Learn more about Magnetic Method

Exploration
James G. Speight, in Subsea and Deepwater Oil and Gas Science and Technology, 2015
4.2.2 Magnetic Methods
Magnetic methods are based upon measuring the magnetic effects produced by varying
concentrations of ferromagnetic minerals, such as magnetite, in geological formations. Instruments
used for magnetic prospecting vary from the simple mining compass used in the seventeenth
century to sensitive airborne magnetic units permitting intensity variations to be measured with an
accuracy greater than 1/1000 part of the magnetic field of the Earth. The detection instrument (the
magnetometer) is used in exploration for crude oil and natural gas to show locations of geologic
features that give a picture of the stratigraphy. In addition, magnetometers are used in directional
drilling for crude oil or natural gas to detect the azimuth of the drilling tools near the drill. They
are most often paired with accelerometers in drilling tools so that both the inclination and azimuth
of the drill can be found.
The magnetometer is a specially designed magnetic compass and detects minute differences in
the magnetic properties of rock formations, thus helping to find structures that might be favorable
to presence of crude oil and natural gas—such as the layers of sedimentary rock that may lie on top
of the much denser igneous, or basement, rock. The data provide indications of formations that
might conceal anticlines or other structures favorable to the collection of crude oil and natural gas.
Of even more value is the determination of the approximate total thickness of the sedimentary
rock, which can save unwarranted expenditures later or application of further geophysical
prospecting or even well drilling when the sediment may not contain sufficient oil to warrant
further investigation.
One of the most widely used magnetic instruments is the vertical magnetometer. It consists of a pair
of blade magnets balanced horizontally on a quartz knife edge. The balance is oriented at right
angles to the magnetic meridian. The deflection from the horizontal is observed, giving the
variation in magnetic vertical intensity with gravity. The torsion fiber magnetometer is also a
vertical component instrument but typically has a greater operating range than the vertical
magnetometer. The torsion fiber magnetometer also has an advantage in that it is easier and
quicker to read. For data production, the instrument values are referred to a base, corrected for
temperature and diurnal variation, and corrected for the normal geographic variation of the earth’s
magnetic field.
The nuclear precession magnetometer (proton precession magnetometer) is another
continuous recording magnetic instrument that measures the total magnetic field of the Earth by
observing the free precession (progressive movement) frequency of the protons in a sample of
water. By adding free radicals to the measurement fluid, the nuclear Overhauser effect can be
exploited to significantly improve upon the proton precession magnetometer. Rather than aligning
the protons using a solenoid, a low power radio-frequency field is used to align (polarize)
the electron spin of the free radicals, which then couples to the protons via the Overhauser effect.
The Overhauser effect magnetometer or Overhauser magnetometer uses the same fundamental effect as
the proton precession magnetometer to take measurements.
The interpretation of magnetic measurements is subject to the same fundamental issues as noted
for the gravitometer method: (1) the contrast in physical properties of the formations, (2) the depth
of origin and integrated contributions from many sources, (3) the changes in strength and direction
of the earth’s field with location, and (4) canceling effect related to proximity of opposite induced
poses at the boundaries of finite geological bodies.

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EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES
Harsh Gupta, Sukanta Roy, in Geothermal Energy, 2007
Magnetic surveys
The magnetic method exploits the contrasts in magnetization of subsurface rocks. As
a reconnaissance tool, it has been extensively used in hydrocarbon exploration for structural and
lithologic mapping. The procedures for data acquisition, processing and interpretation are
discussed extensively in literature (see e.g., Dobrin and Savit, 1988). The method has come into use
for identifying and locating masses of igneous rocks that have relatively high concentrations
of magnetite. Strongly magnetic rocks include basaltand gabbro, while rocks such
as granite, granodiorite and rhyolitehave only moderately high magnetic susceptibilities.
Therefore, the method is useful in mapping near-surface volcanic rocks that are often of interest
in geothermal exploration. Other uses in geothermal prospecting include mapping
of hydrothermal alteration zones that exhibit decrease in magnetization relative to the host rock.
Magnetic anomalies in the New Zealand geothermal fields have been interpreted as having been
caused by conversion of magnetite to pyrite (Studt, 1964). Distinct magnetic anomalies are found to
be associated with the high-temperature geothermal fields. Namafjall and Krafla geothermal fields
in northern Iceland are good examples (Palmason, 1976). Ground magnetic surveys are also
extensively used in the low-temperature fields of Iceland for tracing hidden dykes and faults
which often control the flow of geothermal water to the Earth's surface (Palmason, 1976; Flovenz
and Georgeson, 1982). The magnetic method has not been successful in detection of geothermal
anomalies in every case. Often, the pattern of magnetic anomalies is complex due to its dipolar
nature, and interpretation is ambiguous in detail. However, in conjunction with other geophysical
methods such as gravity, thermal and seismic, it provides valuable constraints for determining the
subsurface structure and detecting anomalies associated with hydrothermal alteration zones in
many cases.

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Exploration Guide
S.K. Haldar, in Platinum-Nickel-Chromium Deposits, 2017
10.3.3.3 Magnetic
The magnetic method is the oldest and most widely used geophysical exploration tool. Magnetic
surveying for mineral investigation with high-precision instruments can be operable in air
(airborne), at sea (marine), and on land (ground). The airborne survey is attractive for scanning a
large area during reconnaissance to detect targets for detailed ground survey during prospecting.
The process is rapid and cost-effective. It is suitable for investigation of polymetallic noduleson the
ocean floor. Ground magnetic survey is performed during prospecting and exploration over
relatively small areas on previously defined targets by aircraft. The geophysical exploration can be
formulated based on high/low-sulfide deposits.
High-sulfide ores, dominated mainly by magmatic and conductive pyrrhotite, represent easier
geophysical targets. Economic concentrations of PGEs can be found distal to the main sulfide body
within overall high-sulfide environments. The main sulfide body may contain an economic Ni–
Cu–Au association ± disseminations of PGEs.
Low-sulfide settings with 2–5% sulfide ± PGEs will not make sufficient contrast in physical
properties relative to the host rock to produce a measurable response. It is necessary to detect some
other mineral, e.g., magnetite, and hope to establish an association with the host rock or structure
serving as a pathway for concentrating the PGEs.
A mafic–ultramafic layered intrusion possesses the characteristic signature of high-
magnetic remanence magnetization or residual magnetism such as at Stillwater, Fedorova–Pana,
and Burakovsky. Magnetic survey is the most efficient tool for studying the internal structure of
layered intrusions that include tectonic disruptions, magmatic layering, high-magnetic
stratigraphic-marker horizons, and stratigraphic levels prospective for Ni–PGE reefs.
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Efficiency of the magnetic method in surveying desert sites in Egypt and Sudan: Case studies
Tomasz Herbich, in Innovation in Near-Surface Geophysics, 2019

6.7 Landscape Research

The potential of the magnetic method of prospection for researching changes in the landscape is
best exemplified by a case study of two sites in Fayum Oasis. Fayum is hardly a typical desert oasis
irrigated by the underground Nubian aquifer, being instead supplied with water from the Nile
brought in by the Bahr Jusuf canal, a side branch of the Nile, which enters the oasis through an
inlet 1.5–2.5 km wide and 10 km long. The oasis is subjected therefore to the same conditions as the
floodplains in the Nile Valley [109] (p. 171). The ground falls away to the northwest, the difference
in levels between the Nile Valley and the northwestern edge of the oasis being about 70 m. The
water level in Qarun lake (Lake Moeris in antiquity), the main water reservoir in the oasis,
demonstrated significant changes over the ages. In the Paleolithic, the lake filled the entire basin
forming the oasis. Intentional limiting of water inflow during the Middle Kingdom period reduced
it to just a fourth of its size by the Roman period, naturally occupying the lowest-lying area in the
northwestern part of the oasis. These changes determined the extent of the cultivated zone and
areas conducive to settlement [110]. Changes in the lake levels as confirmed by geomorphological
studies, including seasonal influx, changed settlement conditions. The desertification of fringe
zones progressing since late antiquity helped to preserve archeological sites in these regions. These
changes can now be studied with archeological means, including the magnetic method, as
demonstrated by the research carried out on two sites, Medinet Watfa (ancient Philoteris) and al-
Qarah al-Hamra, lying on the opposite shores of the lake.

6.7.1 Medinet Watfa/Philoteris

Philoteris was one of the villages that were established in northwestern Fayum in the times of
Ptolemy II (284–247 BC) who initiated an irrigation network intended to create new areas for
cultivation to be settled by Greek settlers coming to Egypt in consequence of the division of the
empire left by Alexander the Great. The villages, of which Philoteris was one, lay on the southern
side of the western end of Moeris lake, on ground that was irrigated by water coming 30 km from
the center of the oasis, in a canal that was specially built for the purpose. The canal network in the
Philoteris area had attracted scholarly attention already in the early 19th century, but the evidence,
including remains of water-collecting reservoirs, became more evident once aerial images of
the regionwere produced [111]. Excavations carried out in the end of the 19th century were aimed
largely at finding papyri to discover the name of the settlement; thus, the first
regular excavations started in 2000 had to carry out a ground survey mapping the layout of the
village and its surroundings. An examination of the surface pottery gave a date range for the
settlement, showing that it was abandoned in the 4th century AD [112]. The extent of the inhabited
area was determined as 430 × 250 m; typical features were noted, like a temple, baths, houses,
stores, and cemetery. A separate complex, identified as a temple, was recorded 250 m to the
northwest of the village [113]. Building materials included limestone blocks and dried mud bricks,
the latter made of mud rich in Nile silt and local silt of a characteristic strong yellow color and
much lower magnetic susceptibility (no more than 0.3 × 10− 3 SI). In many instances, the two kinds
were used for building purposes simultaneously (Fig. 1).
The network of basins and canals was traced, supplementing the ground survey with satellite
imagery; the results seemed to be an excellent reconstruction of the water economy around the
village. The canal supplying the village with water was identified and found to separate on the
eastern side into two branches that skirted the town, the northern one filling the water reservoirs
and the southern one supplying the village and running further west, toward the next village
located 5 km away [113]. Two seasons of magnetic prospection supplemented knowledge of the
site and its hinterland substantially [114]. In many places, the magnetic map gave a much more
detailed image of settlement than that provided by the ground survey, but the main achievement
of the prospection was a much improved plan of the canal network (Fig. 37). It was assumed that
the good results were due to the layers of Nile silt deposited on the bottoms and sides of the rock-
cut canals. Sections that had not been visible in the present ground relief became evident, and it
was possible to trace places where the canals had been rebuilt and where bays existed, presumably
as anchorages for boats. At one point, the magnetic map revealed a structure that narrowed the
canal; it was interpreted as the pillars of a bridge crossing the canal. A complete surprise was the
image of a rock-cut canal at least 3 m deep, running west toward yet another village established by
Ptolemy II, but evident at the magnetic map only for about 200 m beyond the boundaries of
Philoteris. The canal had evidently been prepared with much effort, but the lack of Nile silt in its
bed indicated that it was used for a short time, if at all. The canal as it stands can be construed as
proof of a failing system of water supply.

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Fig. 37. Medinet Watfa/Philoteris. Magnetic map superimposed on a satellite image. Processing T. Herbich, satellite picture Google Earth.

Excavation in the village in 2012–14 confirmed the presence of Nile silt deposits in the canals,
uncovered the bridge pillars and gave an idea of the installations that regulated the water level in
the reservoirs [115]. A complex observed to the northwest of the village, initially interpreted as a
temple, was identified as a Roman army camp.
6.7.2 Al-Qarah al-Hamra
The site of al-Qarah al-Hamra lies on the opposite side of the lake to Medinet Watfa and was
located by a ground survey carried out on the eastern shores on Lake Qarun/Moeris. The only trace
of archeological remains in this locality was a limited number of potsherds scattered on a flat,
sandy surface. Magnetic research in the area of the clustered pottery mapped a small regularly laid
out village, particularly distinct in the southern and western parts (Fig. 38). The nature of
the anomalies points to dried mud brick made of Nile silt as the building material. The rectilinear
street grid is evident, and the clear plan permits identification of the function of particular
buildings. For example, a series of parallel rectangular structures located north of an E-W street in
its western section exemplify typical Roman shops. The plan of the westernmost structure in the
village identifies it as a temple with a courtyard and three long parallel rooms opening onto it.
Oval anomalies up to 2 m across, showing high value amplitudes, observed in many areas but
always within the village, should be interpreted as hearths or furnaces. Slightly larger anomalies
presenting a similar value range, 3–4 m in diameter and located at the southern edge of the village,
may have been pottery kilns (the prevailing northerly winds in Egypt are the reason why
production installations are usually located to the south of settlements) [73]. Excavations positively
verified two of the oval anomalies interpreted as hearths or furnaces; Nile silt was also identified
as the building material par excellence for the village architecture [116].

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Fig. 38. Al-Qarah al-Hamra. Magnetic map. Processing T. Herbich.
A set of irregular anomalies of high value amplitudes that were observed in the northeastern part
of the surveyed area clearly did not reflect any kind of architecture. These anomalies dropped in
intensity toward the northwest where they were also cut off, the magnetic image of the area being
completely undisturbed as in the sections to the south and west of the village. It is currently
assumed that these reflect a slow process of water erosion. The village was located on the northern
lakeshore, close to the water, on a slope descending toward the lake. Rising water in the lake
dissolved the mud-brick architecture letting the silt be deposited along the shore. The
new shoreline once the water level had been stabilized is indicated by the line corresponding to the
northeastern extent of the anomalies. Excavations confirmed that the village was under water for
some time [73]. Partly dissolved mud-brick walls and layers of mud attest to this. A film of calcium
carbonate, which is formed by algae in shallow alkaline water, was noted on potsherds and stone
blocks [116] (p. 52).
The site was abandoned in the 4th century as suggested by the pottery evidence. Thus, we have
proof of the same processes taking place on two sides of the lake: on the southwestern side of the
lake, water ceased to be supplied to the higher ground located there, whereas on the northeastern
edge, rising levels in the lake led to the destruction of the village. These two facts can be related to
a cataclysm that affected Fayum in the 4th century AD, causing an observable change in settlement
patterns. The most logical explanation of these changes is the destruction of a dam regulating the
water supply from the Nile to the oasis. Once this had occurred, it became impossible to transport
water to the western part of the oasis, even as the uncontrolled flow to the lower parts of the
depression caused a rise of water levels in the lake, destroying villages that were located too close
to its edge [109].
These two case studies show how geophysical research was able to contribute to a study of
changing landscapes in a region of several hundred square kilometers: desertification that
followed depopulation of certain areas due to the lack of water and destruction of settlements as a
result of excess water in other areas.

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Multimethodological approach to investigate urban and suburban archaeological sites
Piro Salvatore, ... Kucukdemirci Melda, in Innovation in Near-Surface Geophysics, 2019
10.1 Qualitative Integration (Contour Maps Overlays and RGB)
By analyzing the graphical integration, also in this case, the GPR and magnetic method yield
somewhat different results. The magnetic method detected an anomaly probably related to the
portion of a wall that is not visible in the GPR results. This might be due to the fact that the
contrast in the physical property measured by the GPR, between the wall and the surrounding
material, is so low that the anomalous source is too subtle and therefore not visible as clearly as
shown in the magnetic data results. The integration in this case is also useful to recover all the
information that can be used for the final archeological interpretation. The RGB color composite
method allows us to have a clearer idea about the correlation between the anomalies detected by
the two methods, as shown in Fig. 25.
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Fig. 25. Contour map overlay and RGB color composite integration for Heraion case study.
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Exploration Geophysics
Swapan Kumar Haldar, in Mineral Exploration (Second Edition), 2018
6.4 Magnetic Survey
Magnetic survey is the oldest and most widely used geophysical tool in mineral exploration for
investigation of iron ore, magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite- and pyrrhotite-rich sulfide, and Ni–Cu–PGE
deposits. The magnetic method is a passive method since it only measures the existing magnetic
field strength and does not amplify or modify it. The magnetic methods are more popular in
mineral exploration because the magnetic data can be quickly recorded from the air in conjunction
with other geophysical surveys. The airborne potential field surveys provide regional coverage of
large areas at a comparatively low cost in the shortest time.

6.4.1 Concept
The investigation of subsurface geology based on anomalies in the geomagnetic field resulting
from varying magnetic properties of underlying rocks and minerals is the basic principle of
magnetic survey. The directional properties of magnetite-rich rock (lodestone) were discovered
centuries before Christ. This was modified with knowledge of Earth's magnetic field
or geomagnetism and its directional behavior between the 12th and 16th centuries. The
quantification of directional properties of geomagnetism and local anomalies with growing
sophisticated instrumentation became increasingly significant for mineral prospecting during
the 18th century onward.
Magnetic surveying for mineral investigation with high-precision instruments can be operable in
air (airborne), sea (marine), and land (ground). Airborne survey is appropriate for scanning large
areas during reconnaissance to delimit target areas for detailed ground survey during the
prospecting stage. The process is rapid and cost effective. A “bird” is used as a magnetic sensor
fixed to a string in the tail of an aircraft. A “fish” is used to tow a sensor behind a ship to remove
the magnetic effect of the vessel. It is effective for investigation of ocean floor polymetallic nodules.
The ground magnetic survey is suitable for prospecting over relatively small areas previously
defined as targets by airborne surveys.
6.4.2 Theory
A magnetic field or flux density develops around a bar magnet. It flows from one end of the
magnet to the other. The flux can be mapped by sprinkling iron filings over a thin transparent
sheet set over a bar magnet or by a small compass needle suspended within it. The curve
orientations of iron filings or magnetic needle are called lines of force that converge to points at
both ends of the bar magnet. These points are located inside the magnet, are referred as poles, and
always occur in pairs. A freely suspended bar magnet similarly assumes a position in the flux of
Earth's magnetic field. The pole that aligns to point in the direction of the geomagnetic north pole
is called the north-seeking or positive pole. It is balanced by a south-seeking or negative pole of
identical strength at the opposite end of the magnet. The lines of force always diverge from north
or positive pole and converge to south or negative pole (Fig. 6.11).

Figure 6.11. Lines of forces caused by a bar magnet always diverge from north or positive pole and
converge to south or negative pole.
The magnetic field “B” or flux density due to a magnetic pole of strength “m” at a distance “r”
from the pole is expressed as the force exerted on a unit positive pole at point “P.” It is defined as:
B = (μ0·m)/(4π·μR·r)

where μ0 is the constant corresponding to magnetic permeability of a vacuum and μR is the relative
magnetic permeability of the medium separating the poles.
The unit of measurement of magnetic intensity is gamma (γ), which is equal to 10−9 T or nT
(nanotesla). The total magnetic intensity of Earth in the polar region is 60,000 γ or 60,000 nT, and at
the equatorit is 30,000 γ.
6.4.3 Earth's Magnetic Field
Earth possesses the property of a huge magnet with north and south geomagnetic poles aligned
11.5 degrees away from the geographical North Pole (to the west) and South Pole (to the east). The
orientation of a freely oscillating magnetic needle at any point on Earth's surface depends on the
direction of the geomagnetic field at that point. The geomagnetic field, “F,” at any point has few
elements to represent its magnitude and direction. The components are a vertical (Z), horizontal
(H), declination (D), and inclination (I) as shown in Fig. 6.12. Declination is the angle between
magnetic north and true or geographic north. Inclination (I) is the angle of F with respect to the
horizontal component H. Magnetic anomaly is caused by the superimposed presence of magnetic
minerals and rocks on the normal geomagnetic field at that location.

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Figure 6.12. Schematic diagram of geomagnetic elements showing the declination (D) and
inclination (I) of the total field vector F.
6.4.4 Rock Magnetism
The magnetic susceptibility of rocks depends mainly on the proportion of rock-forming minerals.
The most common rock types are either nonmagnetic or very feebly magnetic. Rocks develop a
susceptibility to magnetism with a higher proportion of magnetic minerals like magnetite,
ilmenite, and pyrrhotite. Mafic/ultramafic rocks are usually more magnetic due to higher content
of magnetite than acidic igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks vary in magnetic property.
Sedimentary rocks in general are nonmagnetic unless locally enriched with magnetite, ilmenite,
and pyrrhotite-magnetite-bearing sulfide deposits.
The common causes of magnetic anomalies are intrusion of mafic and ultramafic dykes, sills, lava
flows, and magnetic orebodies. Amplitude varies between as low as 20 nT in limestone and 800 nT
in mafic igneous rocks to more than 6000 nT over sulfide orebodies. Magnetic susceptibility caused
by variation of rocks or orebodies is superimposed on the geomagnetic field at that location.
Magnetic anomaly is the response signaled by the causative body over regional trends of country
rocks.
6.4.5 Survey Instruments
A magnetic survey instrument used during the early 1900s to measure geomagnetic elements was
the magnetic variometer. It was essentially based on principles of a suspended bar magnet in
Earth's field. Since then, instruments are updated to be user friendly and compatible with
computer-based processing for easy interpretation with a precision of ±0.1 nT.
The fluxgate magnetometer was developed during the 1940s and employs two identical
ferromagnetic cores of high permeability that provide instantaneous measurements. The
instrument is developed following either “nuclear precision” or “proton Precision” (Fig. 6.13), and
consists of a container filled with liquid rich in hydrogen atomssurrounded by a coil. The next-
generation instruments with higher precision are the optically pumped potassium or alkali vapor
magnetometer and the magnetic gradiometer suitable for airborne, ground, and marine surveys.

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Figure 6.13. User-friendly proton magnetometer device compatible to high-end processing with
precision.
6.4.6 Data Reduction
The reduction of magnetic data is essential to remove noises caused by other elements not related
to subsurface magnetism. The effect of diurnal variation on ground surveying can be removed by
periodic calibration of instruments at a fixed base station. Similarly, an aeromagnetic survey can
alternatively be assessed by arranging numerous crossover points in the survey path (refer
to Fig. 6.20). Geometric correction is computed by using the International Geomagnetic Reference
Field, which defines the theoretical undisturbed magnetic field at any point on Earth's surface.
Terrain correction is rarely applied in magnetic survey due to the negligible effect of vertical
gradient of the geomagnetic field.
6.4.7 Applications
Magnetic survey is extensively used for metallic mineralinvestigation, particularly for iron ore
with a higher ratio of magnetite to hematite. It is capable of locating massive sulfide deposits,
especially in conjunction with the electromagnetic method (Section 6.6). Aeromagnetic surveying
should preferably be programmed at a low-level flight path (100–200 m above ground) avoiding
excessive monsoon, peak summer, and foggy weather. The depth of penetration of an airborne
survey will depend on the capacity of the instruments. In a ground survey, traverses are designed
across a strike of the formations at a line interval less than the width of the expected causative
body. Magnetic anomalies caused by shallow objects are more easily detectable than deep-seated
targets. Airborne magnetic and geomagnetic surveys with advanced configuration systems, both in
frequency and time domain, with high penetration capacity can identify deep-seated metallic
bodies. Application of the system requires a considerable increase in bandwidth of both helicopter-
borne frequency-domain electromagnetic and fixed-wing time-domain electromagnetic (TDEM)
systems.
Depth estimates from aeromagnetic data can determine values for broad areas, such as the
thickness of the sedimentary section in an oil and gas reservoir basin or at a limited number of
points within the basin.
Interpretation of 2D and 3D isocontour maps of corrected magnetic data provides a qualitative
existence of orebodies. The approximate location and horizontal extent of causative bodies can be
determined by studying the relative spreads of the maxima and minima of anomalies. A
comparison of gravity and magnetic interpretation of rich sulfide orebodies is given in Fig. 6.14.
Similar studies will be applicable for the Ni-PGE-Cu belt, Sudbury Camp, Canada.
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Figure 6.14. Geophysical interpretation of gravity and magnetic anomalies, and confirmed by drill
testing of rich sulfide orebody in Rajasthan.
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Petroleum Production and Transport
Martin B. Hocking, in Handbook of Chemical Technology and Pollution Control (Third Edition),
2005
17.3.1 From the Exploratory Geology Phase
The significance of any environmental impact of petroleum production is affected by the stage of
the producing process. Land exploration by aerial surveying, or by the use of aerial or surface-
based geophysical techniques such as seismic, gravimetric, magnetic, or electrical methods have
relatively little direct effect on the land surface. Disturbances caused by “thumping,” or the
placement of seismic shots and travel requirements of a field crew will have to be assessed,
particularly in tundra, permafrost, or other ecologically sensitive regions. Summer passage of
exploration teams in the Arctic tundra can leave thermokarst line scars, which can remain for
decades because of the low temperatures, limited diversity of plant species, and short growing
season. Impacts on these polar and subpolar “frontier regions” can be minimized, however,
through use of proper vehicles, such as hovercraft, helicopters, and vehicles, such as the Rolligon,
which use wide, ultralow-pressure pneumatic tires [67]. Timing this activity to coincide with a
frozen surface layer can also help to minimize impact.
Offshore exploration has risks of sediment or underwater installation disturbance, but the
overlying water column serves to minimize any visual impacts of these activities.
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Near-Surface Geophysical Characterization of Areas Prone to Natural Hazards
A. Malehmir, ... T. Dahlin, in Advances in Geophysics, 2016
2.5 Potential Field (Gravity and Magnetic) Methods
Potential field methods are among the oldest geophysical methodsand originally introduced for
resource exploration. Their time and cost effectiveness (particularly if acquired from an airborne
platform) allows them to be feasible for geohazard applications. Here we refer to potential fields
mainly as gravity and magnetic methods, which require a density or susceptibility contrast in the
subsurface to be successfully applied to an imaging or characterization problem. In terms of
resolution, these methods have high sensitivity to near-surface anomalies and loose their
resolution significantly with depth, hence resolution is also reduced when used on an airborne
platform.
Potential field measurements can be performed on the ground surface, in boreholes, or as air- and
shipborne (e.g., Hinze, von Frese, & Saad, 2013 and references therein). Magnetic data typically
have higher lateral resolution due to larger susceptibility contrasts than gravity data. In both cases,
usually there are a number of equally valid models that can describe the data (issues with
nonuniqueness and ambiguity in their modeling).
Gravity methods have successfully been used to study sinkholes (e.g., Eppelbaum, Ezersky, Al-
Zoubi, Goldshmidt, & Legchenko, 2008; Paine, Buckley, Collins, Wilson, & Kress, 2009; Rybakov,
Goldshmidt, Fleischer, & Rotstein, 2001), cavities (e.g., Butler 1984), and magmaactivities.
Continuous gravity and magnetic measurements combined with geotemperature data were used
to monitor the Akita-Komagatake volcano in Japan from 1970 until 2014 (Kitsunezaki & Muraoka,
2015). A good correlation was observed between geothermal activities and gravity and magnetic
field decrease and vice versa.
Most faults show good magnetic signature either as minima or maxima (e.g., Dehghannejad,
Bauer, Malehmir, Juhlin, & Weihed, 2012; Malehmir et al., 2011, 2016) depending on the fluid
activities within the fault (e.g., hematization of magnetite or magnetite forming during the fluid
circulation). Faults can also possess similar signatures on gravity data, but much smoother in terms
of character. Airborne magnetic measurements have also been used to study hydrothermally
altered rocks that can weaken volcanoes leading to their collapse or destructive debris flow (Finn,
Sisson, & Deszcz-Pan, 2001).
For landslide studies, potential field data are effective in mapping bedrock undulations and
possibly slip surfaces. Salas-Romero et al. (2016), for example, found that a slip surface for quick-
clay slide can be coarse-grained materials, and in most cases these materials showed
strong magnetic susceptibility indicating the presence of magnetite in the sand. While stratiform in
this case, it may be possible to use magnetic measurements to study their lateral variations.
Time-lapse gravity measurements are performed to monitor mass movements in the subsurface,
with applications ranging from groundwater movement (e.g., Davis, Li, & Batzle, 2008; Naujoks,
Weise, Kroner, & Jahr, 2008), via volcanic activity (e.g., Jentzsch et al., 2001) to geological
CO2 storage (Arts, Chadwick, Eiken, Thibeau, & Nooner, 2008). In the Dead Sea region (Rybakov
et al., 2001) and across relict salt mines in the UK (Pringle et al., 2012), gravimetric monitoring has
proven successful for imaging regions of subsidence. With subsequent data modeling, it is possible
to produce progress scenarios for vertical migration of voids or collapse events.

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Applications of soil magnetism
Neli Jordanova, in Soil Magnetism, 2017
Abstract
The application of soil magnetism is reviewed as a tool in environmental, agricultural,
archeological, landmine clearance, and forensic research. The main findings on the relationship
between magnetic enhancement of loessic soils and climate parameters are presented. Special
attention is given to the use of magnetic methodsfor the mapping of soil pollution with an
overview of the main decision points, requirements of the methodology, and limitations. The
application of magnetic measurements in the estimation of soil erosion and redistribution is
discussed in a separate subchapter. Another use of soil magnetism in agricultural research as a
proxy for the content of nutrients is proposed due to the observed link between the content of
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous and magnetic susceptibility. Briefly summarized are the
applications of soil magnetism in archeology. The importance of the knowledge of soil magnetic
susceptibility for the performance of sensors in landmine clearance operations is summarized as
well. More exotic applications of soil magnetism in forensic studies are also presented.

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Regional tectonics and basin formation
J. Derek Fairhead, in Regional Geology and Tectonics: Principles of Geologic Analysis, 2012
12.1 Introduction
Gravity and magnetic surveys play an important role in mapping geological structures at micro
(oil concession) and macro (continental) scales, as these surveys allow rapid spatial coverage at
modest cost compared to seismic reflection methods. As such, these types of surveys are often
undertaken prior to seismic surveys with the aim of delineating structural trends, so that seismic
surveys can be designed in a cost-effective manner to maximise results. The trend in oil
exploration is for multidisciplined interpretation to evaluate oil prospects prior to drilling. The
inclusion of gravity and magnetic data in this interpretation approach has been helped by a major
improvement in data resolution that has occurred over the past two decades. These include better
data acquisition systems and more advanced computer-based processing and interpretation
methods. As a result, gravity and magnetic data are not just being used in the early phases of
exploration but are now providing important inputs throughout the exploration program. The
reasons for these technological advances have been the introduction of the satellite-based global
positioning system (GPS) which continues to improve and the advances in computer power and
data storage devices.
Potential field methods are non-invasive geophysical remote sensing methods that can measure, at
the earth's surface or a few hundred metres above it, normally in an aircraft/helicopter, the spatial
variations of the geological subsurface in terms of their mass (rock density) and magnetisation
distributions. The sensitivity of gravity and magnetic measuring instruments is such that they can
detect variations in the Earth's gravity and magnetic field strength as small as one part in 10–9 and
10–7, respectively.
When compared to the seismic reflection method which responds best to a horizontally layered
earth, the gravity and magnetic methods respond best to vertical interfaces generating lateral
density and magnetisation changes, for example, across a bounding fault separating basement
(high density and magnetisation) from sediment (low density and magnetisation). Therefore,
where one method is weak, the other is strong, thus making the methods suitable for integrated
interpretation.
Limitations of the seismic method are imaging near vertical structures (faults, flanks of salt
structures) and in penetrating high acoustic impedance layers (salt and sills). Gravity also has
limitations as the measured gravitational force of sedimentary rocks falls off with distance. This is
due in part to Newton's inverse square law and in part due to the sediments (say sand, shale mix)
increasing in density with depth as a result of compaction and lithification. This has the effect of
decreasing the density contrast with depth relative to basement whose density remains constant.
The magnetic propertiesof sediments, on the other hand, are often very weak (lack
of magnetite mineral) such that the dominant magnetic effects come from the underlying
crystalline basement (containing magnetite mineral) and can be measured accurately at the surface.
However, volcanic layers within a sedimentary basin, which can prevent seismic propagation into
deeper levels of the basin, can also cause problems with the magnetic method because of
the volcanic rocks being normally very rich in the mineral magnetite, whose magnetic response can
dominate/swamp signals coming from the underlying basement. The gravity method, on the other
hand, generally does not have such problems, if the volcanic sequence is thin, and can reliably
image the gravity effects of the deeper part of the basin. This is because the volcanic sequence is
unlikely to be associated with any significant mass anomaly. Thus, problems with magnetic
method may not be a problem with the gravity method as the methods are responding to different
physical properties of the rocks. This makes the methods complementary and can help diagnose
the nature of the subsurface geology. When used alongside the seismic methods, the methods
become mutually supportive particularly when used in two and/or three dimensional quantitative
modelling of the structures.
This chapter looks at how these non-seismic methods can be used at a macro scale to investigate
continental scale geology and tectonics. The focus will be Africa and South America and will show
how the combined satellite and terrestrial gravity and aeromagnetic methods play important roles
in unravelling the regional structural framework as well as give insights into the geological
evolution of these features and associated features such as sedimentary basins. Importantly, this
approach of initially developing a sound regional tectonic model makes it possible to focus into the
micro-scale settings of sedimentary basins, in such a way that explorationists can start to
understand more clearly the tectonic controls of basin development and tectonic implication on
basin architecture, as well as being able to identify the significance of subtle features/trends within
basins which might otherwise be overlooked.
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Gravity and magnetic methods are an essential part of oil exploration. They do not replace seismic.
Rather, they add to it. Despite being comparatively low-resolution, they have some very big
advantages. At a comparatively low cost, airborne potential field surveys can provide coverage of
large areas. Allowing quick regional coverage, even gravity surveys can now be recorded from an
aircraft with fairly high reliability.

In the article, Lyatsky explains the meaning of anomalies. The physical rock property that links
gravity anomalies to rock composition is density, explains Lyatsky. The rock property that links
magnetic anomalies to rock composition is total magnetization. Thus, each potential-field method
valuably provides its own picture of the subsurface.

Being responsive to lateral variations in rock properties, gravity and magnetic methods are best
suited for detecting steep discontinuities such as faults. Seismic methods, by contrast, are best for
detecting vertical rock variations and low-angle discontinuities such as layer boundaries.

Two examples of exploration use are provided to illustrate the effective application of gravity and
magnetic methods: The southern and central Alberta Basin, where gravity and magnetic data can
be processed specifically to highlight subtle lineaments; and the horst and graben offshore Queen
Charlotte Basin, where land and offshore magnetic data were instrumental in the delineation of
extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks.

Lyatsky closes with an appeal for gravity and magnetics experts in oil exploration to think like their
clients, who tend to be geologists and seismologists – and to present their work from first
principles, with minimum mathematics and with maximum geological consideration. Only then,
writes Lyatsky, can interdisciplinary walls be brought down so that exploration managers can
vividly see the essential practical utility of gravity and magnetic methods.