An Early Subsistence Exchange System in the Moche Valley, Peru

Author(s): Shelia Pozorski and Thomas Pozorski

Source: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 6, No. 4 (Winter, 1979), pp. 413-432
Published by: Boston University
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/529425
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An EarlySubsistenceExchangeSystemin the
MocheValley,Peru

Shelia Pozorski
Thomas Pozorski
Sectionof Man
CarnegieMuseumof NaturalHistory
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania

Technologically, theInitialPeriodin Perubeganwiththe introduction of pottery

andthe changefrom twinedto woventextileproduction.Withinthe Moche
Valley,it wasthe timewhena complexsettlementfirst appearedin the valleyin-
terior-a relocationcorrelatedwiththe beginningsof irrigationagriculture.
Thiscriticalpoint in theprocessof adaptationto irrigationagricultureis ex-
ploredthroughan examinationof subsistencedatafrom twosites: theInitial
Period(1800-1400 B.C.) site of Gramaloteon the coastandtheInitialPeriodand
EarlyHorizon(1400-400 B.C.) settlementof CaballoMuertolocatedwellinland.
Evidencefrom CaballoMuertosuggeststhattheshiftfromfloodwaterto irriga-
tionagriculturewascomplete,yet the inlandsite still reliedheavilyon animal
proteinfrom Gramaloteon the coast. Takentogether,the twoearlyceramicsites
form an economicunitwhich,whenexplored,revealsseveralimportantaspectsof
the transitionfrom an exclusivelycoastalorientationto a predominantly inland
agriculturalsubsistencefocus.

Introduction from two early sites in the Moche Valley, Gramalote

The advent of irrigationagriculturewas one of the and Caballo Muerto(TABLE 1),2 suggestthe changeover
most importanteventsin the prehistoryof Peru.On the was more gradual. Initially, the inland settlement of
north coast, its introductiondates between 2000 and Caballo Muerto was heavily dependenton the coastal
1500 B.C. Immediatelypriorto this time, coastal inhabi- resourcesfor animal protein while the coastal site of
tants subsisted largely on marine resources such as Gramalote relied on the inland settlement for agri-
shellElshand Elsh,supplementedby floodwater horti- cultural products. As time passed, a domesticated
culture. Irrigation did have a tremendousimpact on camelidreplacedshellElshas the main source of animal
subsistence patterns and societal structure, but the protein,the coastal settlementwas no longernecessary,
change was not as rapid as previouslybelieved.l Data and the move inlandwas essentiallycomplete.
Gramalotewas first surveyedby C. M. Hastings in
1973when he workedfor the ChanChan-MocheValley
1. M. E. Moseley, "Organizational Preadaptation to Irrigation: The project. Shelia Pozorski directed excavations during
Evolution of Early Water-Management Systems in Coastal Peru," in
Septemberand Octoberof 1973with the aid of Donald
Irrigation's Impact on Society, Anthropological Papers of the IJniver-
sity of Arizona No. 25, eds., T. E. Downing and M. Gibson (Univer-
Weaver for architecturalclearing. She later returned
sity of Arizona Press, Tucson 1974) 77-82; idem, The Maritime Foun- brieflyin 1974to checkspeciElcarchitecturaldetails.
dations of Andean Civilization (Cummings Publishing Co., Menlo
Park, California 1975) 43-50, 104-114; T. C. Patterson, "Central
Peru: Its Population A rchaeology 24 (1971)
and Economy," 316-321; 2. This table is a modified version of the Andean chronological
idem, America's Past. A New World Archaeology (Scott, Foresman frameworkpresented in E. P. Lanning, Peru Before the Incas
and Co., Glenview, Illinois 1973) 58-67; T. Pozorski, "Caballo (Prentice-Hall,New Jersey 1967) 24-25; J. H. Rowe, "Stages and
Muerto: A Complex of Early Ceramic Sites in the Moche Valley, Periods in ArchaeologicalInterpretation,"SWJA 18 (1962) 40-54;
Peru," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin idem, "UrbanSettlementsin AncientPeru,"NPacha 1 (Instituteof
(University Microfilms, Ann Arbor 1976) 129-143. AndeanStudies,Berkeley1963)1-27.
414 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin the Moche Valley,Petu/PozorskiandPozorski
Table 1. Chronologicalplacementof
earlysites in the MocheValley,Peru.
400 B.C.
1400 B.C.
1800 B.C.
2500 B.C.
The existence of Caballo Muerto has long been
known, but its age and signiElcancehave only been
recognized within the past 10 years. In 1930 George
JohnsonphotographedHuaca de los Reyesfromthe air
as part of the famous Shippee-Johnsonexpedition.This
photograph has never been published.In 1938, Larco
Hoyle3publisheda map of the Moche Valleyindicating
the location of a SSGrupo Herederos,"but said nothing
about the site. In 1942 and again in 1969, the Servicio
AerofotograElco Nacional photographedthe entirecom-
plex as part of the aerial photographiccoverage of
the entire valley. In 1950, Richard Schaedel and An-
tonio RodriguezSuy Suy surveyedthe Caballo Muerto
area and made a preliminarymap of Huaca de los
Reyes, but neverpublishedtheirElndings.
No further work was done at the Caballo Muerto
complex until 1969 when Michael Moseley, directorof
the Chan Chan-Moche Valley Project, surveyed the
area and recognized the Caballo Muerto mounds as
dating to at least the Early Horizon (1400 400 B.C.). In
July and August of 1970,ClaudeChauchatexcavatedat
the mound of Huaca HerederosChica and conElrmed
the earlydate. He returnedin 1972with Luis Watanabe
and extendedexcavationsat the same mound. Laterin
1972,Watanabereturnedalone and excavatedat Huaca
de los Reyes, Huaca La Cruz,and HuacaGuavalito.4
ThomasPozorskisurveyedand excavatedat all of the
Caballo Muerto complex mounds between July 1973
3. R. Larco H, Los Mochicas 1 (Casa Editora La Cronica y
Variedades, S.A., Lima 1938) figurc opposite p. 60.
4. M. E. Moseley and L. Watanabe, "The Adobe Sculpture of Huaca
dc los Rcyes," Archaeology27 ( 1974) 154-161.
Time Period Coastal Sites Caballo Muerto Mounds
Huaca Guavalito j
2 Group III
Huaca La Cruz J
Early HuacaSanCarlos s
Horizon Huaca Curaca t Group II
Huaca de los Reyes J
Gramalote Huaca Herederos Chica s
Initial Huaca Herederos Grandet Group I
Period Huaca Cortada J
Alto Salaverry
Cotton Padre Aban
Preceramic
and December 1974. Both his work and that of Shelia
Pozorski at Gramalote were conducted under the
auspicesof the Chan Chan-MocheValleyProjectunder
the direction of Michael Moseley and Carol Mackey.
Permissionto survey and excavatewas grantedby the
PeruvianInstituto Nacional de Cultura. Funding was
provided by the National Science Foundation, the
National GeographicSociety,and the Instituteof Latin
AmericanStudiesof the Universityof Texas at Austin.
The data discussedin this paper were gatheredby the
authorsduringinvestigationsin 1973and 1974.
Gramalote
The Initial Period site of Gramalote lies 10-20 m.
above sea level near the modern Elshingvillage of
Huanchaco on the north edge of the Moche Valley
(FIG. 1). The only surface indicationsof the nature of
the site are abundantash and shell plus a few concen-
trations of stone, since the action of wind and salt has
destroyedall surfacetraces of plant remainsand most
sherds.Withinthe site, refuseis especiallyrichand deep
(30 cm. or more)in two irregularareasthat coverabout
20,000sq. m. on the tops and slopes of severalstabilized
dunes(FIG. 2).
Excavationsat Gramalotebegan in 1973with inten-
sive testing to define the site limits and to locate areas
of especially rich midden where the refuse could be
most profitablysampled.The sw part of the site where
the refuse reachesits maximumdepth of ca. 2 m. was
selected for controlled stratigraphicexcavations.Sev-
eral test pits revealedwell-preservedboulderwalls, and
a large continuousarea of architecturein the NE sector

Figure1. TheMocheValleywithInitialPeriod,EarlyHorizon,and
CottonPreceramicsites.
was also cleared. In the course of these excavations
three burials were encountered:two in the area of
clearedarchitectureand a thirdwithinthe midden.
A rchitecture
Architecturalclearingfocused on the NE part of the
site where there was little overburden.A single struc-
tural complex ca. 30 m. x 20 m. was defined,revealing
an open central courtyard area surroundedon three
sides by small rooms (FIG. 3). The higheststandingwalls
are about 60 cm. and the small amount of wall-fall
suggests a maximumoriginal height of not more than
1 m. Most walls are of double-facedunworkedboulder
constructionwith cobble chinking and cobble, gravel,
and earth fill. A few walls consist of single rows of
boulders with cobble chinking. Blocks of colonial
polychaete worm secretion (a coral-like formation)
from the seashore are occasionally incorporatedwith
the bouldersin construction.In betterpreservedareas
the bouldersstand two rows high, and their placement
suggestsan effort to make an even wall face. Fine-sand
to silt mortar, now salitrified,is preservedin several
walls, and a single wall face was coveredby a patch of
plaster.Severalsmall rooms along the sw and SE sides
are paved with a layer of rounded cobbles, while the
remainingfloors are formed of packed sand and silt.
The NW edge, which lacks small rooms, is formedby a
large rectangularplatform 25 cm. high topped with
threesmallcircularplatforms30 cm. in height.
Midden
Extensivetest-pittingdefinedthe areal extent, depth,
and content of the Gramalotemidden,and site bound-
aries were defined on the basis of midden concentra-
JournalofFieldArchaeology/Vol.6, 1979 415
tions 30 cm. or more in depth. A maximumdepth of
almost 2 m. was recorded in the central sw sector.
Deeply buriedboulderwalls comparableto partsof the
rectangularstructurediscoveredduring testing suggest
that additional areas of architectureare present, but
concealed by accumulatedmidden. In the architecture
of the NE sector, middenconcentrationsapproaching1
m. in depth were encounteredonly in the north corner
areaof unpavedrooms.
The two test pits that yielded the most varied and
best-preservedplant and animal remainswere selected
for controlled stratigraphicexcavation to secure de-
tailed informationabout specific midden components
and ultimatelyGramalotesubsistence(FIG. 2: CUTS 1-2).
In both cases we workedfrom a wall of the test pit; first
definingand profilingstratavisiblein the face and then
removing the deposit by carefullycontrolled units. In
Cut 1, we removed,by isolatingvisiblestrata,a volume
0.50 cm. x 0.75 m. x 1.30 m. deep which was screened
through l/2-inchmesh to recoverartifactsfor datingthe
site. In Cut 2, 1.0 m. x 0.50 m. x 1.95 m. deep, we em-
phasizedthe collectionof a sampleof plant and animal
remainsin additionto artifacts.Each of the threelevels
visible in the exposed face was furtherdividedinto 10-
cm. arbitrary levels, and all material was screened
through l/4-inchmesh. The discussion of Gramalote
subsistencebelow is basedon data fromCut 2.
Burials
Two burials were encounteredduring excavationof
the architecture,and both were in poor condition. The
first was a secondary burial of an adult whose long
bones and vertebraewere wrappedin severallayers of
twined cotton textile, forminga bundle ca. 20 cm. x 40
cm. The bundle was buried40 cm. deep in an irregular
pit dug into refusewithin a room. Severallargecobbles
and blocks of colonial polychaeteworm secretionhad
been placed aroundand on top of the bundle.The sec-
ond burialwithin the architecturewas the tightlyflexed
body of an infant lying on its back with its head toward
the north. It had been wrappedin threelayersof cotton
textiles:the innerwrappingwas a fine twinedlayer,and
the second a plain weave which was in turn encasedin
an outer layer of coarsetwinedmaterial.The burialpit
was dug about 40 cm. into refuse,and largecobblesand
a single block of colonial polychaete worm secretion
completelysurroundedthe bundlecontainingthe body.
A third burialS was encountered in the earliest
5. C. B. Donnan and C. J. Mackey, Ancient Burial Patterns of the
Moche Valley, Peru, (University of Texas Press, Austin and London
1978) 18-20.

r of the assemblagewith the remainderconsistingof ox-
/ 0 2 *
/ r
Figure 3. Schematic plan of the architectural complex cleared at
Gramalote.
stratumof the midden in Cut 2 at a depth of 1.66 m.
The pit was dug into the earliest stratum while the
deposition of the second stratumwas in process. The
body occupiedan oval pit within the refuseca. l.0 m. x
0.65 m. x 0.25 m. deep. The individualwas male, 30 to
45 years of age, and the body lay in a flexed position
facing south with the head toward the west. Sixteen
stones were located in the northernend of the pit both
surroundingand slightly below the body. The burial
was accompaniedby few artifacts:2 gourd bowls, a jet
mirror,matting, and textiles. The jet mirrorwas small
(6 cm. x 5 cm. x 2 cm.), finely polished, and covered
with a thick layer of red pigment.Severallayersof wo-
ven cotton textile as well as some woven bast mat-
ting had been present, but had decomposed almost
completelyalong with the softerpartsof the body.6
6. W. J. Conklin, "Pampa GramaloteTextiles," in Irene Emery
Roundtableon Museum Textiles 1974 Proceedings.Archaeological
Textiles,ed., P. L. Fiske (The Textile Museum,Washington,D.C.
1974)77-92.
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.6, 1979 417
C.
eramles
Of the 1,119 sherds recoveredat Gramalote, 110 are
rim sherdsand only 17 are decorated.Oxidizedand re-
duced thin-walled(3-6 mm.) coarsewaremakesup 98So
idized and reducedfine ware. The primaryvessel form
is the necklessolla, but there are also some short-neck
jars with everted rims and tall single-neck bottles.
Decoration consists of incision presented as slashes,
zoned punctation, and incised and finger-impressed
raised bands or ribs. All incision was executedon wet
clay. Low-luster,streakyburnishingis also verycharac-
teristicof manysherds.
Textiles
Both twined and woven cotton textiles were dis-
coveredat Gramalotealong with knottednetting,cord-
age, and unspun fiber.7 Woven textiles are most
numerous, but much more simply constructed than
twinedexamples.Virtuallyall are plain weave with one
exampleof patternedweaveand two of twill. One small
piece of plain weavewas coloredwith red paint or dust.
Gramalotetwinedtextilesare more complexand varied
in constructionand design. In one example, intricate
bands of twining are evident as part of an otherwise
plain weave textile. The fragmentsof knotted netting
from fishnetsseparatesinto two groups based on mesh
6 SOO1.
z
size and numberof yarns used in construction.Large-
mesh netting has 2 to 8 yarns per elementand a mesh
size ranging 0.5-1 cm. Conklin points out that the
netting from Gramalote is considerablystrongerthan
the other textiles becauseof replied,multiyarnelement
constructionand the use of strongercotton in the initial
yarnmanufacture.8
WorkedStone
About 80Soof the more than 200 stone tools were
chipped from fine-grainbasalt. All chippingwas done
by the percussionmethod, and there is no evidenceof
retouching.Cuttingtools accountfor about one-halfof
the exampleswhile unifacialand bifacialchoppingtools
are also very common. Other less common types in-
clude 6 cores, a blade, 3 denticulates,a saw, a scraper,a
cleaver, S planes, and S hammerstones.The remaining
lithic artifactsare of groundor peckedstone. These in-
clude smooth rounded cobbles that show evidence of
use for smoothing, hammering,or paint processing.
Three probablenet weightswere encountered:two are
7. Ibid. 77-92.
8. Ibid. 81-83.
 418 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin theMoche Valley,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski
rounded ovals with a flat pecked band around the
widest part, and the third is a small flat oval pebble
with a hole pecked throughthe center.Other stone ar-
tifactsworkedby pecking,grinding,and often polishing
include a single cylindricalpestle, a stone bowl frag-
ment, and a wholejet mirrorplus severalfragments.
OtherArtifacts
Two pieces of colonial polychaete worm secretion
were abradedinto conical shapes 3.9 cm. and 5.4 cm.
Iong, and each has a small hole pecked into the larger
end. The only additionalartifactsare a few small pieces
of cut shell (Choromytilus
chorusand Protothaca thaca)
and one large whole clam shell (Semelecorrugata) with
red mineral pigment thickly encrusted on its inner
surface.
Radiocarbon
Dates
As part of the controlledstratigraphicexcavationof
Cut 2, six carbon-14 samples were collected from the
three distinguishablestrataof the midden.9These sam-
ples were submittedto the Universityof Texas Radio-
carbon Laboratory,and they yielded uncorrecteddates
of: 1100i110 B.C. (Tx-1930, second stratumfrom sur-
face); 1120i90 B.C. (Tx-1929, third stratumfrom sur-
face); 1300i120 B.C. (Tx-1929,third stratumfrom sur-
face); 1430i60 B.C. (Tx-1931, first stratum from sur-
face); 1580i 130 B.C. (Tx-1931, first stratumfrom sur-
face); and 1590i 80 B.C. (Tx-1930,second stratumfrom
surface). Though not in agreement with the strati-
graphic order of the strata, the absolute dates cluster
well enough to suggest the general time period when
Gramalotewas occupied.
CaballoMuerto
The Caballo Muertocomplex(FIGS. 1, 4) iS located in
the Moche Valley, ENE of the city of Trujillo,about 17
km. inland from the Pacifilccoast. The complexis com-
posed of eight platform mounds of varying architec-
turalcomplexity,coveringan area2 km. N-S by 1 km. E-
w, and situated in the Rio Seco quebrada (dry gully)
about 3 km. north of the Moche River. Seven of the
eight mounds are clusteredwithin the southernhalf of
the total area of the complex while a small eighth
mound is located at the extreme north end. This last
mound, however, is connectedto the rest of the com-
plex by a long, wide road.
9. S. Pozorski,"PrehistoricSubsistencePatternsand Site Economics
in the MocheValley,Peru,"unpublishedPh.D. dissertation,Univer-
sity of Texasat Austin(UniversityMicroEllms,
Ann Arbor1976)22.
ArchitectureandChronology
Individualmound size rangesfrom 100m. x 120m. x
18 m. high to 24 m. x 25 m. x 2 m. high, thoughin terms
of total site area, the elaborateHuaca de los Reyes is
the largest.Each mound is largeenoughto have been a
corporatelabor structure,that is, a productof the labor
of numerousindividualsworkingcollectivelyunderthe
authorityof one personor a few people.'°
Basedon surveyand excavationby T. Pozorski,it ap-
pears that each of the mounds has, or probablyonce
had, a pair of small parallelwing structuresextending
out from its front face to form a large"U." The consis-
tent "U" patternplus the largesize of the moundsrela-
tive to known domestic architectureof the time period
suggestthat all had a similarnondomesticfunction.
Within the Caballo Muerto complex, however, cer-
tain architecturalfeatures differ, thereby indicating
gradualchronologicalchange.These features orien-
tation, size and configuration,location relativeto cer-
tain types of terrain,entrypattern,and otherassociated
features were used to arrangethe Caballo Muerto
mounds chronologicallyinto three groups (TABLE 1).
Orderingwithineachgrouphas beenrefinedby correla-
tions with artifactsrecoveredand radiocarbondatesob-
tained.
It should be remembered,though,that the groupings
in Table 1 indicate relativedates of the principalcon-
structionfor each mound. Laterarchitecturaladditions
and overlap in artifact assemblagessuggest extended
use of some mounds during and after constructionof
others.
One of the mounds,Huacade los Reyes,bearsa large
number of clay friezes borderingits plazas.ll Friezes
have not been found at the other mounds within the
complex, but severalpaintedwall fragmentshave been
recovered.
DomesticComponent
No large domesticoccupationareashave been found
associatedwith the complexdespitesurveyand test ex-
cavations on nearbyhillsidesand adjacentfields. This
circumstance,however, is predictablebecause 1) the
neighboringhills were subjectto 3,000 years of subse-
quent occupationwhich have badly disturbedcultural
remains,and 2) the open area among the mounds has
10. M. E. Moseley,op. cit. (1975in note 1)79-80.
11. M. E. Moseleyand L. Watanabe,op. cit. (in note 4) 154-161;T.
Pozorski,"Huacade los Reyes:An EarlyHorizonSite in the Moche
Valley, Peru,"paper presentedat the 74th Annual Meetingof the
AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation(San Francisco1975);idem,
"El complejode CaballoMuerto:Los frisosde barrodt la Huacade
los Reyes," Revista del Museo Nacional 41 (Museo Nacional de la
CulturaPeruana,Lima 1975)211-252;idem,op. cit. (in note 1)63-92.
 V } s - CHICA
-<HUACA CURACA

JournalofFieldArchaeology/Vol.6,1979 419

X SAN CARLOS

ENTROAD

LA CRUZ
- 7

HUACAGUAVALITO<,Q

HUACACORTADA

m .-.:=:-.
\ r H<ALL
OFTHENICHES

\ HUACAHEREDEROS

\ / GRANDE
HUACAHEREDEROS

0 200 400 M.

Figure 4. The Caballo Muerto complex showing the location of each of the component mounds.
 420 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin theMoche Valley,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski
been buriedby severalmetersof alluvium.The latteris
verified by our test pits into Huaca HerederosChica
(FIG. 5) which uncoveredrefuse about 4 m. below the
moderngroundsurface.
Ceramics
Out of a total of 10,240 sherds, the majoritywere
found within architecturalfill and wall-fall, but a sig-
nificant percentagewas also associatedwith plastered
floor levels. Thin-walled(3-6 mm.) coarse utilitarian
ware, both oxidizedand reduced,makesup the bulk of
the collection,varyingfrom 80%to 90%of the Group I
assemblageto 65%to 70% for the later mounds. Ox-
idized and reducedfine ware constitutesthe remaining
portion of the sample. Vessel forms are restrictedto
neckless ollas, short-neckjars with evertedrims, open
bowls with straight or everted sides, incurvingbowls,
stirrup-spoutbottles, and, rarely, tall single-neckbot-
tles. Neckless ollas, all madeof thin-walledcoarseware,
predominatethroughoutthe ceramicsequence,but are
especially frequent at the Group I and Group II
mounds. Bowl forms and short-neckjars are also nu-
merousandaremadeof bothcoarseandfineware.Bottle
forms are restrictedto fine ware.Incisionmadeinto wet
clay is the most common form of decoration,found in
such modes as broad-lineand fine-lineslashes,circular
and diagonalpunctationsoften separatedinto zones by
incised lines, cross-hatching,and combing. Applique'
bumps, modelling, and incised and finger-impressed
raised bands or ribs are also present. Low luster,
streaky burnishing is very common, especially on
coarse-waresherds. Occasional new modes are intro-
duced through time, but once each is part of the dec-
orative repertoire, it persists until the end of the
sequence. The most chronologically diagnostic dec-
orativetrait is the use of blackpaint, probablymade of
graphiteand/or manganese.It was used both as a filler
of incised lines and for black bands and zones painted
on flat surfaces.These two techniquesappearat Huaca
de los Reyes in the Group II mounds and last through
Group III.
WorkedStone
Five types of stone artifactsare also chronologically
important:jet mirrors, stone bowls, hammerstones,
smooth stones, and stone palettes. Several smooth
blackjet mirrorfragmentswere recoveredfrom Huaca
HerederosChica, Huaca Cortada, and Huaca de los
Reyes. Flat-topped stone bowl rims were found at
Huaca Cortadaand near the road connectingHuaca de
los Reyes and Huaca San Carlos.Hammerstones,often
bearingtraces of red pigment, were found at Huaca
Herederos Chica. Plain smooth stones, bearing no
evidenceof red pigmentand often showingno signs of
wear, but unusualbecausethe materialis foreignto the
immediate site environment, were found at Huaca
HerederosChica and Huaca de los Reyes.The wornex-
amples may have been pottery polishers. At Huaca
HerederosChica, a few flat stones acted as palettesor
receptaclesfor red pigment, and traces of the pigment
are still presenton the flat sidesof the stones.
OtherArtiSacts
Huaca Herederos Chica produced one piece of a
large shell (Argopectenpurpuratum)that bearstracesof
red pigment on its interior surface. Presumably,this
was also used as a paintpalette.
Textiles
Though no direct evidence of textiles was found at
Caballo Muerto because of limited preservation,im-
pressionsof cloth and fiberrope were found on burned
and unburned adobe roofing fragments at Huaca
HerederosChica, Huaca Cortada, and Huaca de los
Reyes. Examples of simple weaving and knitting are
common, but there are also examplesof straight-paired
twining.Roofing fragmentsfrom otherCaballoMuerto
moundsdo not show any textileimpressions.
RadiocarbonDates
Supplementingthe relative dating of the mound of
Caballo Muerto are a numberof radiocarbonsamples
taken from one mound withineach of the threemound
groupings.l2For Group I, two dates from the same
cultural context (FIG. 5: CUTS 1-2) are available from
Huaca HerederosChica: 1090i60 B.C. (Tx-1937) and
1500i70 B.C. (Tx-1938).Four samplesfrom the earlier
of two construction phases of Huaca de los Reyes
yielded dates of 850i60 B.C. (Tx-2180), 1190i60 B.C.
(Tx-1973), 1360i80 B.C. (Tx-1972), and 1730i80 B.C.
(Tx-1974). For Group III, one date from Huaca
Guavalito is 440i70 B.C. (Tx-1939).All dates are un-
correctedand are derivedfrom samplesof cane (Cana
brava,Gyneriumsagittatum)processedby the University
of Texas RadiocarbonLaboratory.
ChronologicalCorrelations
Relative and absolute chronologicalevidencepoints
to the contemporaneityof Gramaloteand the earliest
mounds of Caballo Muerto (TABLE 1). Though the
ceramic assemblageof Caballo Muerto contains more
12. T. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 1) 112-114.

Figure 5. Plan of the Huacas Herederos showing the location of our
test pits into the Herederos Chica refuse.
variety in terms of decoration and form, all of the
ceramicsfrom Gramalotefall withinthe rangeof varia-
tion of the Caballo Muerto materialand in most cases
are indistinguishablefrom it. Other artifact remains
such as jet mirrors,stone bowls, hammerstones,smooth
stones, stone and shell paint palettes,and textiles sup-
port the argument for contemporaneity.Especially
significantare the textiles because 1) Caballo Muerto
provides the first documentedevidence for the simul-
taneous use of twined and woven textile at an inland
site, and 2) twined textilesoccur with woven textiles in
an early ceramiccontext at the two sites, providingad-
ditional evidence that twining is not confined ex-
clusively to a Cotton Preceramiccontext.l3Radiocar-
bon dates generallyagreealso, indicatinga time period
of 1500-1100 B.C. for the concurrent existence of
Gramalote and the earliest four mounds of Caballo
13. E. P. Lanning, op. cit. (in note 2) 80, 111; G. R. Willey, Intro-
duction to American Archaeology, Vol. 2, South America (Prentice-
Hall, New Jersey 1971) 107; M. E. Moseley and L. K. Barrett,
"Change in Preceramic Twined Textiles from the Central Peruvian
Coast," AmAnt 34 (1969) 162-165.
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.6, 1979 421
Muerto. In view of the large size of Caballo Muerto
relativeto Gramalote,it appearsthat Caballo Muerto
would have been dominant over Gramalote. Since
Gramalotecontains no Cotton Preceramiccomponent,
the establishmentboth of it and CaballoMuertowould
presumablyhave been a developmentout of the other
Cotton Preceramicsites of the valley, Alto Salaverry
and PadreAban (FIG. 1). 14
Quantification of SubsistenceData fromGramaloteand
CaballoMuerto
During analysis, plant and animal species from
Gramalote and animal species from Caballo Muerto
wereidentifiedby Sheliaand ThomasPozorski;discrete
units such as whole shell valvesand fruitstemsor seeds
were counted and often measured,and the total mate-
rial for each species from a given contextwas weighed.
Resultant quantitative information about Gramalote
and Caballo Muerto plant and animal remainsis pre-
sented in Tables 2-4. Columns 1, 2, and 3 of the tables
are simple quantitativeassessmentsfor each species.
The first column records the numberof levels within
which each species occurred;column 2 recordsa count
for the species; and column 3 gives the weight of the
plant or animalmaterialcollected.These data are vital
becausetheir internalconsistencyprovidesa check on
the uniformityof the distributionof each specieswithin
each controlledcut and ultimatelyon the reliabilityof
assuming species proportions for one context are
typicalof the site as a whole.
Columns 4 and 5, on the other hand, present the
reconstructeddietarycontributionof each species, first
in terms of an absolutevolume, and then as a percent-
age, by volume, of the total diet. Reconstructionsof
diet are difficult because of the large numberof vari-
ables to be considered.The samplingand analysis of
subsistencematerials,and ultimatelythe reconstructed
dietaryproportions,were based on the assumptionthat
plant and animal remainswithin an excavatedvolume
occur in frequenciesthat are indicativeof their impor-
tance to the occupantsof the site. In keepingwith this,
a methodologywas designedwhich servedto evaluate
as nearlyas possibleonly those remainswithinthe sam-
ple volume in terms of their dietary contribution.
Counts were most importantin the final quantification
procedureto arrive at amounts meaningfulfor com-
parison. For plants, parts such as stems or seeds could
be relateddirectlyto an averagefruit food volume, us-
ing an expanded and slightly revised version of the
proceduredescribedby MacNeish for vegetal material
14. S. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 9) 17-24; T. Pozorski, op. cit. (in
note 1) 194.
422 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin the Moche Vallcy,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski

Tablc2. Gramalotcanimalremains.
Number
of
levels Mcat %of
where Wcight volume mcat
SzCic8 pI rcsent MNI in gms. in cu. cm. dict
Mollusks
Scutalw sp. 12 9 + 18.0 +
(landsnail)
Choromytilus choms 20 167 4530.0 8325.0 7.1
(purplcmusscl,choro)
Semfmytilusalgosw 19 308 415.0 308.0 +
(thin-shellcdmusscl)
Brschidontes purpuratus I I + + +
(smallstriatedmusscl)
Protothacathaca 20 800 8520.0 15990.0 13.6
(largcclam)
EwEtomalca rufa 20 92 2420.0 3660.0 3.1
(largcclam)
Petricolarugosa 17 22 12.5 11.0 +
(borcr)
Donaxperuvianus 20 106 170.0 53.0 +
(tidc zonc clam)
Gadetsolfda 19 65 335.0 1710.0 1.5
(largcclam)
Tagelusdombeif 6 4 7.5 20.0 +
(razorclam)
Semelecorrugata 20 503 8277.5 30180.0 25.7
(largcclam)
Pholachilocnsis 6 1 2.5 + +
(angelwing)
Fwsurcllasp. 19 18 257.5 180.0 +
(limpet)
Tcgulaatra 20 1243 4297.5 1243.0 1.1
(gastropod)
Turboniger 20 925 1155.0 925.0 +
(gastropod)
CrepSuladilatata 19 65 17.5 +
(slippershell) 81.3
Polfnfccscf. cora 11 20 7-5 10.0 +
(gastropod)
Sfmlmcymba I 1 2.5 + +
(gastropod)
Thafschocolata 20 96 765.0 192.0 +
(gastropod)
Thaisdelesscrtfana 20 435 1150.0 652.5 +
(gastropod)
Canthanescf. fnca 20 162 172.5 + +
(gastropod)
NassaXusgayi 20 163 40.0
(gastropod)
Olfvellacolutcllaris I I +
(gastropod)
Mftraorfentalls 12 17 20.0 8-5 +
(gastropod)
Chiton(2 species) 19 110 57.5 1100.0 +
 Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.6, 1979 423

Table 2. (continued).
Number
of
levels Meat %of
where Weight volume meat
Species present MNI in gms. in cu. cm. diet
Unident. shell 20 1405.0
Crustaceans
Platyanthus orbignfi 20 297 1505.0 5935.0 5.1
(purple crab, congrejo)
Balanus tintinnabulum 20 1464 1247.5
(barnacle)

Echinoderms
Tetrapygusniger 122.5 + +
20
(sea urchin, erizo)

Ascidians
Ascidian 17
1149.0 1149.0 1.0
(sea squirt)

Fish
Mustelus sp. 2 865.0 6688.0
5.7
(sand shark, tollo)
Rhinobatosplaniceps 13 18 1 40.0 712.5
(guitarfish, guitarra)
Myliobatis peruvianus 9 1 2.5 639.0
(ray, raya)
Paralonchurusperuanus 13 I 5.0 387.5
(croaker, roncador)
Sciaena gilberti 9 4 9o.o 777.0
(croaker, corvina)
Sciaena deliciosa 4 +
643.5
(croaker, lorna) 12
Genypterusmaculatus 1 1 21.5
(eel, congrio)
Unident. Elsh 19 25.0 625.0

Birds
Pelecanus sp. 1 22.5 192.0
(pelican)
Unident. bird 2 505.0 7070.0
6.0
18
Mammals
Misc. rodent +
Otaria byronia l 280.0 8694.0
(sea lion, lobo del mar) 7.4
Unident. mammal _ 537.5 19081.3 16.3
Total 117282.6 93.6%
Combined values for percentages 16
less than 1 YO 6.4
100.0%

MNI = Minimumnumberof individuals

 424 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin theMoche Valley,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski
from Tehuacan.'5Similarly, whole shells, gastropod
whorls,or bivalvehingesof mollusksand clawsof crabs
could be correlatedwith an average meat volume for
each speciesthat was experimentallydeterminedby the
authors.Insteadof using evaluationsonly of minimum
numberof individuals,which are often abused,'6meat-
volume contributionsfor vertebrateswere assessed in
terms of the number of diagnostic skeletal elements
actuallypresent in the excavatedsample comparedto
the expected number of diagnostic skeletal elements.
Based on the average meat volume for a given ver-
tebratespecies and the numberof diagnostic(archaeo-
logical meaningful)skeletalelements,it was possibleto
calculate an average meat volume per diagnostic
skeletalelementwhich could be dealt with independent
of the minimum-number-of-individuals count to give a
more accuratereconstructionof the meatvolumerepre-
sented by an excavatedbone sample. After values for
plant and animal food volumes for each species had
been calculated,each was expressedas a percentageof
the plantor animaldiet.'7
GramaloteSubsistenceData
A quantitative analysis of the plant and animal
remainsfrom Cut 2 in the Gramalotemiddenprovides
evidence of the subsistenceactivities at the site. The
resultsare presentedin Tables2 and 3.
AnimalsUtilizedat Gramalote
All the animal protein consumed at Gramalote
derived ultimately from the nearby ocean (TABLE 2).
Clearly,the majorsubsistenceactivityat Gramalotein-
volved the procurementand processingof shellElsh.Vir-
tually all the species identiEledat Gramalotewere also
collectedby the inhabitantsof PadreAban (FIG. 1) who
occupied the region at an earlier date.'8 Such coin-
cidences documentthe consistentlocalizationof many
shellElshspecieswithinrestrictedareasalong the coast.
EfElcientshellElshprocurementsystems were in op-
eration at Gramalote. Most of the highly visible and
easily accessiblespecies of clams, gastropods, and es-
peciallymusselsweretaken by personsbasedat the site.
ShellElshgatherersfrom Gramalote,however,were the
15. R. S. MacNeish, "A Summaryof the Subsistence,"in Envir-
onment and Subsistence, The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley 1, ed.,
D. S. Byers (Universityof Texas Press, Austin and London 1967)
290-309.
16. D. Grayson,'SOnthe Methodologyof FaunalAnalysis,"AmAnt
38 (1973)432-439.
17. S. Pozorski,op. cit. (in note 9) 55-69.
18. Ibid.73-76.
Elrstpeople in the valley also to systematicallycollect
the deeper burrowingclams (Protothacathaca, Eurho-
malea rufa,Semele corrugata,and Garietsolida),which
supply more meat per individualthan all but the large
mussel (Choromytiluschorus) of the more accessible
species. It appearsthat once a method was established
for taking these large mollusksefElciently,procurement
activitiesfocusedon shellElshcollection.
Specimensof the large mussel (C. chorus)recovered
from the Gramalote refuse were usually large adult
individuals,and some were affectedby parasites.Very
fewjuvenileswere recorded.This suggeststhat the peo-
ple of Gramalotewere exploitingbeds of old individ-
uals which had not recentlybeen depletedor destroyed
as a resultof humanor environmentalfactors.
Largemusselsand largeclam species,as well as many
gastropods,had been bashedopen in a consistentman-
ner to extractthe meat. Unnatural,but consistentfrac-
ture patterns producing breaks at right angles were
noted near the hinges of bivalves,and chunksof whorl
sections had been chopped away to facilitateaccess to
retractedgastropods. Such shell cracking could have
been performedeasily using a beach cobble. Dead or
cooked shellElshare easily opened; the species taken
near Gramalote,therefore,were probablycrackedand
eaten while still fresh and raw. A numberof whole or
nearly whole large mussel valves were extremelyworn
along the posteriormarginfromuse as simplescrapers.
In addition to mollusk shells, large numbersof as-
cidian tests (leathery outer coverings)were recovered
from the refuse. These animals were easily accessible,
attachedto tide-zone rocks, and the soft internalparts
were apparentlyeaten raw, much as sea urchins are
consumed.This same specieswas identiEledin the Eleld
as a tunicate by Moseley'9who, along with Thomas
Patterson,found them in large quantitesin early sites
along the centralPeruviancoast.20
At Gramalote,less than 10%of the total meatprotein
was derived from Elsh(Table 2): shark (Mustelussp.)
provided more meat than all other Elshspecies com-
bined. Rays (Myliobatisperuvianus),guitarfish(Rhino-
batos planiceps), and three members of the croaker
family (Sciaenagilberti,S. deliciosa,and Paralonchurus
peruanus)werealso represented.Of this group,the three
non-bony Elshesand mullet (Mugil cephalus)frequent
shallow water near shore, and the members of the
croaker family are occasionally also caught there.2'
19. Personalcommunication.
20. M. E. Moseley,op. cit. (1975in note 1)25.
21. B. Evermannand L. Radcliffe,The Fishesof the WestCoast °S
Peru and the Titicaca Basin, Smithsonian Institution, United States
Sational Museum Bulletin 95 (1917); S. Hildebrand,A Descriptive

Fishing implements recovered during excavations in-
clude three stone net sinkers(two groovedand one per-
forated)and severalsmall-meshand large-meshcotton
net fragments.Fishing, therefore,was probably done
using both simple small-meshhaul seines and large-
meshgill nets stakedout in shallowwater.
A selection of bird bones from Gramalotewas iden-
tiEledby ElizabethWing.22Cormorants(Phalacrocorax
sp.) appearto be the most common,but bones of a gull
(Laridae) and a single penguin (Spheniscussp.) were
also identiEled.The relativelyhigh proportionof bird
remainssuggeststhat cormorantswerelocallyabundant
and may have had rookeriesin the area.
The only mammalof dietarysigniElcance was the sea
lion (Otariabyronia)which was taken and consumed in
a quantity representingjust over 7% of the meat diet.
The only other mammalremainswereoccasionalnearly
complete skeletons of rats and mice which were
probablyattractedto the decayinggarbage.
Plants Utilizedat Gramalote
Plant cultivation was not possible in the vicinity of
Gramalote. The site's location well away from the
Moche River in combinationwith surroundingterrain
irregularitiesprecludeslocal canal irrigation.There is
no evidence of sunken garden cultivationin the area;
the site lies on a Pleistoceneterraceat an elevationthat
would make excavationto groundwaterverydifElcult.23
Therefore the plants utilized at Gramalote were
necessarilycultivatedand broughtto the site fromareas
of the valleywhereagriculturewas possible.
Plant cultigens present at Gramalote are numerous
and varied. These include cotton (Gossypiumbarba-
dense), gourd (Lagenariasiceraria),squash (Cucurbita
sp.), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), pepper
(Capsicumsp.), avocado (Perseaamericana),cansaboca
(a plum-like fruit) (Bunchosiaarmeniaca),and lucuma
(Lucumaobovata),which have been identiEledat one
Cotton Preceramicsite in the valley, plus corn (Zea
Catalogof the Shore Fishes of Peru,SmithsonianInstitution,United
MuseumBulletin189(1946).
StatesInJational
22. Personalcommunication.
23. All knownsunkengardensin the MocheValleydate to the Late
IntermediatePeriod(1000-1476A.C.). See M. E. Moseley,SSAssessing
the ArchaeologicalSignificanceof Mahamaes,"AmAnt 34 (1969)
485-487. These gardensand associatedsites occupy land that was
newly formed duringa 4-6 m. uplift resultingfrom tectonic move-
mentduringthe earlypartof the EarlyIntermediatePeriod(400 B.C-
600 A.C.). See S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski,SSAltoSalaverry:Sitio
Preceramicode la costa peruana,"Revistadel Museo InJacional 43
(MuseoNacionalde la CulturaPeruana,Lima1977)27-60.
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.6, 1979 425
mays)and peanut(Arachishypogaea)whichare new ad-
ditionsto the plantinventory.
In keeping with data from earlier sites,24cotton,
gourds,and squashcontinuedto be abundant,but food
species other than squashwere also presentin substan-
tial amounts(TABLE 3). Lucuma,avocado, the common
bean, and pepperhad become especiallyimportantele-
ments in the vegetablediet. Corn was still very scarce:
only two cobs and a single husk fragment were
recoveredfrom the entire site, indicatingit was not yet
an importantfood plant.
Local!y available Tillandsiasp. and grass were the
most common wild plants, and much of the Tillandsia
sp. was burnedas fuel. From the river,cane (Gynerium
sagittatum)was brought in substantialquantities?and
totora (Scirpustatora) reeds in lesser amounts. Algor-
roba(Prosopischilensis)seedsarepresent,butrare.
CaballoMuertoSubsistenceData
Most of the subsistencedata from Caballo Muerto
come from three test pits excavatedby Thomas Poz-
orski25within Huaca HerederosChica (FIG. 5), one of
the earliest mounds of the Caballo Muerto sequence.
Cut 1 measured1.65 m. x 1.45m. x 6.50 m. deep, Cut 2
was 1.30 m. x 1.20 m. x 8.20 m. deep, and Cut 4 was
1.70cm. x 1.0 cm. x 7.0 m. deep. These excavationsen-
countered a one-meterthick band of refuse ca. 4 m.
below the modernground surface.Apparentlythis liv-
ing surface,in use when CaballoMuertowas occupied,
had been covered by alluviumover a period of many
centuries.The local domestic component,therefore,is
inaccessibleand much specific contextualinformation
for the refuse is lacking. Finally, no plant remainsare
preserved because the area has been kept moist by
prehistoricand modernirrigation.
Within the complex, the mound of HerederosChica
yieldedenoughfaunalremainsto applythe quantitative
methodology used at other Moche Valley sites and to
make extensive comparisons.26The period when this
mound was used has been shown to be contemporary
with the occupationof Gramaloteon the coast. In view
of these factors, with respect to Caballo Muerto, the
evaluation of Initial Period and Early Horizon sub-
sistence will focus on this Herederosfaunal material.
Relevant data from other mounds within the complex
are usedwherepossible.
24. S. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 9) 76-78, 84-86.
25. T. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 1) 19-21.
26. S. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 9) 100.
 426 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin theMoche Valley,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski

Table3. Gramaloteplantremains.
Number
of
levels Food Yoof
where Seed Weight volume plant
Species present count in gms. in cu. cm. diet
Cultivated
Zea mays 1 + + + +
(maize, maiz)
Arachishypogaea 19 27.5
97.5 1.2
(peanut, manl)
Phaseolusvulgaris 13 40 pods + 80.0 +
(common bean,ffiriSol)
Gossypiumbarbadense 19 102 +
(cotton, algondon)
Capsicumsp. 12 17stems 340.0
(pepper, ajl) 4.0
Cucurbitasp. 18 298 5000.0
12.5 59.3
(squash, calabaza) S stems
Lagenariasiceraria 18 26 15.0
(gourd, mate)
Perseaamericana 6 5 5.0 625.0 7.4
(avocado, palta)
Bunchosiaarmeniaca 9 10 + 100.0 1.2
(cansaboca)
Lucumaobovata 14 18 2.5 2187.5 25.9
(lu'cuma)
Wild
Unident. algae 12 15.0
Gynerium sagittatum 20 67.5
(cane, canabrava)
Scirpustatora 6 +
(totora)
Tillandsiasp. 112.5
(achupalla)
Prosopischilensis 2
20 2 +
(algorroba)
Mixed Elbrousspecies 1 102.5 -
-

Total 20 8430.0 99.0%

Combinedvalues for percentages
less than 1 Yo 1.0
100.0%

Animals Utilizedat CaballoMuerto

At Caballo Muerto, for the first time in the Moche
Valleysequence, land mammalsfigure significantlyin
thefaunal inventory(TABLE 4). Marineresources,how-
ever,continue to be slightly more important. The
uniquecombination of local and imported coastal
faunalresourcesused by the people of Caballo Muerto
makes the site especiallyimportantin an investigation
ofchangingsubsistencepatterns.
Marine shellfish, mainly mollusks, were the largest
single
sourceof animalproteinin the Herederossample
(TABLE4). They constituted over 50% of the meat
volumeconsumed at Herederos and thus establish a
Elrmlink between the inland complex and the coast.
Their abundance suggests that they represent the
marineresourcein greatestdemandduringat least the
earliest period of the Caballo Muerto occupation.
Shellfishwere recoveredin substantialquantitiesfrom
allthe mounds, indicatingthat they persistedas an im-
portantpart of the diet as long as the complexwas oc-
cupied.
Major meat-producing species include the large
mussel(C. chorus),and three large clams (P. thaca,E.
rufa,and 5. corrugata).Other bivalvesand gastropods
are present, but their total dietary contribution is
minor.The range of species identiEledfrom Caballo
 Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.6, 1979 427

Number Table4. CaballoMuertoHuaca

of HerederosChicaanimalremains
levels Meat %of fromCuts 1 and 2.
where Weight volume meat
Species present MNI in gms.l in cu cm. diet

Mollusks
Scutalus sp. 18 21 42.0
(land snail)
Choromytiluschorus 38 42 2075.0 21.9
(purple mussels choro)
Semitytilus algosus 15 7 6.5
(thin-shelled mussel)
Brachidontespurpuratus 2 1 1.0
(small striated mussel)
Argopectenpurpuratum 1 1
(scallop)
Protothaca thaca 33 23 4.9
460.0
(large clam)
Eurhomalea rufa 6 220.0 2.3
(large clam) 26
Donax peruvianus 23 32 15.8
+

(tide zone clam)

Semele corrugata 32 41 2430.0 25.7
(large clam)
Fissurella sp. 6 2 20.0 +

(limpet)
Tegula astra 12 16 16.0 +

(gastropod)
Turboniger 2 4 4.0 +
(gastropod)
Crepiduladilatata 2 2 2.5 +

(slipper shell)
Polinices cf. cora 2 2 2.0 +
(gastropod)
Thais delessertiana 1 1 1.5 +

(gastropod)
Chiton (2 species) 6 1 + +

Crustaceans
Platyanthus orbignfi 14 s 100.0 1.1

(purple crab, congrejo)

Balanus tintinnabulum 8 22
(barnacle)
Fish
Sciaena deliciosa 1 1 + +
49.5
(croakers lorna)
Birds
Unident. bird 1 2.5
35.0 +
Mammals
Misc. rodent 2 2

Canisfamiliaris -

17.0
(dog)
Lama glama (?) 7 1
- 1457.8 15.4
(llama)
Odocoileus virginianus(?) 4 1
- 1666.0 17.6
(deer, venado)
Unident. mammal - 20.0 850.0 9.0
Total 10 9471.6 97.9
Combinedvaluesfor percentagesless than 1% 2.1
100.0
- - -

M?VI Minimumnumberof individuals IWeightnot availablefor most sF

zecies
428 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin the Moche VaSey,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski
Muerto correlateswell with the species inventoriesof
Gramalote and the nearby Cotton Preceramicsite of
Padre Aban. This indicates that the Caballo Muerto
shellElshwere also collected in the vicinity of Huan-
chaco Bay.
A large number of shells from Scutalussp., a local
land snail, was identifiedin the Caballo Muerto mate-
rial. These animals are common upvalley in areas of
sparse vegetation and in small lomas (fog vegetation)
areas where they generally may be found adheringto
rocks and shrubs. Although not a majormeat-produc-
ing item, the frequency of Scutalus in the Caballo
Muerto sample suggests that they were collected for
food.
Both birds and EIshwere very minor elementsin the
faunal inventory (TABLE 4). They are important,how-
ever, as further evidence of connections between
Caballo Muertoand the seacoast.
In the material from Herederos,almost 20%of the
total meat volume (TABLE 4) was supplied by deer
(probably Odocoileusvirginianus).Upvalley and near
the river in the area of Caballo Muerto, wild plants
were probably sufficientlydense to provide food and
protectionfor a small populationof these animals.The
only other bone identified as deer came from Huaca
Cortada, another mound in the earliestgroup. The ab-
sence of deer at the latermoundssuggeststhat the small
population of deer which local vegetation could have
supportedwas hunted to near extinctionor largelydis-
placed by land alteration for agricultureearly in the
historyof the complex.
One of the camelids, probably the domesticated
llama (Lamaglama), supplieda slightlysmallervolume
of meat than deer. Relying on data from 25 sites in the
Peruvian and Ecuadoriansierra, Wing has suggested
that camelids may have been domesticatedas early as
4400 to 3150 B.C., and by 1000 B.C. domesticatedforms
were fully developed. Her evaluationof the very early
sample, which comes from Pikimachay Cave in the
Ayacucho Valley, is based on the presenceof two sizes
which parallel modern camelid varieties, the relative
abundanceof the remains,and the high proportionof
juvenile individualsof approximately18 months which
were butchered during the highland dry season when
charqui(sun-driedmeat) is usuallymade.27By 1000B.C.,
data from several sites document increased size and
variability among the camelid remains.28These data
27. E. S. Wing, "The Originsof Agriculture:AnimalDomestication
in the Andes," IXth InternationalCongressof Anthropological
and
EthnologicalSciences( 1973)11- 12.
28. E. S. Wing, "Utilization of Animal Resourcesin the Andes,"
reportsubmittedto the NationalScienceFoundation(1973)6.
suggest that the camelid identifiedat Caballo Muerto
was probablyinitiallyintroducedinto the MocheValley
fromthe sierrain a domesticatedform.
In addition to their value as food, llamas might also
have served a ceremonial function, supplied medium
quality wool, and servedas beasts of burden.Camelid
remains were also identified from Huaca Cortada,
Huaca de los Reyes, Huaca la Cruz, and Huaca Guav-
alito. The continuouspresenceof these animalssuggests
that, unlike deer, camelids persistedas a meat source
throughoutthe durationof the CaballoMuertooccupa-
tion.
Four of the total bones identifiedas camelidand two
of the bones identifiedas deer showed evidenceof cuts
made duringthe processof butchering.Marksoccuron
rib heads, thoracic vertebrae,and a tarsal bone. The
sampleis too small to suggesta pattern,but all the cuts
probably resulted from efforts to disarticulate the
skeleton.
The only other land mammalof potentialfood value
was the dog (Canis familiaris), but in the case of
Caballo Muerto,the amount of meat representedis in-
significant. Rodent skeletons representingone mouse
and two rats are probablyfrom animalsattractedto the
refuse.
The single marinemammalof economic significance
is the sea lion. Only the excavationsat Huaca Cortada
and Huacala Cruzyieldedbones of this animal.The in-
frequencyof its occurrenceplus the time differencebe-
tween the mounds where remains were found argue
against the sea lion as an importantfood animal. It is
important, however, as furtherevidence of continued
coastalcontact.
Plants Utilizedat CabaXoMuerto
No sEcurelydated food plant materialwas preserved
in the Caballo Muerto complex. Evidence for plant
cultivation,therefore,is necessarilyindirect.The varied
species inventoriesfor Gramalote and earliersites in-
dicate that techniques of plant cultivation were well-
developedby late Cotton Preceramicand InitialPeriod
times within the Moche Valley. At least a comparable
collection of skills and species can be assumedfor the
Caballo Muertoarea. More specifically,the varietyand
relativequanitiesof plants identifiedfor Gramaloteare
probablygood indicationsof the speciesutilizedwithin
Caballo Muerto.
The principalargumentfor an agriculturalbase for
the Caballo Muerto complex is its inland location.
Though floodplainagricultureundoubtedlydid exist in
Cotton Preceramicand InitialPeriodtimes,agricultural
expansion beyond the narrow limits of the normal
floodplain would have been impossiblewithout irriga-

tion becauseof the natureof the Peruviandesertcoast.
The shift inlandto the valley neck, therefore,is best un-
derstood in terms of the positioning of canal intakes.
Caballo Muerto is located at the point where the
gradient of the land is sufficientlysteep so that only
short canals are needed to water relativelylarge tracts
of land. To irrigateland close to the rivermouthwould
requirecanals of muchgreaterlengthwhichwould also
be more difficult to maintainbecauseof the shallower
landgradient.
No canals dating to the time of the Caballo Muerto
complex are extant, but two moderncanals, the Moro
and the Vichansao,whichgenerallyfollow the contours
of ancientriverterraces,have their intakesat the valley
neck and irrigate land adjacent to the complex.
Presumably,short canals roughly following the routes
of these moderncanalswere in use in the Initial Period
and Early Horizon. The close proximity of Caballo
Muerto to the canals and their intakes is logical with
respect to both initial construction and subsequent
canalmaintenance.
The establishment of the center implies a con-
siderable population, which has been estimated at
about 120029based on the area potentiallyunderculti-
vation and the labornecessaryfor moundconstruction.
InitialPeriodandEarlyHorizonSubsistence
General trends in subsistenceduring Initial Period
and EarlyHorizontimescan only be properlyevaluated
by consideringdata from both Gramaloteand Caballo
Muertoas complementarypartsof a complexeconomic
system. As an isolated site, Gramalote can be sum-
marized as a marine-orientedsite where 1) shellfish
procurementwas extremelysystematicand 2) several
food plants equalled industrialspecies in importance
amongthe cultigens.CaballoMuertostandsalone as an
inland mound group where 1) animalproteinwas sup-
plied by contributions from both marine and inland
sources and 2) increasinglyefficient and productive
irrigation agricultural systems were in operation.
Viewed together, the sites emerge as two parts of an
economic unit: one with an inland agriculturalfocus
and one with a coastalmarinefocus.
Assuming that the location of Caballo Muerto was
predicatedon water control, the move inland repre-
sented by the peopling of the Caballo Muerto area
reflects a change in subsistencepriorities.During the
Cotton Preceramic,the coastal location of the Moche
29. T. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 1) 133-134; idem, "The Early
Horizon Site of Huaca de los Reyes: Societal Implications," AmAnt
(1980, in press).
Journal of Field Archaeology/ Vol. 6, 1979 429
Valley sites, Padre Aban and Alto Salaverry(FIG. 1)
could be correlatedwith the marinesubsistencefocus of
each site.30In contrast,the location of Caballo Muerto
reflectsan emphasison inlandprocurementsystems,es-
peciallyirrigationagriculture,and a correspondingde-
emphasisof marineproducts.
Using data from Padre Aban and Alto Salaverry,it
has been arguedelsewhere3'that plant cultivationdur-
ing the Cotton Preceramicfocused on two industrial
plants, cotton and gourd. To people without pottery
and with a marine focus, gourd containersand floats
and cotton net and cord would have beenextremelyim-
portant moreimportantthan plant food since animal
protein was so readily available. As a result, people
viewed plant cultivationessentiallyas a means for ob-
tainingnecessaryraw materials.It is suggestedthat the
cultivatedplant inventoryof Alto Salaverryrepresents
the resultof such an emphasison industrialplantswhen
cultivationwas limited both spatiallyand seasonallyto
the smallMocheValleyfloodplain.Despitegreatspecies
variability, the quantity of food plants grown at
Alto Salaverryremained small because most of the
limited land area was devoted to cotton and gourd
production.
By Initial Period times, areas of coastal desert were
opened to agricultureyear-roundthrough irrigation;
and the control and maintenanceof these early irriga-
tion systems necessitatedrelocationinland near canals
and irrigatedfields. With potentiallyvast areasopen to
continuous cultivation, crop restrictionsthat were in
operationearlieron the floodplainwereno longerappli-
cable. The increased quantity and relative frequency
of cultivatedplants used by the people of Gramalote
compared to earlier sites indicate that they are the
product of irrigation agriculture near sites in the
Caballo Muerto area, many of which may now be
largelydestroyedor deeplyburied.
An increase in plant-seed size when Cotton Prece-
ramic and Initial Period samples are compared may
also be correlated with certain features of irrigation
agriculture.Average length and width measurements
for seeds from Cotton Preceramicsites were compared
with similardata from Gramalotefor two plant species:
squashand gourd.32These are the only plantsfor which
even a small numberof measurableseeds was available
and measurementswere significant.The best evidence
for seed-sizeincreasecomes from squash and secondly
from gourd. A comparison of samples for the two
30. S. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 9) 87-91.
31. Ibid. 90-91 .
32. Ibid. 108-109.
430 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin the MocheValley,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski
periodsrevealsthat the InitialPeriodsquashmaterialis
significantly(over 10%)larger.Taken together, gourd
and squash seed-size averages are larger in Initial
Period material,suggestinga trendthat may be signifi-
cant. This increase in seed size is probably largely a
result of the regular and adequate water supply that
irrigation provided. Annuals like gourd and squash
grown on the floodplain receivedno additionalwater
after the seasonal flooding had subsided, and under
such unfavorableconditionsplant growthand develop-
ment were retarded. With an irrigation system and
regularschedule,cultigensreceivedadequatewater and
thereforeattainedtheirfull potentialsize.
For the inhabitants of Caballo Muerto, an inland
location meant settlement at some distance from the
abundantmarineresources resourceswhichweretra-
ditionally consideredthe most stable and most abun-
dant. Certainlythroughthe earliestphase and possibly
duringthe entireoccupation,the inhabitantsof Caballo
Muertocontinuedto relyheavilyon marineproducts.
While the irrigatedinland fields were supplyingboth
Caballo Muerto locally and Gramalote on the coast
with cultivated plant food and products, the marine
productscollected in the area of HuanchacoBay were
supplyingall the animal protein consumed at Grama-
lote and well over half the protein volume consumed
duringthe earliestphase when Caballo Muertowas oc-
cupied. The collection of shellfish by the people of
Gramaloteto supplythe inlandgroupis documentedby
the large proportion of marine-derivedspecies in the
faunalportion of the inlanddiet. The dominantspecies
at Caballo Muerto are the same species that were the
focus of the efE1cientGramalote procurementsystem.
The specificorientationof this procurementsystemplus
the narrow range of non-subsistencesite activities at
Gramalotesuggestthat the site might have been a sub-
sidiary or even a colony establishedto insure a con-
tinuous supply of marineproductsfor the inland com-
plex.
WithinCaballo Muerto,data from Huaca Herederos
Chica reveal that the marine protein supplied by
Gramalote was supplementedby meat from local in-
land sources. Local alternativesto the large-scaleim-
portation of marineprotein were apparentlybeing ex-
plored.
Deer contributeda substantialamount at first, but
these animals were probablysoon severelydepletedin
the Caballo Muerto area. More important are the
domesticatedcamelidswhichappearfor the firsttime in
the Caballo Muerto material.The use of camelids as
food is an important feature of the Caballo Muerto
subsistence pattern because such large domesticated
animals can potentiallyprovidea stable protein source
for inlandpeoplethat is as reliableas shellElsh.
In summary,Initial Periodsubsistencein the Moche
Valley is markedby the establishmentof inland settle-
ments correlatedwith canal irrigationsystems.Despite
the change in subsistence priorities implied by an
agriculturalratherthan a marineemphasis,the inland
population continued to rely heavily on coastal food
products. Marine animal protein was supplied by a
coastal population of shellfish collectors in exchange
for industrial and food-plant products from the irri-
gated areas. Supplementalmeat for inland sites from
deer and domesticated camelids revealed that other
animalproteinsourceswerealso beingexploited.
ExamplesfromOtherNorthCoastValleys
Subsistencedata for early ceramicsites come largely
from coastal settlements.On the north coast, Huaca
Prieta, Huaca Negra, and Las Haldas have Initial
Periodand EarlyHorizon as well as Cotton Preceramic
components. Like the Moche Valley, the north coast
valleys from Jequetepequeto Casma contain Initial
Period and Early Horizon sites located inland, pre-
sumably to manage newly developed irrigation
systems.33These sites include Limoncarroand Monte
Grande in the JequetepequeValley; Jaguay in the
ChicamaValley;Huaca el Gallo and Huaca la Gallina
in the Viru Valley; Tanguche34in the Santa Valley;
Cerro Blanco, Punkuri, and PV31-37 in the Nepena
Valley;and SechinAlto, Taukachiand Konkan, Cerro
Sechin,Pallka,La Cantina,Moxeke, and Pampade las
Llamasin the CasmaValley.Unfortunately,subsistence
evidenceis not availablefor these inlandcenters.
The Initial Period and Early Horizon deposits at
Huaca Prietain the ChicamaValley and Huaca Negra
in the Viru Valleycontainlargeproportionsof shellElsh
and Elsh,and at Huaca Negra the shellElshare mainly
restrictedto a few largespecies.35Thereis no indication
of a dependence on land mammals for any of the
animalproteinat eithersite, but four burialsof domes-
33. T. Pozorski,op. cit. (in note 1)282-283.
34. P. Kosok, Life,Landand Waterin AncientPeru(New York 1965)
194.
35. W. C. Bennettand J. B. Bird,AndeanCultureHistory(American
Museumof Natural History, New York 1949);J. B. Bird, "Prece-
ramicCulturesin Chicamaand Viru,"in A Reappraisalof Peruvian
Archaeology,Societyfor AmericanArchaeology,Memoir4 (1948)21-
28; W. D. Strong and C. Evans, CulturalStratigraphyin the Viru
Valley,NorthernPeru, ColumbiaUniversityStudiesin Archaeology
andEthnology4 (ColumbiaUniversityPress,New York 1952)23-41.

ticated llamas were recorded at the Temple of the
LlamasnearHuacaNegra.36
Almost no plant remains were preservedat Huaca
Negra, but the inventory for Initial Period and Early
Horizon levels at Huaca Prietais both variedand abun-
dant.
The Initial Period-EarlyHorizon component at the
coastal site of Las Haldas south of the Casma Valley
merits special mention. The magnitude of the early
ceramic occupation was not recognized by earlier
visitorsto the site who tendedto exaggeratethe impor-
tance of the Cotton Preceramiccomponent.37Subse-
quent excavations,however,indicate that the artiElcial
moundsand other architecturewerebuilt duringthe In-
itial Period occupation of the area.38Marine animals,
especially shellElsh,are extremely common - much
more so than in earlierCotton Preceramicrefuse,39and
the authors have noted many concentrations of
predominantlyone species of shellfish. Upper ceramic
levels defined by Fung40as Early Horizon contained
signiElcantlyfewer shellElshspecies, but many netting
fragments,suggestingincreasedemphasison fishing in
preferenceto shellElshcollecting.
Plant remainsfrom the Las HaldasInitialPeriodand
Early Horizon phases are rare,but varied,and include
several non-industrialspecies such as maize, avocado,
and peanut.4'
As this brief evaluation indicates, subsistencedata
from other coastal and inland early ceramic sites are
rare or nonexistent, thus making it difficult to assess
other sets of sites in terms of the economic symbiosis
documentedhere for Caballo Muerto and Gramalote.
There are featuresof each of the sites, however,that Elt
well with the Gramalote-CaballoMuertomodel. First,
although all speciElcdata are from coastal sites, we
know that potentially complementaryinland sites are
presentin Chicama,Viru, and Casma as well as other
north coast valleys. The analogous location of these
36. W. D. StrongandC. Evans,op. cit. (in note 30) 29-31.
37. E. P. Lanning,op. cit. (in note 2) 63-64,91; M. E. Moseley,op.
cit. (1975in note 1)60-62, 107.
38. R. Fung, Las Aldas. ubicaciondentrodel procesohistoricodel
Peruantiguo,DEdalo5, No. 9-10(Museude Artee Arqueologia,Uni-
versidadede Sao Paulo, 1969)60; T. Grieder,"A Dated Sequenceof
Buildingand Potteryat Las Haldas,"I9Pacha13(Instituteof Andean
Studies,Berkeley1975)99-112;T. Matsuzawa,"The FormativeSite
of Las Haldas, Peru: ArchitecturesChronology, and Economy,"
translatedby I. Shimada,AmAnt43 (1978)652-673.
39. Fung,op. cit. (in note 38) 59-60.
40. Ibid. 195.
41. Ibid.59-60, 195.
Journalof FieldArchaeology/Vol.6, 1979 431
sites at the optimum point in each valley for con-
structingshort and efElcientirrigationcanals arguesfor
irrigationagricultureof the type suggestedfor Caballo
Muerto. Second, the plant species documentedfor the
early coastal sites are generallyvariedand occasionally
abundant.Huaca Prietaplants, especiallymaize,would
seem too abundantto be grownlocally,and Las Haldas
is over 30 km. from the nearestland suitablefor even
floodwaterfarming.Such data point to a non-localand
probablyinland source for plants used at these coastal
sites.
At Huaca Prieta, Huaca Negra, and Las Haldas, all
animal food is marine-derived,although camelid re-
mains are presentnear HuacaNegra. Subsistenceactiv-
ities at each site apparentlyfocused on a few large
shellElshspecies, many of which were also common at
Gramalote.The apparentchange from intensiveshell-
Elshcollecting to predominantlyfishing at Las Haldas
may be indicativeof furtherspecializationof a different
type. Thus, it would seem that these coastal sites were
well-equipped to supply inland sites with marine
products.The camelidsat Huaca Negra are the earliest
documentedat a North Coast site, and they may have
been furnishedfrom an inlandcenterfor ceremonialuse
in the temple.
The elaborate non-domestic architecture of Las
Haldas at Elrstappears incongruouswhen the site is
comparedwith early ceramiccomponentsat the other
coastal sites considered.The Initial Period and Early
Horizoninlandsites in Casma,the valley nearestto Las
Haldas,however,are also muchlarger,morenumerous,
and more elaboratethan examplesin any other North
Coast valley.42Thus, the Las Haldas-inlandCasma set
of sites is best seen as a much magniEledversion of the
Caballo Muerto-Gramaloteeconomicunit documented
for Moche.
In conclusion, it would seem that both of the key
features deElnedfor Gramalote are present in one or
more of the coastal sites from which data are available.
These include evidence of 1) selective and intensive
shellElshprocurementactivitiesand 2) variedand abun-
dant plant remainswhichcould not be suppliedby local
floodwatercultivation. In contrast, the only aspect of
inland sites which makes them comparableto Caballo
Muerto is their inland location. What are lacking are
42. D. Collier, "Archaeological Investigations in the Casma Valley,
Peru," in 34th InternationalCongressof Americanists(Vienna 1962)
4 11-4 17; T. Pozorski, op. cit. (in note 1) 270-272; J. C. Tello,
Arqueologfadel Vallede Casma,Culturas.Chavfn,Santa o Huaylas
Yunga y sub-Chimu, Vol. 1 (Universidad de San Marcos, Lima 1956)
32-83; D. Thompson, "Formative Period Architecture in the Casma
Valley, Peru," in 35th InternationalCongressof AmericanistsVol. 1
( 1964) 205-2 12.
432 SubsistenceExchangeSystemin theMoche Valley,Peru/PozorskiandPozorski

critical subsistencedata from these inland sites which

should conElrmthe interdependenceof coastal and in-
land early ceramicsites duringthe transitionto irriga-
tion agriculture.43

43. We would like to thank Bettina Rosenberg,Mary Elizabeth

Becker,and especiallyWilliamand BarbaraConklinfor theirwork
with the Gramalotetextiles.S. StillmanBerryidentifiedthe shellsin
our type collectionused in the shell analysis.Figures 1, 2, 4, and 5
weredrawnby JaphetRosell,and Figure3 is by GenaroBarr.

SheliaPozorskiis a researchassociateof theSectionof

Manat the CarnegieMuseumof NaturalHistory.She
receivedherPh.D.from the Universityof Texasat Austin
in 1976.Archaeologicalfieldworkin Perusince1970has
includedexcavationsat ChanChan,theMochePyramids,
Galindo,andseveralsmallersiteswithintheMocheValley.

ThomasPozorski,a 1976Ph.D.from the Universityof

Texasat Austin,is AssistantCuratorof theSectionof
Manat the CarnegieMuseumof NaturalHistory.He
has workedin Arkansas(1969)andin Perusince1970.
Past investigations
includeexcavationat ChanChan,the
MochePyramids,andCaballoMuertoin theMoche
Valley,Peru.Sheliaand ThomasPozorskiare currently
co-directingstudyof prehistoricirrigationin thesame
valley.