49x 10! orange 61x 107 3.9 x 1ol# longest visible red 7.6 x 10-7 3.0 x 10!* ‘near infrared 1.0 x 10 ‘Table 9.1 where Ey and Bo are the (complex) amplitudes (the physical fields, of course, are the real parts of E and B). "Now. the wave equations for F and B (Eq, 9.41) were derived from Maxwell's equations However, whereas every solution to Maxwell's equations (in empty space) must obey the wave equation, the converse is nor true; Maxwell's equations impose extra constraints on378 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Figure9.9 ip andi, In paniculr, since V - = Oand V -B =, it follows? that (Eo), = (Bo): =0. Ad) ‘That is, electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric and magnetic fields are per- Pendicular to the direction of propagation. Moreover, Faraday's law, V x E = —AB/a implies a relation between the electric and magnetic amplitudes, 0 wit ~K(Eo)y = @(Bo)x, k(Bo)x = (Bo). (45) ‘or, more compactly: 0.46) Evidently, E and B ate in phase and mutually perpendicular; their (real) amplitudes are related by a7) ‘The fourth of Maxwell's equations, V x B = ioeo(@E/#), does not yield an independent condition; it simply reproduces Eq. 9.45, Example 9.2 IE points in the x direction, then B points in the ydiretion (Eg 9.46): (0.48) Seca the el part of Eilers rom the ingpinary pt lyin he elaemet of ste by cos former obeys Mawes eqns so does he ater, nd ees Eas wal9.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN VACUUM 379 Figure 9.10 ‘This is the paradigm fora monochromatic plane wave (sce Fig. 9.10). The wave as a whole is said 0 be polarized in the x direction (by convention, we use te direction of Eto specify the polarization ofan electromagnetic wave) There is nothing special about the z direction, of course—we can easily generalize 0 ‘monochromatic plane waves traveling in an arbitrary direction, The notation is facilitated by the introduction of the propagation (or wave) vector, k, pointing in the direction of propagation, whose magnitude isthe wave number k. The scalar product k-r is the appropriate generalization of kz (Fig 9.11), 80 Een = Beene 0.49) : : i Ben = Lie o (a) = Hk ‘where it isthe polarization vector. Because K is transverse, ak= 9.50) Figure 9.11380 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES (The transversality FB follows automatically from Bg, 9.49.) The actual (eal) electric and ‘magnetic elds in a monochromatic plane wave with propagation vector kand polarization fare E(r,1) = Eocos(k-r = wt +5) A, (9.51) Bor dro costk ror + 8) x8) 32) Problem 9.9 Write down the (eal) electric and magnetic fields for 2 monochromatic plane ‘wave of amplitude Eo, frequency «and phase ange zero that is (a) traveling in the negative «direction and polarized inthe z direction; (b) traveling in the direction from the origin to the point (1, 1,1), with polarization parallel to the x = plane. In each ease, sketch the wave, and give the explicit Cartesian components of and A 9.2.3, Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves According to Eq. 8.13, the energy per unit volume stored in electromagnetic fields is 1 2 (<8 a”) 033) io In the ease ofa monochromatic plane wave (Eq, 9.48) FP = noeok?, (0.54) so the electric and magnetic contributions are equal: U = gE? = eg} cox? (kz = wt +8). (9.55) AAs the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it, The energy flux density (energy per ‘unit area, per unit time) transported by the fields is given by the Poynting vector (Eq, 8.10) s=texm, (056) ho For monochromatic plane waves propagating in the = direction, S = cegkj cos? (kz — wt + 8)% = cui. 1) ‘Notice that Sis the energy density (u) times the velocity of the waves (c 2}~asit should be. For ina time Ar,a length c At passes through area A (Fig. 9.12), carrying with itan energy wAc Ar. The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the wave is therefore we.9.2, ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN VACUUM 381 cat Figure 9.12 Electromagnetic fields not only carry energy, they also carry momentum. In fact, we found in Eq. 8.30 that the momentum density stored in the fields is (9.58) For monochromatic plane waves, then, 1 pace ie Seok cos? (kz ~ wt +8) 8 = ud (9.59) In the case of light, the wavelength is so short (~ 5 x 10-7 m), and the period so brief (~ 1075 5), that any macroscopic measurement will encompass many cycles. Typically, therefore, we're not interested in the Muctuating cosine-squared term in the energy and ‘momentum densities; ll we want isthe average value, Now, the average of cosine-squared covera complete cycle is §, 0 (9.60) 61) (pe) (9.62) use brackets, (), to denote the (time) average over a complete cycle (or many cycles, if you prefer). The average power per unit area transported by an electromagnetic wave is called the intensity: io I= (8) = ceo (9.63) 2 ‘There isa cute wick for doing this in your head: sin? @ 4 cos? = 1, and aver a complete ele the average ‘of sind is equal tothe average of cos #30 sine} = (es?) = 1/2. Mor formals382, CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ‘When light falls on a perfect abyorber it delivers its momentum to the surface, In a time Ar the momentum transfer is (Fig. 9.12) Ap = (p)Ac At, so the radiation pressure {average force per unit area) is Lap to Bar = 20F0=¢ 0.64) (On a perfect reflector the pressure is twice as great, because the momentum switches iretion, instead of simply being absorbed.) We can account for this pressure qualitatively, as follows: The electric field (Eq. 9.48) drives charges in the x direction, and the magnetic field then exerts on them a force (g¥x B) in the z direction. The net force onal the charges inthe surface produces the pressute Problem 9.10 The intensity of sunlight hitting the earth is about 1300 W/m? 1F sunlight strikes a perfect absorber, what pressure does it exert? How about a perfect reflector? What fraction of atmospheric pressure does this amount to? Problem 9.11 In the complex notation ther is a clever device for finding the time average of product. Suppose fir.) = Acos (k-— + 4,) and e(F,t) = Boos (kt — a +4p) ‘Show that (/¢) = (1/2)Re(.2"), where the star denotes complex conjugation, (Note thi this ‘only works ifthe two waves have the same k and o, butthey need not have the same amplitude ‘or phase.| For example oe | Re(eok E+ Li. BY) and (S) = Ree xB), i 2u Problem 9.12 Find all elements ofthe Maxssellstess tensor for a monochromatic plane wave veing the €, uo H. and hence c > v (see Prob, 8.15). The energy density is* L(erete), em and the Poynting vectors sol exp) 9.72) i For monochromatic plane waves the frequency and wave number are related by w = kv (Eq. 9.11), the amplitude of Bis 1/v times the amplitude of F (Eg. 9.47), and the intensity Lape 1 = 5evkG 07) "nis observation is mathematically prety trivial but the physical implications are astonishing: As the wave pases through, the Fields busily polarize and magntize all the molecules, und the suing (osillaing) dipoles {eae their or electri nd magnetic elds. These combine with he orginal lds in sucha way a5 to rete single wave with the sume frequency but a dtierent sped. This extaorlinary conspiracy is responsible for the Phenomenon of transparency. Its dstintynontrvaleansexenceof he ear of the mdm, Por trier ‘dacutsion see MB James and D. J. Gifts, dn. Phys. 6. 3091992) Refer to Sect 44.3 for the precise meaning of energy density.” inthe coatet of ear media384 CHAPTER 9, ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ‘The interestng questions this: What happens when a wave passes rom one transparent medium into another—irto wate, say, or gas o plat?” Asin the case of wave’ on sting, we expect to get a reflected wave and a transmitted wave. "The details depend on the exact nature ofthe eleetradynamie boundary conditions which we died in Chapter 7 (ba, 164) @ aet =a, Gi) Bh=El, 94) (iy BE = Bp. ‘These equations relate the clectric and magnetic fields just tothe left and just tothe right of the interface between two linear media, In the following sections we use them to deduce the laws governing reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves. 9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence Suppose the xy plane forms the boundary between two linear media, A plane wave of, frequency «traveling in the z direction and polarized in the x ditection, approaches the interface from the left (Fig, 9.13): By(2, 1) = Boe 8, - . (975) By(e.1) = 2 Bobi an 1 gives rise ta reflected wave Ente.) = Bagel (976) Figure 9.139.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN MATTER 385 which travels back to the left in medium (1), and a transmitted wave om Byte. = LBogel™ ‘which continues on the the right in medium (2). Note the minus sign in Bg. as required by Eq. 9.49-—or, if you prefer, by the fact thatthe Poynting vector aims in the direction of propagation oe ‘Atz = 0, the combined fields on the left, By + Eg and By +B. must join the fields on the right, Ey and Bz, in accordance with the boundary conditions 9.74. In this case there ‘are no components perpendicular to the surface, so (i) and (ii) are trivial. However, (ii) requires that Eo, + Eo, = Boy (9.78) while (iv) says ~ 1, \_1 (1; es dé) 2 (Ln) 07) u ee Eo, — Fog = BEo,. (9.80) where p= tite _ same can ave Hom Equations 9,78 and 9,80 are easily solved for the outgoing amplitudes, in terms of the inde amplitude i, (1-2). & Vis. a finn = (158) fo, ‘These results are strikingly similar (0 the ones for waves on a string. Indeed, if the permittivities « are close to their values in vacuum (as, remember, they are for most media), eee (2) am “which are identical to Fgs. 9.30. In that case, as before, the reflected wave is i phase (right side up) if ur > v) and out of phase (upside down) if v2 < vy; the real amplitudes are related by (Fy). (082) mou wee in terms of the indices of refraction, Log 2 Eoj. Boy =( ve = my — m2 Eng fin Pra (cithe) ey 88386 CHAPTER 9, ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES What fraction of the incident energy is reflected, and what fraction is transmitted? According to Eq. 9.73, the intensity (average power per unit area) is 1 1 = Sevet. ee If (again) xy = j22 = 19, then the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity is Ie Eop\? ma nm) R=7=(5* : (9.86) (8) = (5m wheres the ratio ofthe transmit intensity tothe incident intensity is Eo? any zt) = am 9.87 any () itn saa Ris called the reflection coefficient and T the transmission coefficient; they measure the fraction of the incident energy that is reflected and transmitted, respectively. Notice that R4T (9.88) as conservation of energy, of course, requires. For instance, when light passes from air (ny = 1) into glass (ng = 1.5), R = 0.04 and T = 0.96. Not surprisingly, most ofthe light is transmitted, Problem 9.13 Calculate the exact reflection and transmission coeficiens, withou assuming = 12 = po, Confer that R-+ T= 1 Problem 9.14 In writing Eqs. 9.76and9.77, acily assured thatthe reflected and transmitted waves have the sime polarization asthe incident wave—along the « direction, Prove that this ‘must beso, [Hint: Let the polarization vectors ofthe transmitted and reflected waves be Osby 84 sin bir §. fig = cos & + sin By and prove from the Boundary conditions that oO 9.3.3 Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence In the last seetion I treated reflection and transmission at normal incidence—that is, when the incoming wave hits the interface head-on. We now turn to the more general case of ‘oblique incidence, in which the incoming wave meets the boundary at an arbitrary angle @ (Fig. 9.14), Of course, normal incidence is realy just a special case of oblique incidence, with @ = 0, but I wanted to teat it separately, asa kind of warm-up, because the algebra is now going to get alittle heavy.9.3, ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN MATTER 387 Figure 9.14 ‘Suppose, then, that a monochromatic plane wave Bye = Bye, Byrn) 089) approaches from the left, giving rise toa reflected wave, Fir) = Faye, Bates) Te x Bed, 090) and a ransmited wave Brin.) = Boe, Bean) thr xB. 91) Allthree waves have the same frequency «»—that is determined once and for al atthe source (che flashlight, or whatever, that produces the incident beam). The three wave numbers are related by Eq, 9.11 yoy = kev = kre or ky ke = Php = kr (9.92) wm ‘The combined feds in medium (1). Ey + Ex and fy +B, must now be joined to the fields Ey and By in medium (2), using the boundary conditions 9.74, These all share the senetie sirierure Cpettbetman gC ygitkarmon < ( yeltkr re ats (9.93) TH ill in the parentheses in a moment; for now, the important thing to notice is that the x, y, and. dependence is confined to the exponents. Because the boundary conditions ‘must hold at all points on the plane, and for all times, these exponential factors must be equal. Otherwise, a slight change in x, say, would destroy the equality (see Prob. 9.15). OF388 (CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES course, the time factors are already equal (in fact, you could regard this as an independent ‘confirmation that the transmitted and reflected frequencies must match the incident one). As for the spatial terms, evidently ky-rske-roky-r, when (0.94) ‘oF, more explicitly, De + Dy = x(kes + ¥ikey = Abr )e + ylkr)y. (095) forall x and all y But Eq. 9.95 can only hold ifthe components are separately equal, forifx = 0, we get Kk = ky = ry. (9.96) while y =0 gives (c= (hide = (bas 97) We may as well orient our axes so that ky lies in the x plane (ie. to Eg. 9.96, so too will kp and kr. Conclusion: (ka)y = 0); according First Law: The incident, reflected, and transmitted wave vectors form a plane (called the plane of incidence), which also includes the normal to the surface ‘here, the z axis) Meanwhile, Eq. 9.97 implies that ky sin0y = ke sine = kr sin gr, (9.98) where 67 is the angle of incidence, é¢ is the angle of reflection, and 67 is the angle of transmission, more commonly known as the angle of refraction, all of them measured with respect to the normal (Fig. 9.14). In view of Eq. 9.92, then, ‘Second Law: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, 4 On (9.99) ‘This isthe law of reflection, As for the transmitted angle, Third Law: (9.100) This isthe law of refraction, or Snell's law.9.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN MATTER 389 ‘These are the three fundamental laws of geometrical optics. It is remarkable how litle actual electrodynamics went into them: we have yet to invoke any specific boundary conditions—all we used was their generic form (Eq. 9.93). Therefore, any other waves (water waves, for instance, oF sound waves) can be expected to obey the same “optical laws when they pass from one medium into another. [Now that we have taken care ofthe exponential factors—they cancel, given Eq. 9.94— the boundary conditions 9.74 become: 8) €1 (Bo, + Bog): = (Bo, Jz (i) Bo, + Boy): = Bos Je oo : @.101) (Gi) Bo, + Bog ey = Bar ny i. L (0) oy + Bop) sy = 7 Bors where By = (1/v)k x Ey in each case, (The last two represent pairs of equations, one for the x-component and one for the y-component.) ‘Suppose that the polarization of the incident wave is parallel tothe plane of incidence (he xz plane in Fig, 9.15); it follows (see Prob. 9.14) that the reflected and transmitted ‘waves are also polarized in this plane. (I shall leave it for you to analyze the case of polarization perpendicular tothe plane of incidence; sce Prob. 9.16.) Then (i) reads u(y sin, + og snp) = €2(~Eo, sin): (9.102) i) adds nothing (= 0, since the magnetic lds have no = component i) becomes Eo, c0s6) + Bog cosdn = Evy cose: (9.103) Figure 9.15390 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES and (says “Oy (9.104), maw i Given the laws of reflection and refraction, Eas 9.102 nd 9,104 bath ee to eee 2105) where (as before) ww imi _ mam wa 9.106) 4 waz amy : and Bq, 9.103 says oo By, + Boy = abo, e107 where cos Ar 8 cos Ay i Solving Bs. 9.105 and 9.107 forthe elected and transmited amplitudes, we obtain 2 (#-2\n 5 2); f(a" )\n a (a 9.1 [2 (5) i Bor = (5) Bs em ‘These are known as Fresnel’s equations, forthe case of polarization in the plane of inci dence. (There ac two other Fresnel equations, giving the reflected and transmitted ampli- tudes when the polarization is perpendicular to the plane of incidence—see Prob. 9.16.) Notice thatthe transmitted wave is always in phase withthe incident one: the reflected wave i either in phase right side up"), if > oF 180° out of phase (upside down”) ifa> 1/oo). At present we're not interested in this transient behavior—we'll wait for any accumulated free charge to disappear. From then on py = 0, and we have V-E=0, Gi) Vx ER, 121) ay aE 0, ivy) VX B= pe + pol (iy) Vx B= nese + uo, Asy, Am J. Phys. 48, 353 1975), point ou that fr god conductors is absurdly shot (10"!? for ‘conpet, whereas theme between collisions is = 10-9) The probiem i tht Ohms Law ise beaks down ‘mtime seas shorter thane actual the time i kes fee charge to despa na goed ondto is of onde ot r. Moreover, H.C, Ohanan, Am. J. Phys 1, 1020 (1983), shows hati ake even long or he Bek na ‘ortents to ean. But none of hiss relevant to our peseat purpose; te fre charge densi i a conductor ‘des eventually dsipate and exactly how fag the proves ake is besie the poi.304 (CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ‘These differ from the corresponding equations for nonconducting media (9.67) only in the addition of the last term in (iv). Applying the curl to (ii) and (iv), as before, we obtain modified wave equations for E and B: ag a va (9.122) “These equation til mit plane-wave solutions Bet) = Bae 0.123) but this time the “wave number” & is complex: B = peo? +ipoo, (9.124) as you can easily check by plugging Eq. 9.123 into Eg. 9.122. Taking the square root, =k+ie, (9.125) ee] ©. 0.26) “The imaginary prof & results in an attenuation of the wave (creasing amplitude with Boe-*elthe-0"), Bee, 1) = Bye Hella), 12 The distance it takes to reduce the amplitude by a factor of 1/e (about a third) is called the skin depth: i (9.128) itis a measure of how far the wave penetrates into the conductor. Meanwhile, the real part of & determines the wavelength, the propagation speed, and the index of refraction, inthe usual way _ ck Bo (9.129) The attenuated plane waves (Ea, 9.127) satisfy the modified wave equation (9.122) for any Bo and Bo, But Maxwell's equations (9.121) impose further constraints, which serve to sletermine the relative amplitudes, phases, and polarizations of E.and B. As before, () and Gi) rule out any z components: the fields are transverse. We may as well orient our axes so that Eis polarized along the x direction: fgets & 0.130) ot)9.4. ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION 395 ‘Then (i) gives Ben e131) (Equation (iv) says the same thing) Once again, the electric and magnetic fel are mutually perpendicular. . Like any complex number, & canbe expressed in terms of is modulus and phase: i 0.132) where | 3 Kall =Ve +12 =ofenji+(2) (9.133) and 6 =tan“"e/b) (34) According to Eq. 9.130 and 9.131, the complex amplitudes fy = Eye'®* and By = Bye'*# are related by os Baett KE yet 0.135) Evidently the elect and magnetic fields are no longer in phase: ae, 65 — be =¢: (9.136) the magnetic field fags behind the electric field, Meanwhile the (eal) amplitudes of Band B are related by By _K Bao (0.137) ‘The (real) electric and magnetic fields are, finally, E(G, 1) = Epe** c0s (kz ~ wt +5), (9.138) BOz, 1) = Bye" cos (kz — wt +52 +69). ‘These fields are shown in Fig. 9.18, Problem 9.18 (a) Suppose you imbedded some free charge in a piece of glass. About how long would it take {or the charge to Now tothe surface? (©) Silver isan excellent conductor, bu it's expensive. Suppose you were designing a mi- ‘rowave experiment to operate ata frequency of 10!" Hz. How thick would you make the silver coatings? (©) Find the wavelength and propagation speed in copper for radio waves at 1 MHz. Compare the corresponding values in ar (or vacuum),396 (CHAPTER 9, ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Figure 9.18, Problem 9.19 () Show thatthe skin depth in a poor conductor (¢ < axe) is (2/e)/@7i (independent of ‘requency) Find the skin dept (in meters) for (pure) wate, (b) Show that the skin depth in a good conductor (a > we) is 2/2 (where 2s the wavelength inthe conductor). Find the skin depth (in nanometers) for atypical metal (¢ = 10" (St m)~!) in the visible range Wo ~ 10%), assuming ¢ * eo and ~ jug, Why are metals opaque? () Show that in a good conductor the magnetic fick lags the electric field by 45°, and find the "ato of their amplitudes. Fora numerical example, use the “typical metal” in par (b) Problem 9.20 {Calculate he (ime average) energy density ofan cletromagnetc plane wave ina conduct ing medium (Eq, 9.138). Show that the magoetic contribution always dominates. [Answer 2 /2u0? ER (©) Show that he itesity i (k/2}0 Re 2 9.4.2 Reflection at a Conducting Surface ‘The boundary conditions we used to analyze reflection and refraction at an interface between two dielectries do not hold in the presence of free charges and currents. Instead, we have the more general relations (7.63): () Q EP -ekt 0.139) ii) BE BE 1-4 Blak, xa, m Wise 7 where a7 (not to be confused with conductivity) is the free surface charge, Ky the free surface current, and fi (not to be confused with the polarization of the wave) is a unit9.4. ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION 397 vector perpendicular to the surface, pointing from medium (2) into medium (1), For ohmic conductors (Jy = oR) there can be no free surface current, since this would require an infinite electric field at the boundary. Suppose now that the 2y plane forms the boundary between a nonconducting linear ‘medium (1) and a conductor (2). A monochromatic plane wave, traveling in the z direction and polarized in the x direction, approaches from the left, as in Fig. 9.13 Ex(z,1) = Ege 0%, Bye.) = Boye ~~: (9.140) This incident wave gives rise to a reflected wave, Ext) = Bog, Hine. = Fg (olay propagating back to the left in medium (1), and a transmitted wave Ege 8, Brier) = By, eilb-a 9.142) ‘hich i attenuated as it penetrates int the conductor. At = 0, the combined wave in medium (1) must join the wave in medium (2), pursuant to the boundaty conditions9.139. Since E = Oonboth sides, boundary condition (i) yields ay =0. Since B = 0, (iis automatically satisfied. Meanwhile, (ii gives Eo, + Bog = Boy. (0.143) and (iv) (with Ky = 0) says ook Faw (Er ~ Bog) — 2 Boy =0. 0.144) avi jae Eo ~ Bo = BE oy. (9.145) where (9.146) I follows that (147) ‘These results are formally identical othe ones that apply atthe boundary between nonconductors (Eq, 9.82), but the resemblance is deceptive since f is now a complex number. For a perfect conductor ( = 00), k2 = 00 (Eq. 9.126), so B is infinite, and Bay = ~B oy. bay =0. 0.148)398 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES In this case the wave is totaly reflected, with a 180° phase shift. (That's why excellent conductors make good mirrors. In practice, you paint a thin coating of silver onto the back ‘of @ pane of glass—the glass has nothing to do with the reflection; i's just there to support the silver and to keep it from tarnishing. Since the skin depth in silver at optical frequencies is on the order of 100 A, you don’t need a very thick layer.) ee Problem 9.21 Calculate the reflection coefficient for light at an aieo-silver interface (je) = 12 = Ho. € = €. 7 = 6 x 107(2-m)~), a optical frequencies (w = 4 x 1015/5), 94.3. The Frequency Dependence of Permittivity In the preceding sections, we have seen that the propagation of electromagnetic waves through matteris govemed by three properties ofthe material, which we took be constants the permittivity €, the permeability j., and the conductivity @, Actually, each of these parameters depends to some extent on the frequency of the waves you are considering, Indeed, if the permitivity were mruly constant, then the index of refraction in a transparent medium, n = Yé;, would also be constant. But it is well known from optics that n is a function of wavelength (Fig, 9.19 shows the graph for a typical glass). A prism or a raindrop bends blue light more sharply than red, and spreads white light out into a rainbow of colors. This phenomenon is called dispersion. By extension, whenever the speed of @ ‘wave depends on its frequency, the supporting medium is called dispersive.'2 _ 0 £ 2 10 2 1460 1430 4000 3000 6000 7000 Angstroms Wavelengts, 2. (ina Figure 9.19 re dispersive: see Bs. 9.126 and 9.129,94, ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION 399 Because waves of different frequency travel at different speeds in a dispersive medium, ‘a wave form that incorporates a range of frequencies will change shape as it propagates. A. sharply peaked wave typically flattens out, and whereas each sinusoidal component travels atthe ordinary wave (or phase) velocity, (9.149) (9.150) [You can demonstrate this by dropping a rock into the nearest pond and watching the waves that form: While the disturbance as a whole spreads out in a circle, moving at speed vp the ripples that go {© make it up will be seen to travel rwice as fast (v = 2ug in this case), ‘They appear at the back end of the packel, growing as they move forward to the ‘center, then shrinking again and fading away at the front (Fig. 9.20).] We shall not concer ‘ourselves with these matters—’ll stick fo monochromatje waves, for which the problem does not arise, But I should just mention that the energy carried by a wave packet in a dispersive medium ordinarily travels atthe group velocity, not the phase velocity. Don't be too alarmed, therefore, if in some circumstances v comes out greater than ¢.!4 Figure 9.20 My purpose inthis section isto account forthe frequency dependence of ¢ in noncondue- tors, using a simplified model for the behavior of electrons in dielectrics, Like all classical ‘models of atomic-scale phenomena, its at best an approximation to the truth; nevertheless, it does yield qualitatively satisfactory results, and it provides a plausible mechanism for dispersion in transparent media. ‘The electrons in a nonconductor are bound to specific molecules. The actual binding forces can be quite complicated, but we shall picture each electron as attached to the end of an imaginary spring, with force constant kyying (Fig. 9.21): mas, (31) "Sco. French, Wrations and Waves. p. 230 (New York: W. W, Norton & Co, 1971) oF FS. Crawford, ‘Je Maes, Sec. 6.2 (New York: MeGiraw-Hl, 1968), "ven the group velocity can exceed in special cases—see PC. Peters, Am. J. Phys. 86, 129 (1988), Incidental if wo diferent “speeds of lights not coovgh ostisy you, checkout S.C: Bloch Am. ly 45,538 (1977, in which no fever than eighe dint veloeies ae identi! Frioting = ~Kspring400 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Electron Figure 9.21 where x is displacement from equilibrium, m is the electron’s mass, and oy is the natural oscillation frequency, /yring/™. [If this strikes you as an implausible model, look back at Ex. 4.1, where we were led toa force of precisely this form. As a matter of fact, practically any binding force can be approximated this way for sufficiently small displacements from equilibrium, as you can see by expanding the potential energy in a Taylor series about the equilibrium point: 1 Vea) = UO) + UO) + 5°U") + The first term is a constant, with no dynamical significance (you can always adjust the zero of potential energy so that U (0) }). The second term automatically vanishes, Since dU dx — ~F, and by the nature of an equilibrium the fore at that point is zero ‘The thir term is precisely the potential energy of a spring with force constant kag = PU dx*|, (the second derivative is positive, fora point of stable equilibrium). As long as the displacements are smal the higher tems inthe series can be neglected. Geometrically. all amsayingisthat virtually any function canbe ft near a minimum by suitable parabola. | -Meanssile, there will presumably be some damping force on the electron [Again Ihave chosen the simplest possible form; the damping must be opposite in direction tothe velocity. and making it proportional othe velo isthe easiest way to accomplish this. The cause of the damping does not concern us here—among other things, an oscillating charg rates nd the fdition siphon of ents. We wl clelate this “radion damping in Chapter 11 Thite presence of an electromagnetic wave of equeny ,polaized nike x dren (Fie 9.20 the cecton subject toa driving nce Faiving = GE = 4 Eo costot), (9.153) where q is the charge of the electron and Ey is the amplitude of the wave at the point where the electron is situated. (Since we're only interested in one point, I have reset the clock so that the maximum E occurs there at = 0.) Puting al this ito Newton's second Iaw gives x my = Foe = Pointing + Ranging + Figs9.4. ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION 401 or oe a, Sa tm Gy + mae = 49 cos(or) (0.158) ‘Our model, then, describes the electron asa damped harmonic oscillator, driven at frequency «», (Lassume that the much more massive nuclei remain at rest) [Equation 9,154 is easier to handle if We regard it as the real part of a complex equation: CR de 4 Gate Ge tobi = Leper 0.155) In the steady state, the system oscillates at the driving frequency: to (9.156) Inserting this into Eq. 9.155, we obtain 0.157) ‘The dipole moment is the real part of Be) = 4h (9.158) ‘The imaginary term in the denominator means that p is out of phase with E—lagging behind by an angle tan" [y ay, In general, differently situated electrons within @ given molecule experience different natural frequencies and damping coefficients. Let's say there are f electrons with frequency ‘9, and damping yj in each molecule. If there are N molecules per unit volume, the polarization P is given by'> the real part of (9.159) Now, I defined the electric susceptibility as the proportionality constant between P and E, (specifically, P = eo eB). Inthe present case P is nor proportional to E (this is not, strictly speaking, a linear medium) because of the difference in phase. However, the complex polarization P is proportional to the complex field E, and this suggests that we introduce a ‘complex susceptibility, Z.: Paez. (9.160) "Shs applies direct to the ase of dia ps: for denser materials the theory smote slighty accordance with dhe Ciasius-Mossti equation (Pro. 438) By the way, dot confxe the “planation” oa mam, with the “poerizacion” ofa wave—same word, bt two completely ued meanings402 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Allof the manipulations we went through before carry over, on the understanding that the physical polarization isthe real part of P, just asthe physical field isthe real part of E, In particular, the proportionality between D and Kis the complex permittivity @ = co(1 + Ze), and the complex dielectric constant (in this model) is eae ke Lasts 161) * meg 2 Fa? iyo Ordinarily, the imaginary term is negligible; however, when w is very close to one of the resonant frequencies (w;) it plays an important role, as we shall see. Ina dispersive medium the wave equation for a given frequency reads 0.162) it admits plane wave solutions, as before, E eie-an, (0.163) with the complex wave number _ vévow. (9.164) Writing & in terms of its real and imaginary parts, kak tix, (0.165) Eq, 9.163 becomes : Ben (0.166) Evidently the wave is attenuated (this is hardly surprising, since the damping absorbs energy). Because the intensity is proportional to £ (and henee to e-*=), the quantity (0.167) isle the absorption coeicent. Meanie, th wave velit s/n the index orton» : “ hv debra edntatonreminicen of Se. 941, Howe inthe Peseta keand « have nothing to do with conductivity; rather, they are determined by the parameters bteur dumped harmon oar or pss th eon en Ey 9.161 all an \we can approximate the square root (Eq, 9.164) by the first term in the binomial expansion. vive =1+ fe. Then (9.168) (9.169)9.4. ABSORPTION AND DISPERSION 403, Figure 9.22 a ae Ime CF =o PF ya 0.170) and 2 = Mae? Sins eae Gas a 7) In Fig. 9.22 T have plotted the index of refraction and the absorption coefficient in the Vicinity of one ofthe resonances. Most ofthe time the index of refraction rises gradually with increasing frequency, consistent with our experience from optics (Fig, 9.19). However, in the immediate neighborhood of a resonance the index of refraction drops sharply. Because this behavior is atypical, itis called anomalous dispersion. Notice that the tegion of ‘anomalous dispersion (w; < @ < w, in the figure) coincides with the region of maximum absorption; in fact, the material may be practically opaque in this frequency range. ‘The reason is that we are now driving the electrons at their “favorite” frequency; the amplitude of their oscillation is relatively large, and a correspondingly large amount of energy is dissipated by the damping mechanism, InFig. 9.22, n runs below I above the resonance, suggesting thatthe wave speed exceeds ¢. As T mentioned earlier, this is no cause for alarm, since energy does not travel at the wave velocity but rather at the group velocity (see Prob, 9.25). Moreover, the graph does not include the contributions of other terms in the sum, which add a relatively constant “background” that, in some eases, keeps n > I on both sides of the resonance.404 CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES If you agree to stay away from the resonances, the damping can be ignored, and the formula for the index of refraction simplifies: (9.172) For most substances the natural frequencies are scattered all over the spectrum in arather ‘chaotic fashion. But for transparent materials, the nearest significant resonances typically lie in the ultraviolet, so that « < op. In that case L L ( 2 an G8 a and Eq. 9.172 takes the form NG? yo fi nae (S24 19 1+( coo (9.173), Or, in terms of the wavelength in vacuum ( natsa(t4 3) (0.178) This is known as Cauchy’s formula; the constant A is called the coefficient of refraction and B is called the coefficient of dispersion, Cauchy's equation applies reasonably well to most gases, in the optical region, What Ihave described in this section is certainly not the complete story of dispersion in nonconducting media. Nevertheless, it does indicate how the damped harmonic motion of| electrons can account forthe frequency dependence ofthe index of refraction, and itexplains why 1 is ordinarily a slowly increasing function of w, with occasional “anomalous” regions where it precipitously drops. Problem 9.22 (@) Shallow water is nondispersive; the waves travel ata speed that is proportional to the square root ofthe depth, In deep water, however, the waves can't “eet” all the way down to the bottom—they behave as though the depth were proportional to (Actually, the distinetion ‘between “shallow” and “deep” itself depends on the wavelength: Ifthe dept i less than 2, the water is “shallow”; if tis substantially greater than & the water is “deep") Show that the wave velocity of deep water waves is twice the group velocity (b) In quantum mechanics, a fee particle of mass m traveling in the x ditestion is described by the wavefunction wean) = Aelo FIM, where p isthe momentum, and E = p?/2m isthe kinetic energy. Calculate the group velocity and the wave velocity. Which one corresponds to the classical speed of the particle? Note that the wave velocity is half the group velocity9.5. GUIDED WAVES 405 Problem 9.23 f you take the model in Ex 4.1 at face value, what natu frequency do you get? Putin the actual numbers. Where, in the electromagnetic spoctrum, does this lie, assuming ‘the radius ofthe atom is 0.5 A? Find the coeficents of refraction and dispersion andl compare ‘them with those for hydrogen at 0°C and atmospheric pressure: A = 1.36 x 104, B 1.710" Problem 9.24 Find the width of the anomalous dispersion region for the ease ofa single Fesonance at frequency oy. Assume y < axy- Show that the index of refraction assumes is ‘maximum and minimum values at points where the absorption coelicient sa half-maximum, Problem 9.25 Assuming negligible damping (y; = 0), caleulate the group velocity (vg = dye ofthe waves desribed by Es. 9.166 and 9.169, Show that vy < c,even when v > € Guided Waves 9.5.1 Wave Guides So far. we have dealt with plane waves of infinite extent; now we consider electromagnetic ‘waves confined to the interior of a hollow pipe, or wave guide (Fig. 9.23), We'll assume the wave guide is a perfect conductor, so that E = 0 and B = 0 inside the material itself, ‘and hence the boundary conditions atthe inner wall are!® f) Eso, (9.175) ai) Be Figure 9.23 "See Eg, 9139 and Prob, 742. In perfect conductor E = 0, and hence (by Faraday’s law) aB/02 = sssuming the mapnei eld aed ou! er, then wal remain 0,406 CHAPTER 9, ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Free charges and currents will be induced on the surface in such a way as to enforce these constraints. We are interested in monochromatic waves that propagate down the tube, so E and B have the generic form @ Ble. y, 2.1) = Bote, ye, - - (0.176) Gi) Box, 9.2.1) = Bots, pel. (For the cases of interest k is real, so I shall dispense with the tilde.) ‘The electric and ‘magnetic fields must, of course, satisfy Maxwell's equations, in the interior of the wave Buide: aB a @ V-E=0, Gi) VxE= 171) Lae Gi) V-B=0, iy) VB ” ear ‘The problem, then, is to find functions Ep and By such that the fields (9.176) obey the differential equations (9.177), subject to boundary conditions (9.175), [As we shall soon see, confined waves are not (in general) transverse in order to ft the boundary conditions we shall have to include longitudinal components (i and B.):!7 FEI+ BRB I+, (0.178) where each ofthe components is afunction of x and y. Putting this into Maxwell's equations (iy and (iv), we obtain (Prob, 9.26a) yy 2B. @ wy 5 «i o ‘e,, (9.179) e vs) ‘7p avoid cumbersome notion sal eave the subscript andthe le of the individ components,9.5, GUIDED WAVES 407 [Equations (ii, (i), (v), and (vi) can be solved for Es, By, By, and By: i ae, | ae, nae 4 gett), @ (rer ( a * >) i aE: abe i) &= Gore (ott). (9.180) i ap. i) B= Sop (ES wy) B=, (2B (fer — It suffices, then, to determine the longitudinal components £, and B.; if we knew those, we could quickly calculate all the others, just by differentiating. Inserting Eq, 9,180 into the remaining Maxwell equations (Prob. 9.26b) yields uncoupled equations for £ and B, 2 2 © [Se dteuree @.181) G(s fae Owe call these TE (“transverse electric”) waves; if B. = 0 they are called TM (Cransverse magnetic") waves; if both E. = 0 and B. = 0, we call them TEM waves.!® It tums out that TEM waves cannot occur in a hollow wave guide, Proof: If E; = 0, Gauss's law (Eq, 9.17) says ab, , 06, ar ty ), Faraday’s law (Eg, 9.177) says a, aby ox ay Indeed, the vector By in Eq, 9.178 has zero divergence and zero curl. It can therefore be written asthe gradient of a scalar potential that satisfies Laplace's equation. But the boundary condition on E (Eq. 9.175) requires that the surface bbe an equipotential, and since Laplace's equation admits no local maxima or ‘minima (Sect. 3.14), this means thatthe potential is constant throughout, and hence the electric field is zero—no wave atall. ged ding the unconfined plane waves of Set. 9.2) k = w/e, Es. 9.180 are Indeterminate, and you have to go back to Es. 9.179,408, CHAPTER 9, ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Notice that this argument applies only to a completely empty pipe—if you run a separate ‘conductor down the middle, the potential at ts surface need not be the same as on the outer wall, and hence a nontrivial potential is possible. We'll see an example of this in Sect. 9.5.3 Problem 9.26 (a) Decive Eqs. 9.179, and from these obtain Eqs. 9.180. {(b) Put Bq, 9.180 into Maxwell's equations (i) and (i to obtain Eg, 9.181. Check that you get ‘the same results using () and (iv) of Eg, 9.179. 9.5.2. ‘TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide Suppose we have a wave guide of rectangular shape (Fig. 9.24), with height a and width 6, and we are interested in the propagation of TE waves. The problem is to solve Eq. 9.181, subject to the boundary condition 9.175ii, We'll do it by separation of variables, Let Bex. 9) = XGY(). so that axe ey vip xT lel Divide by XY and note that the and y-ependent terms must be constant: =H IXY =0. ay i =-8, Gy) SOE @ eq O Fae (9.182) with -K = + (w/e)? - = 0, (9.183) Figure 9.249.5. GUIDED WAVES 409 “The general solution to Eq. 9.1821 is, X (x) = Asin (kx) + B 60s (ky), But the boundary conditions require that B,—and hence also (Eq, 9.180iii) dX /dx vanishes at x = and.x =a, So A =0, and k= mx/a, (m= j (9.184) ‘The same goes for ¥, with ky =am/b, (= 01,2... (9.185) ‘and we conclude that B, = By cos (max /a) cos (ny /b). (9.186) This solution is called the TEyyy mole. (The first index is conventionally associated with the larger dimension, so we assume a > b. By the way, atleast one of the indices ‘must be nonzero—see Prob. 9.27.) The wave number (k) is obtained by putting Eqs. 9.184 and 9.185 into Eq. 9.183: Yloye? = 220m jay? + 9/6) 0.187) t < exym/ay? + (n/b? enn, (9.188) the wave number is imaginary, and instead of a traveling wave we have exponentially attenuated fields (Eq. 9.176). For tis reason my is called the cutoff frequency for the mode in question. The lowest cutoff frequency for a given wave guide occurs for the mode TEw eyo = ex/a (9.189) Frequencies less than this will not propagate at all The wave number can be Written more simply in terms of the cutofT frequency: (9.190) ‘The wave velocity is (9.191) (enn [oF which is greater than c, However (see Prob, 9.29), the energy carried by the wave travels at the group velocity (Eq. 9.150) L Me Fpdg Vt ma? m) the propagation vector k bends away from the normal (ig. 9.28), In particular, if the light is incident atthe ertieal angle = sin" (n/m), (9.200) then @7 = 90°, and the transmitted ray just grazes the surface, If 8p exceeds Gc, there is 0 refracted ray at al, only a reflected one (this is the phenomenon of total internal reflection,ald (CHAPTER 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ‘on which light pipes and fiber optics are based). But te feds are not zero in medium 2; what we get isa so-called evanescent wave, which is rapidly attenuated and transports no energy into medium 2! ‘A quick way to construct the evanescent wave is simply fo quote the results of Sect. 9.3.3 with ky = omz/eand ky = kp(sindp & +cossp 9); the only change is that sind =" sind » is now greater than 1, and ee cosy = yt — sin? Op = isin Oy — 1 is imaginary. (Obviously, can ao longer be interpreted as an angle!) (2) Show that : : Erie.) = Boyett, (9201) where ws Sym sino)? —n3 and k= sina, (9.202) ‘This isa wave propagating in the x dizection (parallel vo the iterfce!), and attenuated inthe direction, (b) Noting that (Eq, 9.108) is now imaginary, use Fa, 9,109 to calculate the reflection coefficient for polarization parallel to the plane of incidence, [Notice that you get 100% reflection, whichis better than a & conducting surface (se, for example, Prob. 9.21) () Do the same for polatization perpendicular to the plane of incidence (use the results of Prob, 9.16) "Ta evanescent ls can be detected by placing a second interface a short distance to the ight of the Fist in ‘clove analog to quantum mechanical tunneling, the wave cross the gap and renssembles tothe righ. See F. Albi, S. Navas, and MV. Andres, Aw. J Ph. 6, 165 (1993),9.3. GUIDED WAVES ais (4) In the case of polariz ‘evanescent fields are ion perpendicular to the plane of incidence, show thatthe (real) Wi) honky “a oa tee) = Be fests an hoe {) Check thatthe felds in (4) stisty all of Maxwell's equations (9.67), (0 For the flelds in (d), construct the Poyating vector, and show that, on average, no energy is transmitted inthe z direction. Problem 9.38 Consider the resonant cavity produced by closing off the two ends of & roc angular wave guide, at z = Oand at: = d, making a perfectly conducting empty box. Show ‘thatthe resonant frequencies for both TE and TM modes ae given by ————— umn = oxy fd)? + (mje)? + (a/b? (9.208) for integers, m, and n, Find the associated electric and magnetic fields.10.1 Chapter 10 Potentials and Fields The Potential Formulation 10.1.1 Scalar and Vector Potentials In this chapter we ask how the sources (p and J) generate electric and magnetic fields; in other words, we seek the general solution to Maxwell's equations, 1 aB ) VE=—p, (ii) VxE=->, 0 ae 7 (10.1) aE (i) V-B=0, Gs) Vx B= Had + Hoe Given p(r, 1)andJ(r.1), what arethe fields E(r, 1) and B(r, 1)? Inthestatic case Coulomb's, law and the Biot-Savart law provide the answer. What we're looking for, then, is the generalization of those laws to time-dependent configurations. This is not an easy problem, and it pays to begin by representing the fields in terms of potentials. In electrostatics V x E = 0 allowed us to write E as the gradient of a scalar potential: E = —WV. In electrodynamics this is no longer possible, because the curl of F, is nonzero. But B remains divergenceless, so we can still write 0.2) as in magnetostatics, Putting this into Faraday’s law (iil) yields a Fv * AD. 41610.1. THE POTENTIAL FORMULATION 47 Here is aquantity, unlike F alone, whose curl does vanish; itcan therefore be written as the gradient of a salar: aa te E+ > =-vwv. In terms of V and A, then, 03) ‘This reduces to the old form, of course, when A is constant, ‘The potential representation (Eqs. 10-2 and 10.3) automatically fulfils the two homoge- neous Maxwellequations, i) and (ii). How about Gauss’s law () andthe Ampére/Maxwell Taw (ivy? Putting Eq. 10.3 into), we find that vs 2y.ae-t, 104) im « this replaces Poisson’s equation (to which it reduces in the static case). Putting Eqs. 10.2 and 10.3 into (iv) yields av vA yaw A) = ua —noeo¥ (32) — a fr, using the veetor identity V x (V x A) = V(V A) — V7A, and rearranging the terms 2 PA av (°-matit) -¥ (9-4 ssa) = Equations 10.4 and 10.5 contain all the information in Maxwell's equations. 0) (10.5) ‘Example 10.1 Find the charge and current distributions that would give rise to the potentials ok 2 Boer — |x)? 4 for x} < et, o a=] * 0. for jsl > et, where kis constant and ¢ = 1/ J&A: Solution: First we'll determine the eleetic and magnetic fields, using Eqs 102 and 103: 108 er iey eet iad, ok, : ether — api418, CHAPTER 10. POTENTIALS AND FIELDS 5 Figure 10.1 (plus for x > 0, minus for x < 0). These are for [x] < ct: when |x| > cf, B= B= (Fig. 10.1), Calculating every derivative in sight, tind 0, VB=O, vxba eth ok v vxB= aE bok aw hae ‘As youcan easily check, Moxwel’s equations are all satisfied, with o and J both evo, Notice, however, that B has a discontinuity at x = O, and his signals the presence ofa surface eurrent K in the yz plane; boundary condition iv) in Eq. 7.63 gives 3 ke Kxk, and ence Kaka idently we have here @ uniform surface current flowing in the = diection over the plane = 0, which stats up at r= O, and increases in proportion to. Notice thatthe news tavels ‘out (in both directions) atthe speed of light: for points |x| > ct the message (hat curtent is ‘ow flowing) has not yet arived, so the fields are zero, Problem 10.1 Show thatthe differential equations for V and A (Eqs, 104 and 1005) can be ‘written in the more symmetrical form oy, al v4 ate, et 10.6) PA-ve where10.1, THE POTENTIAL FORMULATION 419 Figure 10.2 Problem 10.2 For the configuration in Ex. 10.1, considera rectangular box of length J, width 1, and height h, situated a distance d above the yz plane (Fig. 10.2). (a) Find the energy inthe box at time 4) = d/o, and at fp = (d + hye (b) Find the Poynting vector, and determine the enemy per unit time flowing into the box ring the interval fy <1 <4 (Integrate the result in (b) from r; to and confirm that the increase in energy (part (a) equals the not influ, 10.1.2 Gauge Transformations Equations 10.4 and 10.5 are ugly, and you might be inclined at this stage to abandon the potential formulation altogether. However, we have succeeded in reducing six problems— finding E and B (three components each)—down to four: V (one component) and A (three more). Moreover, Es. 10.2 and 10.3 do not uniquely define the potentials; we are free to impose extra conditions on V and A, as long as nothing happens to K and B. Let's work out precisely what this gauge freedom entails. Suppose we have two sets of potentials, (V, A) and (V’, A’), which correspond to the same electric and magnetic fields. By how much can they differ? Write A’ =At¢a and V=VHh Since the two A's give the same B, their curls must be equal, and hence Vxa=0. We can therefore write a asthe gradient of some scalar a=Vr,420 CHAPTER 10. POTENTIALS AND FIELDS ‘The two potentials also give the same E, so. aa v4 a+ v(o+3) ‘The term in parentheses is therefore independent of position (it could, however, depend on time); call it (0: 0. a St ke. Actually, we might as well absorb A() into A, defining a new A. by adding fk)’ tothe ‘old one. This wll ot affect the gradient offs it just adds K() to 2/94. i follows that 0.7) Conetusion: For any old scalar function 2, we-can with impunity add V2 to A, provided ‘we simultaneously subtract 32./@1 from V. None of this will affect the physical quantities E and B. Such changes in V and A are called gauge transformations, They can be exploited ‘o adjust the divergence of A, with a view to simplifying the “ugly” equations 10.4 and 10.5. In magnetostatics, it was best to choose VA = 0 (Eq, 5.61); in electrodynamics the situation is not so clear cut, and the most convenient gauge depends to some extent on the problem at hand. There are many famous gauges in the literature; I'll show you the two ‘most popular ones, Problem 10.3 Find the fields and the charge and current distributions, corresponding to ieee Ven=0 Aen= Se Problem 10.4 Suppose V = O and A = Ag sin(kx — 1) §, where Ag, a, and kare constants Find E and B, and check that they satisfy Maxwell's equations in vacuum. What condition ust you impose on and K? Problem 10.8 Use the gauge function & Prob. 10.3, and comment on the result. =(1/4zee9N(gt/r) to wansform the potentials in10.1. THE POTENTIAL FORMULATION 421 10.1.3 Coulomb Gauge and Lorentz* Gauge ‘The Coulomb Gauge. As in magnetostatics, we pick vA 08) With this, Eq. 10.4 becomes viv =—4p, 40.9) “0 This is Poisson's equation, and we already know how to solve it: setting V =O at infinity, veeaym gia f EM ae ou areal > Don’t be fooled, though—unlike electrostatics, V by itself doesn't tell you E; you have to know A as well (Eq. 10:3) ‘There is apeculiar thing about the scalar potential in the Coulomb gauge: itis determined by the distribution of charge right now. If move an electron in my laboratory, the potential V on the moon immediately records this change. That sounds particularly odd in the light Of special relativity, which allows no message to travel faster than the speed of light. The point is that V by selfs nota physically measurable quantity—all the man in the moon can ‘measure is E, and that involves A as well. Somehow itis built into the vector potential, inthe Coulomb gauge, that whereas V instantaneously reflects al changes in p, the combination =¥V — GAYA) does nor K will change only after sufficient time has elapsed forthe “news” to artive. ‘The advantage of the Coulomb gauge is that the scalar potential i particularly simple to calculate; the disadvantage (apart from the acausal appearance of Vis that A is panicularly dificult to calculate. The differential equation for A (10.5) in the Coulomb gauge reads : a aw VA — nose = ~Hol + Hoe (#) (io. ‘The Lorentz gauge. Inthe Lorentz gauge we pick w VA noeom ao) “hiss designed o eliminate the mide ter in E105 (in the language of Prob. 10.1, sets L= 0), With this oa) Meanie, the differential equation for V, (10.4), becomes : Gil viv — une tous mcogy = -2 0.18) *Thereis some question whcter this should be atbued oH. A. Lorenzo o LV. Lorena (J. Van Blade IEEE Antennas ant Propagation Mogesine 342), 69 (1991) But al the standard wextbooks cade thet and 1 ‘void posible confusion shall dete o that practice. see 0.1, Brill and B. Goodman. Am. J Phe. 38, 832 (1967),10.2 2 CHAPTER 10. POTENTIALS AND FIELDS ‘The virtue of the Lorentz gauge is that it teats V and A.on an equal footing: the same differential operator a V? — woeos3 = 0.15) (called the d’Alembertian) occurs in both equations: " a ao 0.16) [ao oA = ~yos. ‘This democratic treatment of V and A is particularly nice in the context of special relativity ‘where the d’ Alembertian is the natural generalization of the Laplacian, and Eqs. 10.16 can bberegarded as four-dimensional versions of Poisson's equation, (In this same spirit the wave ‘equation, for propagation speed c, O° f = 0, might be regarded as the four-dimensional version of Laplace's equation.) In the Lorentz gauge V and A satisfy the inhomogeneous wave equation, with a “source” term (in place of zero) on the right. From now on I shall use the Lorentz gauge exclusively, and the whole of electrodynamics reduces tothe problem of solving the inhomogeneous wave equation for specified sources. That's my project for the next section. Problem 10.6 Which ofthe potentilsin Ex. 10.1, Prob, 103, and Prob. 10.4 areinthe Coulomb gauge? Which rein the Lorenz gauge? (Notice that these gauges are not mutually exclusive.) Problem 10.7 In Chapter 5,1 showed that itis always possible t pick & vector potential \whose divergence is zero (Coulomb gauge), Show that its always possible to choose WA = ~Hoeo(@V /91), as required for the Lorentz gauge, assuming you know howto solve equations ‘of the Form 10.16. Ist always possible to pick V = 0? How about A = 0? Continuous Distributions 10.2.1 Retarded Potentials In the statie case, Eqs. 10.16 reduce to (four copies of) Poisson's equation, ‘with the familiar solutions ven) 0.17)10.2, CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS 43 where as always, isthe distance from the Source point to the field point r (Fig. 10.3) Now, electromagnetic “news” travels at the speed of light. In the nonstatie case, therefore, it’s not the status of the source right now that matters, but rather its condition at some earlier time 1, (called the retarded time) when the “message” left. Since this message must travel distance 2, the delay is 4/c: (10.18) ‘The natural generalization of Eg. 10.17 for nonstatie sources is therefore fear n 10.19) Here p(r’ 1) is the charge density that prevailed at point rat the retarded time fr. Because the integrands are evaluated at the retarded time, these are called retarded potentials, (1 speak of “the” retarded time, but of course the most distant parts of the charge distribution have earlier retarded times than nearby ones. It's just lke the night sky: The light we see now left each star at the retarded time corresponding to that star’ distance from the earth.) Note that the retarded potentials reduce properly to Eq, 10.17 in the static case, for which pe and J are independent of time, Well, that all sounds reasonahle—and surprisingly simple, But are we sure it's right? 1 idn’t actually derive these formulas for V and A‘ all I did was invoke a heuristic argument (electromagnetic news travels at the speed of light") to make them seem plausible. To prove them, I must show that they satisfy the inhomogeneous wave equation (10.16) and ‘meet the Lorentz condition (10.12). Incase you think I’m being fussy let me warn you that if you apply the same argument to the fields you'll get entirely the wrong answer: Bene ge f Paar, Bene sy f Meat x4 Wh ay