Universify of Technology

Dep artment of Electromechanical

Engineering

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Prepared by
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A. lecturer Nidhal Yousif Nasser

Seconcl year

3
 University of Technology
Eleclromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Measuremcnt Lab.
2'"1 year

E.t:p. Nrt. (l)

Design and Construction of Analogue Multimeter

1.1. Objective

i . To understand the strucfure of the ammeter and voltmeter.

2. To leam how to use those meters and using them to measure the current and
voltage of an electric circuit.

1.2. Theory

D, Arsonval Galvanometer
This type of galvanometers is used in the various niethods of resistance
fireasurelnent and in D.C. potentiometer u,ork. D, Arsonval galvanometer belongs to
the group of nroving coil instruments. So, this type of galvanometer consists of a coil
canying the current to be measured and sr,l,inging in the held of a permanent magnct.
Constrr,rctional f'eatures of the galvanontctcL are as follows:

I . Moving coil: Tlre coil of many tnrns of finc wire wound on an aluminum fornrcr
Itltry be eirhet' rcctangular or circular. "l he coil is suspenrled bctween the poles of
;, ptlllliillcrlt lrl.rqnct. Titere is u ilretl irr-rn core
insidc tltc .cctil, tlte eir g,rp.;
l'ci\\1ccl1 1lr.r irorr core iind the perrrrtrircnl rn:rgnct ale usLrlrll\ about 1.5 rnm. the

ilt'll core i. cylitrcirical irt casc ol'r'et'lLrncular c,.ril ancl is sphclical in case 1i'
ciloulirr coil.
 S uspension

Figure (1): Moving coil galvanometer.

2. Damping: In case ol'a coil with a rnctar former, mainly alnrninum, eddy
current
dan.rping introducecr. 'rhe cr'rping torque wliich opposes the ,iotion is
is
produced due to the rcaction of eclcly current with the pcrmiinent
magnet-filccl.
Tlre edcly current is clLre to the e.nr.f. indr-rced i' the fornrcr by the fi,-.ld of thc
ironnanent-nr il.qlret as thc firrnrcl nrtntcrs irr it. ;\ltcr.natil e ly., claniping pray bc
.btaired b1'c.rncctirr,q a sl*ra1 rcsislurcc nc.oss tlrer ga1r.a'.ar,.:lcr.
3 lndication. In lnost cilscs. a btatr ol light Js plo.lec:lcd to a srrlill mirror
attirclrecl
t() the s,s.pc.rsion :trip, as shor.r'r i. liisure ( l), thr..ugh a glass
windou, in tlrc
();llei cas('01'1lle instrrttrcnt.'J-lre bcanr o1'light is rcflcctecl pr thc
fr.6 mi[()r n1 to a
scale.

4. Zc ro-:rd.iu s tnr cnt. ;\ tolsion rread, to * hitrh the crld of the sr:spension str.ip is
attachecl. is providcci lirr ad.juslinr thc coil
Ir)sitjon arrcl hencc, rhe zero settilrg.
5 ( lilil cllrnrlling .\ 5115;''.'r''rir1.1 p.irlvrnoircl.
i hls ,r rl,:licntc i.rrovilrg s...strr.n and
hence thcy are protected fi.om mechanical injury when it is moved.
 D,C. Voltmeter
The voltmeter .ses a high series resistance with the permanent magnet moving
coil meter.
-l'he
range of a voltmeter can be increased by resistance in series with the
voltmeter as shown in Figure (2). If the instrument gives full scale deflection when
a
current I is passed through it then:

n" =nl{-'l ... (3)

\v ./

Where:

V: voltage to be measr-rred

R: meter lesistance
ll.: series resis',ance
\/: il{: r'oltagc drop acr.oss thc instruntent for fuil scalc deflection

__j
l:i,gtrtL t)1. 1).( . I ulttttt't,,t.
 D.C. Amnteter
I ne permanent magnet moving coil instrurnent is basically used fbr the
l)rcasurellent of current. As the nrovin" coil is small and light it can carry very srnall
cun'ent. Therefore, it is necessary, lbr measurement of high current,
to employ a
device which allows a known fraction of the current to be measured
to pass through
the coil. This known fraction must be within the range of the instrument.
A shunt
resistance is used for this purpose. Shunts are precise low resistances.

In the arrangement shown in Figure (3) an ammeter of resistance R is

connected in parallei with a shunt of resistance Rr. Let i be the
current of the ammeter
for full scale deflection and I. is the current through the shunt when
the current to be
measured is I. Then:

I":I-i ''' (4)

rR:1"R... l\l

Thus, the shunt resistance required is given by:

i /'-\ R
^ \___
\l'-l
I

_ 7\,\/\\__ r I

o
R.

lri.gtrre 1-i): ..l ntm.eter with shrnt rcsistattce

 1.3. Procedurc:
(l) Voltmeter
1. Connectecl the experiment circuit shown in Figure (2).

l. Comptrte the resistance R, theoretically to getting full scale deflection

(F.S.D.).

3' Change the source voltage to 10V and notice the deftection of the
galvanometer.

4' Yary the power supply voltage until full scale deflection is reached. Record
the vaiue ofvoltage.
5' Repeat step 1-4 to design a voltmeter that can measure the voltages (15V
and
20v).
6. Compute the absolute error and relative error.

(2)Ammeter
1. Connected the experiment circuit shown in Figure (3).
2. connected the ammeter to measure the current in the circuir.
3 ' Cornpute the resistance R,6 theoretically to getting full scale deflection
(F.S.D.)
7' Change the powe| suppiy voitage to 0.5mA ancl notice the dellection of the
galvanonreter.
8' Vary the souLcc voltagc until full scale <lcf'lection is reachecl. Itec:orcl
the value
o i cU n.cn t.

4. Ile pclt step -4 to clcsign a voltnteter tllat can rneasure

1
1 r.rrA.
:i. ( lontpLttc thc abso jute rror ancl rclatir c cr.ror..
e

I .:1. l)is c rr ssio n

1 What are galvanonreter's palts?

2. Could r.ou incrcasc the rangc of arlrnetcr,/ I-kr*.,,)
3. I {ot, cotrld rvt, e\teltcl thd range ol.a voltrtretcr.,)
 University of Technology
Electromechanical. Eng. I)ep.
Measurcmcnt Lab.
2nd year

Exp. No. (p.

Calibration of Voltmeter

4.t. Objective
l. To leam the procedure of calibration of a voltmeter.
2. To determine the relative effor.

4.2."theory
'I'here are many methods in caribrating the measuring devices and these
methods should have a high degree ofaccuracy during calibration procedure.

I he Potentiorneter is considered an important device in calibration process due

to its iiigh ability in measuring small voltages in high accuracies without
drawing a
sensible curl'cnt from input terrninal of measurement system which is used in
caliblation.

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4-1
 A simple method o1 calibrating a dc voltmeter is shown in Figure(l), where the
voltage (E) across dropping resistor R2 is accurately measured with
a potentiometer
or digital voltmeter. The meter to be calibrated is connected across the same two
points as the potcntiometer and should therefore indicate the
same voltage. The exact
value of the voltage V on the terminals of the calibrated vortmeter
is
Y=(1-+p /p \FlO //l\
L '' ' "l ' "2t-digital " '\t )
,
By changing the variable resistor R so that several points on the voltmeter
scale can be calibrated. vortmeter tested with the method
of Figure (1) can be
calibrated with accuracy of+0.01 percent.

4.3. Procedure

l- Design a dc voltmeter with 3, 10 V ranges.

2- MakeVoc:5V,Rs:3KO.
3- Change the voltage value from (0_ 3V) in steps 0.5V.
4- Calibrate the sirnilar device and fixed voltages on scale.
5- Calculate the error percent and draw the correction curve.
6- Repeat the previervs stcps to range ( I 0V), and V;,, :1 0V, It5: I 0k O .

4.4. l)iscussion

| - I:rplain other l'ar s in calibrirtinSl cli: r oltrnetcr.

2- what is thc pote'rrti.'eter corsisti.g or'/ Explrin its theory of oper.tio'.
-i- A Digital Volttrtetc,t'is r.rsecl in tlris crperimcnt, explain briel)y thc operation.rrd
the spccilication o1'. digital devicc .rrtl compare it
witrr an.rrg clevice.

,1-2
 University of Technology
lllectromechanical. Eng Dep.
Ivleasulement Lab.
z
^nd vear

Exp No (3)

Calibration of Ammeter
3.1. Objective

1. To learn the procedure of calibration of an ammeter.

2. To determine the relative error.

3.2. Theory

There are many rnethods in calibrating the measuring devices

and these
methods should have a high degree of accuracy during
calibration procedure.
T'he Pote'tiometer is considered an important device
in calibration process
due to its high ability in measuring small voltages i'
high accuracies without
drawing a sensible current from input terminal of measurement
system which is
ruscd in calibration.

l)/C Supply

'l'o - F -------
Pr r Icn lion r.'ter crr I) ig itll
voltnletitr

Figure (1). Cctlibratiotr o.f Ammeter Circuit

 calibrate tif a dc ammctcr can most easiry carried out by the arrangemerrt
of
I'ig,re ( l ). The of I" through the amrneter to be calibrated is determincd by
'alue
measuring the potential difference across a standard
resistor R. by the
potentromcter method (digital voltmeter could be used
for this purpose) and then
calculating the current Iu by Ohm's larv

I": E/Rs
Thus the results of this calcuiation is compared to the actual
reading of the
ammeter under calibration and inserted in the circuit.
The circuit consist of a
precision dc power supply and a resistor R" (which is
the intemal resistance of the
ammeter) and a variable resistor R is placed in the circuit
to control the currenr ro
any desired value, so that different points on the meter
scale can be calibrated.
Finally the difference of the comparison between the exact
readings with the
measured reading of the current dete'nines the enor
in the meter. correction
curwes c.uld be drown between the measured current
I and the relative error E. as
shown in Figure (2)

lf i,rltrre (2); Correct C)trrve

 3.3. Procedure

I - Design a dc ammeter with 3mA, 1OmA ranges.

2- Make Vp6:4V, R"=100O, R5 : tKO.
3- Change the curent value fr.om (0_ 3rnA) in steps 0.5V.
4- Calibrate the similar device and frxed current on scale.
5- Calculate the enorpercent and draw the correction curve.
6- Repeat the previews steps to range (10mA), and V;n:10V,
Rs:lkO, R":30O.

3.4. Discussion

I - Explain the function of the variable resistor R used in the circuit.

2- what is the potentiometer represents? Did you use it in
the experiment?
3- Is it right that an AC potentiometer used for A.c current measurements?
Expiain briefly.
 University of Technology
Electromechanical. Eng. Dep.
N{easurement Lab.
2nd year

I:xp. No. (u)

Wien Bridge
1. Objective
Study ofthe \\/ien Bridge Oscillator and effect output frequency with variation in RC combination.

2. Theory
Wien Bridge is one ofthe simplest and best-klown oscillators and is basically used extensively in
oircuits for audio applications. Figure (1) shows the wien bridge circuit configuration. on the
positive side, this circuit has only a few components and good frequency stability.
Because of its sirnplicity and stability, it is the most commonly used audio frequlncy oscillator. in
the figurel shown the Wien Bridge circuit is connected between the amplifier inputierminals and
the or{put lerminal.
The bridge has a series RC netrvork in one arm and a parallel RC network in the adjoiling arm. In
the remaining two arms of the bridge, resiskrr R3 and Rp are connected.
1'he phase angle criterion for oscillation is that the total phase shift around the circuit must be
0".
'I'his condition occurs only when
the bridgc is balanced, that is at resonancc. Thc frequency of
.scillation Fe is exactly the resonant l'requcncy o1'the bala'ced wien Bridge and is given by

F-
to
- '>* [n -., n
a/ l.1t JI1 f(2 L-- 1 L 2

If Rt- R2- R
uncl C1-, C.-.C
Iro - 1 /2rr1l(. - 0. I 5g/Rc

AssLrrrins tlltt ihc resistors at.i c(luitl in tlre value, ancl llrc capacitors are equlrl
in the virlLre irr the
t.rrt. LirL icg r,l'tlrr.: \\'icp llricirrr .\t r tis lcr;rrencl, lhe r:airr rcclrrircd
lirr sitsllrilcLl oscilirrtiorr rs
g.i\ell lr.\'

,1.,.-. 1/Lt -l
i.c.. I ' Il 1, i/|.; -l,L,rRr 2R,
 Figure (l) Llien-Bridge Circuit Schematic

3 - Equipments Needed:
l. Oscilloscope
2. Patch Cords

4 - Circuit diagram:

Circuit used to study Wien Bridge Oscillator is shown in Figure (2).

l'ldn Bfl
':lgs
i:rrcntshrr lrtijnr,r

F ig u rc (2) lltien- IJ r il g e Os<: i I Iu ror

5 - Procedure:
L Cotnti:ct +l2V, -l2V DC porvcr snpplies and GND in rhe circuit irt tircir indicatctl positiun u>rng
patch cords.
2. (lonrrecl a patch corLl between terntinals 6 and 7.
3. Connect a 10K resistancc between terminals 1 and 2.
4. Clonncct other l0K resistance bctween ternrinals 3 ud 4.
5. Srvitch "on'' thc porver suppl.v''.
6. Vrrv RF potenliometer to rnake gain (R7' / R3) greater than 2.
7. Now vary the pot of 470K (R7.) to adjust gain of the amplifier in case of clipped wavefomr.
[i. Now observe the output signal across the terminals 5 and GND on oscilloscope.
9. Record the frequency of output wavefonn into the observation table.
I0. Calculate the theoretical frequency using equation (1).
I 1. Compare measured fi'equency with the theoretically calculated Frequency.
I 2. Switch "off' the power supply.
13. Now connect 20K resistance between terminals 1 and 2, and other 20K resistance between the
terminals 3 and 4 using patch cords.
14. Repeat thc above steps from step 5 to 12.
15. Similarly comect the resistance of 39K and l00Kinsteadof 20Kand see the response

Observation Tqble:

Frequency

6 - Discussiotr
1. Whet is the icas,,r of llte fletlitetrcl' Iiittiiatiorl in \\'i:rl Ilridgc?

2. Slat,-r other 1\\(, ti:cltrl :rpplication oi'thc llriilgc.

-1. ( oLrltl rto usc tlrc bridgo ftrr capacitancc, tttcrtsrttctnettt/ lfycs, crirllin tlrc ntaitt cotttlititr:r 1tr

acliievc thlrt.
 University of Technology
Electromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Mcasurement Lab.
a vear

Exp. No. (5 )

D.C. Bridge Measurement

Wheatstone bridge

10.1. Objective

To investigate how D.c. bridges can be used to measure an unknown

resistance.

10.2. Apparatus:

wheatstone bridge circuit which is consists of

four arms, garvanometer, and
a powef supply.

10.3. Theory

Altemating current bridge methods of outstanding

importance in electrical
rneasurerre.ts, D.c. Bridge is a natural growth of wrreatstone bridge.
''he
wheatstone bridge is the best and courmonest
rnethod oimeasuring mediurn
resistances. 'rhe gcne*rl afrangement is shown in Figure (1)
R7 and R? are.two
knou'n fixed resistance, R; beirrg a knorvn variable
rcsistance ahd _rto the unknown
resistance. G js a scr.rsitive galvanometer.

At birlrrnce (obtainc:d by aci.iustnrcrit ol R3) thc same currcnt I1 t1o*,s in both

ol thc a|nts 1i7 ancl /l', since thc
-q,lvanorneter t,kes no cur.rent, thc slLrrc
clu-r.ei)t _/2 Ilorvs also in antrs liiand/i.,.
'ncl

Als(), \,olla{,c rlrap across ar.r'1i_

r,oltage clrop .cr..ss arnt Ra
=.

Ancl voltagc <lrop across arrl 1?, _voltage

drop across arm R,.

l't,, Vu,
Vn, I/^^ "'(1)
I,R, I,R,
t n, - 11 "' t'';
 Where:

Il =fr, I,= 1. And I

R,R, = R,R,
R
1t,R
__;_ ...(3)
^' 2

F i gure ( l ) ; C o nn e c t ict ns of. Wh e at s t o ne br itl ge

1 0.4. I'r'oce tl u rc:

J . Ci1ynllsc1 tlrc circ:Lrit
ol L igLrr.c ( I ).

l. I lke the valuc o1'I11..-1t2. 1 00O. ancl thc: vrLr.iablc resistance box.
3. Sot D.C. porver supl.rly o1. (lr_t 0V).
.1. \,'rrry lil
r'alue to olr,.:rin [lre lorv value for.r,r,rltnrcte
r.
5 \\i iren balarrce of the briclgc is obtainecr,
carculate trre varr-re of R.* fronr equatio'
(3).
10,5. Discussions

I . What are the advantages of a bridge method?

2. What is the el.fbct of variation in the supply,voltage?
3. state the sources of errors which are genera|y traceabre in measuring
resistance with Wheatstone bridge?

4' State which is better, the high or rowvarues of Rland

R2 and why?
5' Explain the effect of reversing the connections for the galvanometer and
sou rce ?
 University of Technology
Elpctromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Measurement Lab.
2nd year

Ery. Na (6)

AC Yoltmeters

1. Objective
To design, constuc! and calibrate a basic AC voltmeter circuit using both half wave and
frrll wave rectifi cation.

2. Theory
There are several types of meters available in measuring altemating currents and voltage.
So far the most widely used is the rectifier type of meters. This instrument can be constucted by

using the basic DC movement in conjunction with rectifiers. It is an average responding type
with scale calibrated in terms of the r.m.s value of a sin wave.
It is important to review some basic definitions related to a.c quantities.
'Average value of ac quantity is defiaed as that value which is obtained by averaging all the
instantaneous values over a period of a half cycle.
For the symmetrical a.c quantity, the average value over a complete cycle is zero as both positive
and negative half cycles are exactly identical. Hence average value is calculated over a half cycle. If
the a.c quantity is continuous then aveftrge value can be expressed mathematically using integration
a.s,
,/z

ooo:
2t oudt
i J0
Where the interval (TD) indicates the average over hslf a cycle.
rf
RMSrf stands for Root mean square, and, is away of expressing an A.C quantity of voltage <ir
current in terms functionally equivalent to DC. For example, 10 volts A.c RMS is the amount of
A.C voltage that would produce the sarre amount of heat dissipation a cross a resistor cif given
value as a 10 volt D,C power supply. Also known as the uequivalent" or D.C equivalent value of an
A.C voltage or current. Mathematically the r.m.s value of the continuous as voltage having time
period T is given by.

T
1r
11^2tt
Er.m-s:
IJ
o
A.C Vohmeter using half wave RectiJier.
The A.C Voltneter using half wave Rectifier is achieved by introducing a diode in a basic d.c
volfrneter.
This is shown in the fig (1). The diode D conducts only during positive halfcycle
And meter moyement is by passed for another cycle. Hence it responds to half the average value of
the a.c input.

E* = E. /tt
Also E^ = '!28-,.^.,
E^ = 0.45Er.^.,
or Ea" = 0.458,.^." , Ea" = 0.318 E.
Thus the value ofseries multiplier can be obtained for a.c voltrneter as.
R" = Rr- (RD + Rn)
Where
R7= Ea" / Ipsp
R2 = Forward resistance of the diode D.
.R,n = Movement intemal resistance,

A.C Voltmeter usingfull wave Rectifter.

The a.c voltmeter using full wave rectifier is achieved by using bridge rectifier consisting of four
diodes.
As shown in fig (2).
Where:
E*: 2EJn
Also Z,, : 'lZtt,-,
E- = 0.9E,.^.,
Or E4": 0.9 E,.^., , also Ea" = 0.636E-

The multiplier resistance can be obtained as.

R5: R7- (2Rp+R)
It's obvious that the pointer will deflect to 90% of full scale.

The meter a.c sensitivity (O,/tQ equals 0.9 of d.c sensitivity for firll scale.

Sensitivity (ac) = 0.9 x sensitivity (dc) lor fuil wave

3. Prccedure

1. Calculate theoretically the value of R,, for the following r.m.s AC voltage ranges (3, 5' 7
Vr.m.s) using half-wave rectification.
2. Construct the half-wave AC voltmeter circuit shown in Figure (1). Using variable resistor as
multiplier resistors (Rs).
3. Apply the r.m.s AC voltages range (3, 5, 7 Vr.m.s) to your AC voltmeters and adjust the
resistors R., for firll-scale deflection on each range.
4. With a firll-scale reading on the 5V r.m.s range, connect the oscilloscope across the movement

and sketch the waveform.

5. Repeat the above steps for a bridge full wave rectifier.

6. Compute the percent error between the actual and computed value R, for each range of the
half-wave and full-wave rectifier tvoe AC voltase.

4. Discussion
1. Could we use AC voltneter to measure DC voltage? How, explain.
2. What is the advantage of the rectifier?
3. Calculate the AC sensitivity of the half wave and full wave circuits ammeter movement.
4. Do you think the value of the Diode forward resister Re is fixed or variable with input
voltage?
 lsoli.riion
lronsiorme

Figure (l): AC Voltmeter

lo t{

Transfomrer ?s K

5n K

Figure (2) : AC voltmeter using full-wave rectifrcation

 University of Technology
Electromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Measurement Lab.
2"d year

Exp. No.@

Study and Calibration of a Single - Phase kilo watt hour Meter (Energt
Meter)

1. Objecfive
l. To study the principal operation of single - phase kilo watt hour meter.
2. To draw the model graph of the percentage error versus a unity power factor load
crxrent,

2. Theory
Energy is the total power taken through a period of time:

Energt= power* time

The electrical energy converted to work or consumed as a heat could be expressed as:

t
y,y
= lvidt ----a)
0

Were:
W= work
v= Voltage in volt.
i: Cunent in Amp.
t= Time in second.

The unit of energy is Joule or watt - second. It is one watt during a period of time equal
to (1) second and, if the unit of time is hour then the energy was measured is watt hour. In high
energy loads, a kilo watt -hour units is used which is the value of(1000) watt in one hour.

The watt hour meter is not often found in a laboratory situation but it is widely used in
commercial measurement of electrical energy. In facl it is evident wherever a power company
supplies an industrial or domestic consumer with electrical energy.

Energy meter is an integrating instrument and takes into account both quantities i.e the
power, time and the product of them, which is the energy. An energy meter keeps a record
of the
total energy consumed in a circuit during a particular period of time but it does not give any ide4
about the variation in the rate of energy consumption during that period.
't
 The inductive energy meter device consists of two electrical magnets. One of them is the
load current coil, and the other is the voltage coil connected across the line potential.
A light aluminum disk is suspended in the air gap between current coil and potential coil.
Both electromagnets coil produces a flux passes through the disc. The two fluxes induce e.m.f.s.,
in the disc which further produces the circulatory eddy currents. The reaction of the eddy
currents create a torque on the disc, causing it to rotate. The developed torque is proportional to
the field strength of the voltage coil and the field strength of the current coil.

Braking of the disk is provided by two small permanent magnets located opposite each
other at the rim ofthe disk.

Now let the power to the load eouals:

P = l.V. cosO (2)

At a constant power delivered to the load circuit the disc ofthe meter rotates at a constant
speed i.e. the speed ofthe disc is proportional to the power i.e.

Pxn;p=hn
Where n : speed of the disc in rev/ time.

ft = constant of proportionality.

Hence in a given period of time, the total number of revolution ndt

ff
- .t2
Is proportional to J., ndt i.e. the elecnical energy consumed,

Calibrating the energy meter means to find out the error in the measurement of energy by
energy meter .every energy meter has its own characteristics constant specified by the

manufacturer which relates the energy measured in KWh and the number of revolutions of the
disc. But practically the revolutions are very large and can not measure in the laboratory. Hence
using this constant energy recorded for certain less number ofrevolutions say 5, is calculated in
the lab. For the calibration purpose, this energy is denoted as Ea (Actual energy).

To have zero error the Actual energy consumed by the load for the time corresponding

to the 5 revolutions must be same as Ea. This energy is called the true energy denoted as E1. For
various loads, the time required to complete the 5 revolutions of disc is measured with the help

of stop watch. The percentage of error can be calculated by:

 %(t) Error: [Actual energt (E) - True energl (E) / True energl (Eilx100%

True energt measured in htatlsec = power (p) in watt x time (t) in seconds

Actaal energy mewured in watt sec = (3.6x106 t no. of revolutions in time (t)) / N
Where:-
t = time in seconds for n cycles of meter under test

p = power measured in wattmeter

y'y' = Energy meter constant (Gearing constant) in revolution / KWh
If error = + 3Yo from (1/10) from full load then the meter will be used for commercial
purposes. For secondary standard watffneter the error is less from + 0.5%.

3. Procedure

l- Observe and record the Energy meter constant (N) in revolution / KWh

2- Connect the circuit as shown in Figure (l). Select the suitable range for the voltnoeter,
arnmeter and watt meter.

3- Change the load current in steps of 0.5 A to maximum curent of the KWh meter (current
coil) and write down (A, v, w) of each step, also the time taken by the disc for 5
revolutions (use stop watch).
4- Calculate the relative enor for every value of load current.

Figure(I): Kilo wail - hour meter circuif

4. Discussion
l- Draw_error percentage clrrve ag4inst current.
2- Discuss the results.
3- Could we use the watt meter device in this experiment for commercial pulpose or
secondary stander purpose?
4- What is the meaning of (Creeping) in energy meter?
5- In the case of slowly or rapidly rotating disc. Explain how it can be corrected.
6- What are the types of energy meter?

Tabulation:

Voltmeter Ammeter Timefor 5 Wattmeter True energt ol Enor

Reading (V) Reading (A) Revolution Reading WatLsec
(sec) (Watt)
 University of Technology
Electromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Measurement Lab.
2nd year

Exp. No. (6)

Churacteristics of NTC Thermistor
1. Objective
To study Characteristics ofNTC Thermistor

2. Theory
Thermistor is a contraction of a term thermal resistor. Although positive
temperature co-efficient
(P'T'c) of unit exhibit an increase in the value ofresistance with increase
in temperature are available,
most a negative temperature coefficient i.e. their resistance decrease
with increase in temperature. In
some materials the resistance of Thermistor at room temperature
may decrease as much as 6%o for l.C
rise in temperature. This high sensitivity to temperature change
make the Thermistor extremely well
suited to precision tempemtue measurement, contol & compensation.
Therefore, especially in lower
temperature range of-100'C too 300"c, or to detect very
small changes in temperature which cannot
be observed with an RTD or a therrnocouple Thermistor
are composed of a sintered mixture of
metallic oxides, such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cq Fe, & U. Their resistance
r.ange from 0.5O to 75MO and thev
are available in wide variety of shapes and sizes.

! eod

(3) Rd
(b) Red

Leoo5

(c) Disc
(d) Probc

Figure (1)

Smallest in size are the beads with a diameter of 0.l5mm

to l.25mm.
In conventional temperature measuremeni application, the
Thermistor forms of one of the arms of the
wheat-stone bridge' Any change in the Thermistor resistance
as a result of temperature change is
reflected in the readout device.
Other application of thermistor includes:

1. Measurement of power at high frequencies.

2. Measurement of thermal conductivity.
3. Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids.
4. Measurement of composition of gases.
5. Vacuum measurement;
Two negative temperature coefficients Thermistor are provided in the trainer. TH2 is connected to 0V
and THlto +5V. Each requires a suitable load resistor when connected to the power and the wire
wound potentiometer is recommended for this purpose. Both the Thermistor is located inside the
heater compartment. Their resistance will be about 4.7 K Ohm at room temperature and this will
fall fur a nonlinear manner as the temperatwe dses.

Parameter Minimum Type Moximwn

Resistance 3900 Ohm 4700 Ohm 5170 Ohm

Charocteristic 4350K

Temp.

They are already con:rected as under.

Constru.tion Dlcctric.lCircuit
(a) (b)

Figure (2)

The resistance of the NTC Therrnistor varies over a wide range for the temperature rang available
within the heated enclosure. If resistance reading is to be taken at rcgular interval of 1 minute, the
reading must be obtained very quickly. The method selected connects the Thermistor in series with a
calibratsd resistance to the +5 supply.
For each reading the variable Thermistor is adjusted until the voltage at the junction of the Thermistor
and resistance is half of the supply voltage. For this setting there will be the same voltage drop across

the Thermistor and the resistance and the since the same Current flows in each their resistance must be
equal. Hence, the value of the resistance read from the calibrated resistance scale is the same as the
resistance of the Thermistor.
3. Procedure
1- Connect the circuit as shown in figure (4).
a. The A output of NTC Thermistor to C socket of 10 tum potenticimeter.
b. Corurect a dieital multi-meter as voltmeter between socket B of 10 tum Dotentiometet and
ground.
c. Connect socket A of 10 turn potentiometer to Gnd.
2- Switch 'On' the power supply and note the temperature by connecting the voltmeter temporarily to
the IC temperature sensor output adjust the l0 tum potentiometer until the volt"ge indicated by--
tlre voltmeter is 2.5V and then note the dial reading.
Nofe.' Since there is a lK resistance in the output lead of the potentiometer the total
Resistance will be lOxDial reading +lK Ohms.
3- Connect the +12V supply to the heater element input socket and at I minute intervals note the
values the dial reading to ptoduce 2.5V across the resistance and also the temperature from the IC
temperature sensor. Record the values in above Table.
4- Record the values of dial reading & temperature in below Table.
5- Switch'Of the power supply and disconnect the Heater element supply (+l2V).

Time(minutes) 0 I ) 3 4 J 6 7 8 9 10

Temperuture
(from IC
temPeralure
sensor)"K

Tempercture
(from IC
temperature
sensor)oc

Dial reading
for 2.5V
Thermistor
resistonce
(10x dial
reading +lK
Ohm)
 Tlici'mistor
Rcsistancc
K(o)

10 20 30 40 50
'I't'l|| pcriltll o(:
I {.

Figure (3)
4. Results and Discussion
1- Plot the graph the Thermistor against temperature. It should resemble the graph
below in Figure
(3). Make a comment on the results obtained.
2- Explain the difference between Thermistor and resistance thermometer
(RTD).
3- Discussion the various limitations of Thermistor.

Figarc
f)
 University of Technology
Electromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Measurement Lab.
2nd yeu

Exp. No. (9)

Frequency Response of AC Voltmeter

1. Objective
To be able to analyze t}te working frequency response ofAC meters.

2, Theory
General propose AC voltrneters have a flat frequency response curve over a limited range
of frequencies, the meter response inaccurate above or below this range of fiequencies. This is due
to the frequency characteristics of components such as rectifier diodes; instrument-type rectifiers,
capacitors, and wire-wound resistors in voltmeter circuit. The major effect is generally attributed to
capacitance associated with the recti$'ing elements in AC voltrneters that use a d'Arsonval meter

movement.

The frequency response is presented in a form of a graph that shows output amplitude
plotted versus frequency. Tlpical plot of the voltage gain ofan amplifier versus frequency is shov,,n
in Figure (1). The gain is null at zero frequency, then rises as frequency increases, level off for
frther increases in frequency, and then begins at high frequencies. The fiequency response of an
amplifier can be divided into tbree frequency regions.
The frequency response begins with the lower tequency region designated between OHz
and lower cutoff fiequency, F6 the gfi is equal to 0.707 An;a is a constant mid-band gain obtained
from the mid-band frequency region. The upper frequency region covers frequency between upper
cutoff frequency and above. Similarly, at upper cutoff frequency, F11 the gain is equal to 0.707 Ania.
After the upper cutoff frequency, the gain decreases with frequency increases and dies off
eventuallv.
 Midband region

Fr-lower Fly=upper frequency

cutofffrequencY cutoff frequency

Figure (I): Frequency response

3. Procedure

1. Connected the experimental circuit shown in Figure (2), use any one of the two meter
movement.
2. Set the sine wave generator output to 2V,-s at I KHz.
3. Decrease the generator frequency until the voltneter reading decreases to l.4vms.
Record this tequency until as F1.
4. Increase the generator frequency until the voltmeter reading again decreases to l.4v*.
record this frequency as F11.

5. Set the generator to each of frequency shown in the data table and record the voltmeter

reading.
6. Repeat steps I through 5 with the second voltrneter.

4. Discussion
Plot the frequency response curve for each meter movement. Discuss the curves.

Sine AC
Wave Voltmeter
Generator

Figure (2): qeriment chcuit

 Analog Voltmeter

F(I{z) V(volt) Gain(db)

-t a
 Digital Voltmeter

F(IIz) V(volt) Gain(db)

 University of Technology
Electromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Measurement L.ab
2nd year

Exp. No.@

Voltage Measurements by Using the Oscilloscope

6.1. Objective
Employing the oscilloscope to measure AC voltage, and description signal
waveform.

6.2. Theory

Firstly the cathode ray oscilloscope as shown in Figure (1) is an instrument

which enables altemating voltages to be exhibited accurately and instantly on a
screen. A stream of electrons from a heated cathode inside an exhausted glass
envelope is focused on to fluorescent screen, giving to bright spot.

Figure (I): The Oscilloscope

6-l
 In order to use the oscilloscope to rnake AC voltage measurements, which
means the observation and measurement of time varying voltage signals. In Figure

(2) define some of properties of periodic rvaveforms-in-thisJigure for sinusoid.

one defining property of sinusoid is its peak amplitude (value). This value can
obtain on the scope by measuring the 'vertical (voltage) distance from zero voltage
(horizontal) axes to either the positive peak or the negative peak. In case the
sinusoidal, these peaks are equal in amplitude.

Sinusoidal AC Voltage

0.6

0.4

10 15 20
'lime in Seconds

Figure (2): Components ofa Sinusoid

6-2
 6.3. Procedure:
l. Connect the oscilloscope with function generator.

: ---2. Tefe Sinusoidal waveform and frequency

at2kllz.
3. Measured and record the period of the sinusoidal waveform.
4. Compute and record the frequency.
5. Plot the waveform.
6. Repeat the procedure for a frequency of ( lkHz) and ( l.5kl{z).

6.4. Discussions

1' compare between measurement frequencies and computed frequencies.

2. Compute and plot the time for square wave has 20kllz.

6-3
 University of 1'echnology
Electromechanical. Eng. Dep.
Mcasurement Lab.
2no year

Exp. No. (t)

Tungsten Filament incundescent Lamp

1. Objective
To study the Characteristics of tungsten Filament Lamp
2. Theory
the light source used in ST230l Trainer is a imported Tungsten filament lamp with a mixture of
nitrogen and argon gas under low pressure. 1'hc lamp glows more brightly as the power feeding
1he lamp is increased. Two factors will be aff'ected as the lamp voltage is increased:
I- The temperattrre of the filament is proportional to the input power. Power varies with the
squalc of the voltage and is also affected by the resistance of the lamp, which increases as
f rlament temperature increases.

2 - Thc spectral response of the lamp varies with the filamcnt temperature. At lorv temperatures
lltc light is in the infrared region of the visitrlc spectrum and the light graclually increases ur
fiecluency (red-olange-yellow. . . ) as the tenrferature is raised. These lactors makc it difficult 1o
bo plccisc about the responsc of the sensor.s which will be investicated.
'l hc Limp is oonnected
as shou n below

Itrnrrl

Larnir
OV
Lamp Filament
3. Procedure

I - Connect the circuit as shown in figure 3.

a. The socket C of lvire wound potentiometer to +12V supply.
b. fhe sockct A of wire wound potentiometer to 0V supply.
c. The socket B of wire wound potentiometer to VP of power Amplitier.
d. Connect output of power Amplifier to input of filament lamp through a Digital Multi-meter
connected as an Ammeter at 200mA range.

e. Connect the other input of Filament Lamp to +ve input of moving Coil Meter.
I Connect the -ve input of moving Coil Meter to 0V.
2- Switch'On'the power supply & set the 10 KQ wire wound potentiometer to minimum for zero
voltage (on Moving Coil Meter) from the power Amplifier.
3- Take readings of Filament Lamp current as indicated on the Digital Multi-meter as lamp voltage
is increased in 1V steps. Record the results in below table.
4- Switch 'Off thc power supply.
 4. Ra,^ ults and Discussion

I - Calculate thc conesponding values of Lamp Filament pow-er (Vxl) and resistance (V=l) record
thc results in the given table.
I - Plot the grzrphs of lamp powcr and rcsistance against applied voltage. lt should resemble the one
givcn in graph I . Write clou'n your contment.
3 - Plot the I-V characte|istics and compare to an ideal resistor.
4- State the equation of temperature influence on metal resistance and write a brief comments on
filament resistance bel.ravior on temp rise.

Lamp
l{esistance
(f))

l,lrnp Voltlge (Vr;lts)

 jm .t.
! v iriq^

: YN
'/ \)
a 2 o
E
:
r-t n
I U- '6
a O
A
o,7\)
o
Ci/.\ :

<l? l*
?_?
lo
l- JfuWVJ
{tr
c-
F

il
P
t- o
q)
o U
-t
o
A

an
\-
l*
b lrl
G .'' EF
Y,r
I

c
tj
{

.l
il
o:
T?
t::
o I

iJi
:'
.1.;
1>
:l

ffi
ll I----'l i rol..rlr irr)a
a JoilJili.roJ
0g
 University of TechlologY '
Electromechanical. Eng. DeP. .-
Measurement Lab.
2"d year

Exp No (11)
De Sauty's bridge

13.1. Objective
MeasurementoftheunknowncapacitancebyusingDeSauty'sbridge'

13.2. TheorY
Bridge is used for the accurate measurement of electrical quantities:

Resistance, capacitance, Inductance, Storage Factor, Loss factor

etc. Depending

upon the excitations used, the bridges are classified as AC bridges & DC bridges.
De-sauty Bridge comes under category of AC bridges and it is used for
measurement of capacitance, General form of AC bridges consists of four arms of
impedances & AC excitation.
At balanced condition:
(l/jwCl) * q4: (l/jwC2)*R3"' (l)
SeParating real & imaginary Part,
c1: c2*(R4/R3) ... (2)

l3-l
 Figure (I 3- 1): Experimental Circuit

13.3. Procedure
1. Connected the experimental circuit shown in Figure (13-1).
2. Set the null point of galvanometer by adjusting the variable resistor R3.

3. Compute and record the unl<nown capacitance by formula given.

13.4. Discussion
l. What is the limitation of this bridge?
2. What is the disadvantage for this bridge?

I t-L
Exp.
'r /" (! lr-l()
dnol
)estTn ns lr,"Kti- n .P Ar',o\ague-
A"lLim"L.r
D.. A^m.Lt"
'}-c, Anmelrr fclhqe
o
o -S zt A
o^5 n/

R^= z7-' 'Lr-

Lr= s' 4A

Qrh ''
Z!-"x5o X(;< = 3ooJL
.-a
=
I -?
o 9X lo- - $oX\o"

l* = o -51 ntA

6": o.9l -o'f : o-ol

tr: ''f(-<o'$ cz -5 |
x/"/ t o =o-ol1
f) '<. V o ll *ot'r
D.. Vol(.ne_(d ro(riqe
U
l^ r,
/uv

Ro
o
,l
I

I
lq=
o
5"'u

77-"xso X lo(
l\< -{
L fo X /c)

q7^3Ktr-
V'ol - /o-l v
7
\ 'Qo = //a - | (t = u-l

2-
\)(
/o'l - /c X4 o" - "'" "11
=
(o'l
--f,x.l
f - ,Uo(2)
A/ /t'r'

t^:t"Jpl 6-41*afr;.---<r) a*-be |

&t4-/l I

)vEc=5y f\ s =-.K-r:- ffr = \ \(.a R_,-= z.<<z_

a:L""/*)
c"9 o.zgg .\J=-; (t*$ uJ,,l
4 o,417
\"9 t'q59
2-
\..V 3
z"b \' 4z-g
3 1,15 5

F-o=Vz-Vr 6r%: --__-____:_

V.--tt,
-
\a * t-o%
) Rsz\"Kn Ut n =VO<= \eV
{r cv)
t-
NSiu
€.o
4 or 4\4
q
(- l.\93
7 \. $17
z" 44\
\ 3'\ 65
b 3'z/-r
4. +++
Y
5'l(o
q
5,76,.
t^
6, r*55
 E n? . tfr'Cs:
;..

Col;bYcr'{ en .f' .A i,r t,te L e r

=- : -Jt;,
->(
t_ ':> ''--' --
:. 1r 6; .i2 r:-i -- r\

Lu /: c,

1t \) CS

... - \ .--:' r.i1

'-,_)tc 1.r.t't <,'' - l'l
A\ r - \J\ ar. !c I \r \rs
z--J { t '1. . ) t J ,t c'1'\ <r 6/4
t-'">'- o "/ e4?
2 ,.. Lt =)
3' '' '1'L (.-r.Lr'/ / .'9d

-: 47 1C. /1 . /L\' \\o. - l@-a R::\Fr

\. L

C.
(-'

/.. lt .,1 \-,.]it, l-nc

Z.i, Ll 'L .Zl c <:1l ,)
l' .' ,)
' o L'l 5 tj z- '( d'J-
L/... J Cr ,.-r ] .,> 14
t;. c 6l Ll 4 uit't ,-\, J Y
ll
)- 6 ':' r-t 6 , Ll r 66
-/ a'/ ,-. ,., ,]l
f o1
i -/ /--, 1 a'!\ .} /z
'7 . <: ( <) ,.' b .) - a', j.
rc "'l tJ
i, . o'l'l .r - - i 'l (,]. 9;\
 Exp. Na (q )
l(ien Bridge
.

Obsemafion Table:

S. No Rt/rcI) h lrct) Frequenqt

I 2o (o lt jo )
Z 31 (o 8.1 .t
3 71 ZP 58E'"
tl /oo lo 9t6 3
I oo Ze 3tr -6
31 26J l6
-E^?.' 7f
" k)
'' /L_ ;r4 {"; --;-;vltS%;44 -4--''r
-
\ Ld
- \) K#t Rt+) -- Ri =- \* Ka-
^ z> q xCRz-) s Rr L,2_y.-a-
=
-3) R *cR*) =Rl = \.a_\<4-
^ q) R x{-R 4) = R3 = too f'-a
u
EL = YA+
_VFE *--- O
VRi
l Al = lxRx. - -*@
tz Az t, RJ
Lt=[-z 2 Ix =Is end Rt Bs=fix
R.
Rx=+e
l\2_
*--@
b).( N' 16) fi C rro\\ t..t_\r/
f\*\l '=Jq.* Q
Rs

R'1

R"t

Lo. a -'.- \ eYnn S,

., *)J-S =Z-LS

R1 E.^.., 'Z 7\
-J1
- 72)'
Lt,.,\ t v
I A \o

!-t c.r . [-2

Rr \ s '\ \.( -+ \\')
'/ L) a.
18
tr.-, -\ K.\ -" (-
.\-
R.'t ! ) <-r --,4_

.zz 5,,
9-t --=-_- : \S ->
.->
E r^s
 f-.tt t.., .-\,-\ e.

E..., cI t' Ar^s

(> .i l=5 : il ,S .

f,Ln-
r\s
\x lI\.
-J
-1 1) cl

/a1
l'1\* c> -) u

\\ \
K: x'tR'I \\
Llloo : J51-. \€Ra-t(,.,
R.-d r\z5.iL
=
 Exp. No. (7)

Study and Calibration of a Single - Phsse kilo watt hour Meter (Energt
Meter)

Voltmeler Ammeter Timefor 5 lI/attmeter True energt 94 Error

Reading (V) Reading (A) Revolution Reading Watt.sec
(sec) (llatt)
2-\o S,\S loo ]s 6) 2o 5.2
Z-\o o,I \t> 6o L$ 665 q q6
L\o o ''t S ?oo {s 1-8 jlo 5.8
"6 i32- V-o 71 Ltl- L.b
?t- o 7Il ls9 \:s L1i 16 2.\
z \o a'f 15" t8- 131to 58
Exp. No,@

Characteristics of NTC Thermistor

.,
Time(minute 0 I 3 4 l 6 7 8 9 10
s)

Temperature
)-5 2 7oL:J 7lo 3t3 j tt"1 '3r1 .r 3t t.? 3L) 7 j tt.5 j26 1 t28
(from IC
temperature
sensor)oK

Temperature
(from IC 3z-"6 T9 9/.85 n.8t p.7S $b) 18-tt ," 5t 5235 ,3-+5 hst
temperature
sensor)oC

Dial reading
for 2.5V 66o 6qu ,q(, 5qo LA1. ,Lz 5tt # 9so qotLl 9.12-

Thermistor
resistance
4/
+'o +'11
Lqa b+ 6qL 6n (rb 6." L 6- 51'\ 51L
(10x dial
reading +1K
Ohm)
Exp. No.lQ)

Frequency Response of AC Vohmeter

Analog Voltmeter

F(Hz) V(volt) Gain(db)

z-3 l-L( -3 a16" I
2,6 I,S -z.wE77
/-( -\'1s82
31 t-/ -l.1t62
53 t8 .- c 1t5tS
?1 tq - c.ru.S S J
to Z o
loo z o
5oo z o
looo 2 6
f oo.. L 6
Qce o t-g - c r.r,S53
r )- t-8 '-o 1 \ s\s
l/-oo t.7 -\.qrr62
f looo t. ( -.-1362
ZG oou t.s -z-\\677
\ oooo
l.Ll -3 o9 8or
 Digital Voltmeter

F(Hz) V(volt) Gain(db)

I.LT -3 'ol 8o\

3'l /.5 -z \\a+7
r.l . ,4
t-g - \'1'l8z
55 t.7 - \.\\r.{?
6' /-b - o '1rS\ 9
tz-6 i-q -o..r.rr,593
z5 z 6
J,S 2 6
\oo z O
5oo 2 o
o
\oo z
!ooo Z
Z
e9.- . L
65ooo IQ
'' I
-a.rr99j
1r'-- tg *s.1\9\!
I .51 oo <, t7 -\'\ \r(2
\1\ooo t(, - \.0\ f 82
Z4 e ,.o
-L."^\s+7
99 o.,' l-11 .-3.ofQcl
trxP . //o Qo)

vo/4- vrAeatqfe^"nt
)
(
Ly u>i") cs 5 c-\ LLo> C.,F e /

F= \kl+z
-9
T= ZY.o'5 Xt.
\ \ .-.\ oo.' ltZ'- \ l=ftZ
'rr I 2 Y:o'S X tr-l

V,1q X\Y-
?ta
1(v
\,r= Jon x * /- 7V
r qv .La v
V= b ?|Yt A X'

rtb)t i2'<"'> "-E

,_l
R= \Fr>t L= [eovl
-3
pt = e'L K''5 X\'
o t
O = 22Ki6- o
T
-.- o.zX''tXd Lj(" = 36
LKa't Xt'
 _\
6 = 7t!a
A
€
, A =7t B-3.(
..
-l / ? 4'02
A= lln
Exp. No. (l)

Tungsten Filament incandescent Lamp

Lamp 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I 9 10
Filament
voltage (V)
Lamp
Filament Jo.1e 1'1o dl 8, I or{ \i rrl l{ (fl.IX 881'z t"t5
o
current(mA)
Lamp
Filament pt6 2(J q) qtL"16 ,8t'|t 7a bt q&.\ \
5'1n lLo4'\
power (mw)
Lamp
Resistance o n6) 18.20 3:"l.lb 19 31 vtt \5 qt )o 5t 53 tJ
(o)
 Exp. No. (l)

De Sauty's bridge

S.Na Capacity of Resklance Resislance Standard Capacity of

known ftrO RzA Value oJ'C2 unknown
condenser pF condenser
CtltF Rr
C"-:xC,uF
'R,
I po r? ll{
/o" R 1o
Io
t/ lo l< t-Lk 6.b 83
J
t/ /oK t.btR ['o.. ( -<t(,
4
tl ,oK ?-LK Lt.5' Ll tq
5
1"6 F r lboV t vLK 9-o- L.12-
6
touhl I ooY [.7[ t< t''5' " I L4+1