| 7. 1.12 : ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING If the volume of the gas supplied is converted to N-T.P.* conditions, then the volume of gas at N.T. is given by wn(11.23) The calorific value of the fuel is given by Vy X H.C.V. = my(ATy tw (AT w H.C. eee kJ/m! at N.T.P. (11.24) In calculating the calorific value, it is assumed that the flue gas temperature at the calorimeter exit = is equal to the air temperature entering into the calorimeter. ‘The equation 11.24 gives the H.C.V. of the fuel as the HO vapour formed due to the burning of H 1m fuel is condensed and collected. For finding L.C.V., the heat carried by HO should be deducted from the H.C.V. SOLVED PROBLEMS Note the following points before solving the problem : (1) Minimum O) required = Theoretical O, required-Excess O present in the fuel. (2) Minimum O, required should be calculated on the basis of complete combustion. If the combustion products contain CO and O;, then excess O; is found by subtracting the amount of O, required to burn CO to'CO>. (3) The weight of dry flue gases formed should be calculated by balancing the carbon in the fuel and carbon in the flue gases. (4) All gaseous fuels generally contain CO, and N3 therefore these gases should be added to the dry flue gases produced by the combustion of gaseous fuel to find the total dry flue gases formed per m* of gaseous’ fuel. (5) The Orsat apparatus always gives the analysis of dry flue gases. (© The heat carried away by the steam in the combustion of fuel should be calculated by finding the partial pressure of steam in the exhaust gases if sufficient data is given, otherwise partial pressure of the steam should be assumed as 0.07 bar and specific heat of steam is to be taken as 2.1 ki/kg K. The following Equations are Used for Solving the Problems (Note : C, H, O, S, Cy, Cz N are percentage by mass) a) HCV. = Fon [35000 ¢ + 143000 ( 9) +9160 8 | kare @ LCV. = Cee @ ma= soy [$¢+8(H-9) +s] kg of O,/kg of fuel for nce combustion. m,= B | - + 8(H- 8 +s] ke of air/kg of fuel for complete combustion. (4) = s ee kg of air supplied/kg of fuel. *N-TP. is defined as 0°C and pressure equivalent to 760 mm of Hg.FUELS & COMBUSTION 113 The above formula should not be used when the fuel contains nitrogen. EX ©) Me = THEE + Gy KE OF dry Me gases/kg of fuel where EX= ais [28C, + 44C, + 28N + 320} aot [AHes Cee ° 3 © Ven = ao a tg + ACHg + 33H, | m* of Ont of gas for complete combustion. @ Y= ie volume of excess airhn® of gaseous fuel. where V is the volume of dry products per m? of gaseous fuel bumed and O is the volume of oxygen in exhaust. Cc. 2 (8) Percentage of C buring to CO> = GG x 100. (9) Percentage of G burning, to CO = ——"— x 100, ercentage of C burning to CO = Ge x 100. 10) Exooss sir supplied =< | f fuel (10) Excess air supplied = —F5-( Ge ) berks . + ay Bevel ea @~ myx CN. Bomb calorimeter) my Gs (12) HCN. = = (gas calorimeter) A yy ea hers Ni earl Problem 11.1. A coal has the following composition by mass : C = 90%, Hz = 3%, S = 1%, O2 = 2%, Nz = 2% and remaining is ash. Find the H.C.V. and LCV. of the fuel. Solution. a 8 Fw [ 35000 ¢ + 143000 ( 1 - ) +9160 s | sais -2 0 [ 35000 x 90 + 143000 ( 3 3) +9160 x 1] = 31500 + 3932.5 + 91.6 = 35524 Kki/kg HOY. — = 35524 - X 2460 = 34860 kI/kg of fuel. Problem 11.2. The following Semin nie during the test for finding the lower calorific value of a solid fuel with the help of Bomb calorimeter. Determine the calorific values of the fuel. Mass of fuel in crucible = 0.78 gram, Mass of fuse wire = 0.02 gram. C.V. of fuse wire = 6500 kifg. Mass of water in the calorimeter = 1.88 kg11.14 THERMAL ENGINEERING Cooling correction = 0.02°C. Assume the fuel contains 4% of hydrogen. Solution. Heat developed by the combustion of fuel + heat developed by the burning of fuse wire Heat received by cooling water + Heat contained in the calorimeter. Corrected temperature rise = 2.98 + 0.02 = 3°C. £. myX HCN. + myyX CV. of wire = Coy (My +m) X 0 0.78 0.02 To09 < HCV. + 7oqq X 6500 = 42 (1.88 + 0.37) x3 0.78 H.C.V. + 130 = 4200 (2.25) x 3 HCV. = $200 6.75 = 130 = 36180 ki/kg. L.C.V, = 36180 - axe 2460 = 35294 kJ/kg. Problem 11.3. The following observations were made during the test for finding the calorific value of a gaseous fuel with the help of Boys’ ‘gas calorimeter. Gas burned = 60 litres, Gas pressure = 4 cm of water above atmospheric pressure, Barometer reading = 750 m.m. of Hg. Temperature of the gas = 30°C. Water circulated through the calorimeter = 20 kg. Rise in temperature of water = 10°C, Condensate collected during the test = 60 grams. Find the H.C.V. and L.C.V. of the gas at 0°C and 760 mm of Hg pressure. Solution. The volume of gas used at 0°C and 760 mm of Hg is calculated using 2B v,=V; area ore eae ae ) 13.6 is the specific gravity of mercury T, 2B 273 75.294 = Ox S04 278 x76 (8 +35 Bic aw6 = 53,56 litres = 0.05356 m? ve MgC Se RED SA 20 NO 563 bat a NTP, 60 1 3 pe Re LEP Condensate formed per m* of gas used at NTP. = 59> Gogqag: = 1.12 ke L.C.V. = H.C. ~ Heat carried away by water vapour = 15683 — 1.12 x 2460 = 15683 - 2755 = 12928 ki/m?. Problem 11.4. The percentage composition by mass of a solid fuel used in a boiler is given below : C = 90%, Hz = 3.5% ; Oz = 3%, Nz = 1%, S = 1% and the remainder being ash. (a) Find the mass of air required per kg of fuel for complete combustion and mass analysis of the dry products of combustion. : (b) If 50% excess air is supplied in actual combustion, determine the volumetric analysis of the products and also the mass of dry flue gas per kg of fuel.FUELS & COMBUSTION 11.15 Solution. , Constituent | Mass per kg Mass of 02 required for Mass of products formed of fuel complete combustion 7 a as 09 9 19x ic 0: 09x5 Hy 0.035 0035 x 8 = 0.28 s oot 001 x 1 =0.01 001 x2 =0.02 Total = 269 =33 = 002 02 0.03 = 003 Total oxygen required for complete combustion = 2.69 - 0.03 = 2.66 kg/kg of fuel. pi *. Air required = 2.66 x 0 = 11.57 kg/kg of fuel Dry products after combustion of one kg of fuel with correct amount of air CO, = 3.3.kg ; SO; = 0.02 kg Np = Coming from the air supplied + from the fuel itself 7 = 1157 100 + 0.01 = 8.92 kg Total dry products formed per kg of fuel = CO; + SO, + Ny = 3.3 + 0.02 + 8:92 = 13.24 kg The mass — of the dry product is oe as No= x 100 = 72.88%, CO, = 7557 x 100 = 26.96%, SO, = x 100 = 0.16% a a 7 a i m1 (b) If 50% excess air is supplied, then oxygen and nitrogen are added to the products Nitrogen comes from complete air supplied and the nitrogen from the fuel itself Oxygen comes from only excess air supplied = 11.57 x 4x ates 00 = 133 ke Nitrogen added 11.57 x see =445 100 Total dry products formed per kg of fuel = CO; + SO; + Np +O; = 3.3 + 0.02 + (8.92 + 4.45) + 1.33 = 18.02 kg 13.37 Ten * 100 = 74.20% ‘The mass analysis of dry product is given as, Np = X 100 = 18.31%, 0,=—33 x 100=738%, SO; 8.02 18.02 COr= +N 11.16 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING : ‘The mass analysis of the dry flue gas can be converted into volume analysis as follows : Percentage by | Molecular Weight Proportional Percentage by mass volume volume Constituent (@) ©=F x 100 CO; 18.31 44 0.416 12.60 oun 64 0.00172 0.05 7.38 32 0.231 7.02 74.20 28 2.65 80.33 100.00 Problem 11.5. A hydro-carbon fuel contains 86% carbon and 13% hydrogen by mass and the remainder is incombustible material. 25 kg of air is supplied per kg of fuel. Determine the dry and wet volumetric analysis of the exhaust gases. Assuming the vapour formed to be a perfect gas and total pressure of the exhaust gas as 1.03 bar, find the partial pressure of the vapour in the exhaust gas and the heat carried by the exhaust gas and steam per kg of fuel burned, if the temperature of the exhaust gas is 420°C and the room temperature is 20°C. Take C, (for dry gases) = 1 ki/kg-K and C, (steam) = 2.1 kifkg. K. Solution. Oxygen required for complete combustion of one kg of fuel = 086 x + 0.13 x = = = 2.28 + 1.04 = 3.32 kg - Ai regiured per kg fuel for complete combustion = 3.32 x 2 = 14.45 kg Excess air supplied per kg of fuel = 25 - 14.45 = 10.55 kg ‘The products of combustion per kg of fuel are CO; = 0.86 x *4 = 3.16 kg, H,O = 0.13 x9 = 1.17 kg Np (from the air supplied) = 25 x 0.77 = 19.25 kg. O) (from excess air) = 10.55 x 0.23 .42 kg The mass analysis of the exhaust gases can be converted into volumetric analysis as follows : Wet Products Dry products Constituent | kg per kg | Molecular | Proportional | Percentage | Proportional | Percentage of fuel weight volume volume volume volume maid. c a ex 100 =x10| = = @ © © @ © co, 3.16 44 0.0718 8.00 0.0718 OQ) 2.42 32 0.0756 8.43 0.0756 Np 19.25 28 0.6880 76.33 0.688 82. 34 H,0 117 18 0.0680 7.25 oe cee Total EC = 0.9004 100 Ze = 0.8353 100FUELS & COMBUSTION 11.17 H,0 Partial pressure of HO vapour in wet product = Total pressure x 5 0.068 = 1.03 x Jogpg = 0.0746 bar. Mass of the dry-exhaust gases formed per kg of fuel = 3.16 + 2.42 + 19.25 = 24.83 kg “+ Heat carried away by the dry exhaust gases per kg of fuel burned = 24.83 x 1 (420 - 20) = 9932 KI Heat carried away by the steam per kg of fuel = LIT [hy + CTaup ~ Te) ~ Cp (20)1 The values of /, (Total heat of dry saturated steam) and 7, (saturation temperature at the partial pressure of steam in exhaust at 0.0746 bar) are taken from steam table, <. Heat carried by steam formed per kg of fuel burned = 1.17 [2576 + 2.1 (420 - 40) - 4.2 x 20] = 3849 ki/kg of fuel. » Heat carried away by the wet exhaust gases per kg of fuel burned = 9932 + 3849 = 13781'KJ. Problem 11.6. The ultimate analysis of coal supplied to a boiler is given as follows : C = 80%, Hy = 6%, O; = 7% and the rest is ash. The volumetric analysis of dry flue gases determined by Orsat apparatus is given below : COz = 10%, CO = 1.5%, O2 = 8% and Nz (by difference) = 80.5%. From the above data ; find. (a) Air supplied in kg per kg of fuel (b) Flue gases formed in kg per kg of fuel. (c) Percenrtage of excess air supplied. (d) Heat carried away by the products of combustion per kg of fuel if the exit temperature of the flue gases is 400°C. (e) Heat lost by incomplete combustion. Assume C.V. of carbon = 35000 ki/kg when it burns to CO; and C.V. of C = 10200 ki/kg when it burns to CO. Air contains 23% of oxygen by mass. C, (dry flue gas) = 1 kI/kgK and Cy (steam) = 2.10 ki/kgk. Solution. The volumetric analysis is converted into mass analysis as follows : % by volume Mass of carbon per kg of dry flue gas = Mass of C from CO, + Mass of carbon: from CO 2 ¢ x 0.147 + 3 X 0.0141 = 0.046 kg/kg of the gas1118 THERMAL ENGINEERING The fuel contains 0.8 kg of carbon per kg of fuel. “. Mass of dry flue gases formed per kg of fuel m, = 17.40 kg 08 0.046 The fuel contains 0.06 kg of hydrogen per kg of fuel, and, therefore, its combustion will form 06 x 9 = 0.54 kg of H,0. Mass of reactants before combustion = Mass of products after combustion ©. Mass of combustible matter per kg of fuel + Air supplied per kg of fuel = Mass of products. CH, 0. “, 0.80 + 0.06 + 0.07 + m, = 17.40 + 0.54 = 17.94 \ where mis the air ieponled per kg of fuel \) = 1701 kg ~ 14-4 4 a This can se be calculated by nitrogen balance. Nitrogen in the dry flue gas = total nitrogen from air. :. 17.4 (flue gases per kg of fuel) x 0.753 (kg of Np per kg of flue gas) = m, (kg of air supplied per kg of fuel) x 0.77. Z _ 174 x 0753 _ i oS ing = SRS = Tg i This can also be calculated by using the formula es ere OE: 217 kale of fil 33 (C;+Cy) 3310 + 1.5) Note : Any of the above methods can be used for finding the mass of air supplied per kg of fuel. Theoretical air required for complete combustion of the fuel 1 a 8 ° | aac re( Holes (#-§) af, ‘aie ae §xs0+8(6-2)+0]= 1115 kg/kg of fuel. Excess air supplied = 17.01 - 11.05 = 5.96 fs of fuel 59 1 es edie ag ona is cari by oy five pesos caticarinbry tho: rcet fermi 1x 17:4 x 400] + [{2460 + 2.1(400- 15)} x 0.54] 1960 + 2896.6 = 9856.6 kJ/kg of fuel burned. The carbon in the fuel burned to CO c ¢ = ee Om TE ny X08 = 01082 be. The burning of carbon to CO instead of CO; causes a loss of (35000 — 10200) = 24800 kJ of heat/per kg of C burned to CO ( Oe +. Percentage of Se ee x 100 = 54%, = 24800 x 0.1042 = 2584.2 ki/kg of fuel. Problem 11.7. Ina trial on a boiler fitted with an economiser, the following results were obtained : Percentage volumetric analysis of gas entering the economiser. Percentage volumetric analysis of gas leaving the economiser.FUELS & COMBUSTION Mag If the fuel contains 80% carbon and it does not contain N> (a) find the air leakage into the economiser per minute if the fuel used in the boiler is 50 kg/min. (a) Also find the reduction in temperature of the gas due to air leakage if the atmospheric air temperature is 15°C and flue gas temperature is 350°C. C, (for air) = 1 ki/kgK, Cy (for gas) = 1.1 ki/kgk. Percentage of incombustible in fuel = 15%. Solution. (N > % of No, C — % of carbon in fuel, C1% of CO, C2% of CO2) Air supply per kg of fuel taking the analysis of gas entering the economiser is given by NC 80.3 x 80 33(C, +) 33x83 Air supply per kg of fuel taking the analysis of gas leaving the economiser is given by NC 80.6 x 80 “35, +Cp 33x79 7247 Kes C=O -. Air leakage in the economiser per kg of fuel burned in boiler = mg — My = 24.7 - 23.4 = 1.3 kg. .. Air leakage in the economiser per minute = 50 x 1.3 = 65 kg 23.4 kg'as C, =0 man Economiser Goses To "9. | ty _ —+—— Im Economiser Tg | (mg+mo) (mg+mo) mo To Air Fig. Prob. 11.7, ‘Mass of flue gas products formed per kg of coal = 23.4 + 0.8 = 24,2 kg (Air + carbon in fuel) pg My Ty + Cpa Ta = Cle + Mg) Tn where 7, is the temperature of the exhaust gases leaving the economiser. 1.1 x 24.2 x 350 + 1x 1.3 X 15 = 1.1 (24.20 + 13) Tp Tp = 334°C +. Drop in temperature of the exhaust gases due to air leakage into the economiser is 350 ~ 334 = 16°C. Problem 11.8. The petrol used in an engine may be approximated to hexane (CoH;4). The percentages of dry exhaust gases by volume at a particular load and speed of the engine are observed as CO, = 8.5%, CO = 7.8% and Nz (by difference) = 83.7%. Find (a) the air-fuel ratio required for chemically complete combustion and (b) Estimate the mixture strength (A : F ratio) in the test as a percentage of the chemically correct mixture (A : F ratio). Solution. The chemical equation for complete combustion of the given fuel can be written as follows 2C Hy + 190) = 12CO, + 14H,0 2x 86+ 19x32 = 12x 44+ 14x 18 For complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel requires 19 x 32 2x 86 +. A: F ratio for complete combustion = 15.37 : 1. The percentage carbon in the fuel = 22 x 100 = 83.7% (Celia) 100 33” = 15:37 kg of air. = 3.54 )kg of oxygen or 3.54x11.20 ‘THERMAL ENGINEERING From the exhaust analysis, the mass of air supplied per kg of fuel burned : ON 3250 83 897 “3G; +C) 3578485) -.+Actual A : F ratio of the mixture supplied = 13.05 : 1 Actual A : F ratio Bea Ses Theoretical A: F ratio used for complete combustion 15.37: 1 — This means the actual mixture supplied is rich in fuel. This is also called equivalence ratio Problem 11.9. The petrol used in an engine contains 84% carbon and 16% hydrogen. The air suppl) is 80% of theoretical requirement for complete combustion. Assuming that all H is burned and that carbon burns partly to CO and partly to CO; without any free carbon, find the volumetric analysis of dry exhaus gases. (b) Also find the percentage of the gross C.V. of the fuel lost due to incomplete combustion. Assume the gross calorific values as C to CO, = 35000 ki/kg. C to CO = 10200 kiikg Hp to HO = 143000 ki/kg. Solution. Air required for complete combustion = 4s [ 8 c+8 ( H- 8 ) ee ] Lys "3 §xae+sxi6]= 15.3 kg/kg of fuel. Actual air supplied (m,) = 15.3 x 0.8 = 12.24 kg/kg of fuel. When carbon burns to CO, the air required per kg of carbon = g x = kg 4. 100 and when carbon burns to CO, the air required per kg of carbon = x > kg Reduction in quantity of air reqiured for combustion when carbon burns to CO instead to CO, BuAs 3 ‘The reduction in air supplied per kg of fuel = (15.3 - 12.24) = 3.06 kg. Therefore, the carbon out o' 0.84 kg burning to CO -$)= 5.8 kg. 3 38 = 0.527 kg/kg of fuel. :. Carbon burned to CO, = 0.84 ~ 0.527 = 0.313 kg/kg of fuel ‘The carbon burning to CO and CO; can also be calculated by using the following method : ‘m, = The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel H = The mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel. C = Mass of carbon per kg of fuel 23 Too ” Mass of oxygen used for the combustion of H, = 8H. Oxygen content in m, kg of air 7 Mass of oxygen available for the combustion of carbon = 25, m, — 8H.FUELS & COMBUSTION 11.21 Let x be the mass of carbon burned to CO, 1 is the mass of carbon burned to CO. xty=C (1) ‘Oxygen required to burn x kg of carbon to CO, = 8 x Oxygen required to burn y kg of carbon to CO = 4 Cerri Sx+ty= 2 m,- 8H. 2) Now x+y = 0.84, Srrty= 5 x 12.24 - 8 x 0.16. Solving the above two equations, x = 0.313 kg, y = 0.527 kg The mass of the dry products formed C0, = 0313 x 4 «15 kg/kg of fuel 3 CO =0527x i = 1.23 kg/kg of fuel ti Np (from air) = 12.24 x 775 = The volume analysis is done as given in the tabulation : .4 kglkg of fuel CH, = 48%, CoH, Mass of gas formed Molecular Proportional Percentage Constituent per kg of Weight volume by volume fuel a c ae =p * 100 @ () © @ CO, 1.15 44 0.026 5.96 co 1.23 28 0.044 10.10 N, 9.40 28 0.366 83.94 Total Xe = 0.436 Gross C.V. of fuel = 0.84 x 35000 + 0.16 x 143000-< 52280 ki/kg. Percentage heat loss due to incomplete combustion _ 0.527 (35000 — 10200) 4 52280 Problem 11.10. The volumetric composition of a coal gas is given as Hz = 27%, CO = 7%, 13%, CO, = 3% and Nz = 2%. If 50% excess air is supplied, find (a) the percentage composition by volume of the products assuming H;0 produced is perfect gas. x 100 = 25.0%