Fisika Dasar 2

Adhi Harmoko Saputro

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Sound
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Characteristics of Sound
 Sound can travel through any kind
of matter, but not through a
vacuum.
 The speed of sound is different in
different materials; in general, it is
slowest in gases, faster in liquids,
and fastest in solids.
 The speed depends somewhat on
temperature, especially for gases.
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Characteristics of Sound
 Loudness: related to intensity of the sound wave
 Pitch: related to frequency.
 Audible range: about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz; upper limit decreases
with age
 Ultrasound: above 20,000 Hz; see ultrasonic camera focusing below
 Infrasound: below 20 Hz
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Intensity of Sound: Decibels

 The intensity of a wave is the
energy transported per unit time
across a unit area.
 The human ear can detect sounds
with an intensity as low as 10-12
W/m2 and as high as 1 W/m2.
 Perceived loudness, however, is
not proportional to the intensity.
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Intensity of Sound: Decibels

 The loudness of a sound is much more closely related to the
logarithm of the intensity.
 Sound level is measured in decibels (dB) and is defined:
I
  in dB   10 log
Io
 I0 is taken to be the threshold of hearing:
I o  1.0 1012 W/m 2
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Intensity of Sound: Decibels

 An increase in sound level of 3 dB, which is a doubling in intensity,
is a very small change in loudness.
 In open areas, the intensity of sound diminishes with distance:
1
I 2
r
 However, in enclosed spaces this is complicated by reflections, and
if sound travels through air the higher frequencies get preferentially
absorbed.
The Ear and Its Response; Loudness

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The Ear and Its Response; Loudness

 Outer ear: sound waves travel down the ear canal to the eardrum,
which vibrates in response
 Middle ear: hammer, anvil, and stirrup transfer vibrations to inner
ear
 Inner ear: cochlea transforms vibrational energy to electrical energy
and sends signals to the brain
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The Ear and Its Response; Loudness

 The ear’s sensitivity varies with frequency. These curves translate
the intensity into sound level at different frequencies.
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Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air

Columns
 Musical instruments produce sounds in various ways – vibrating
strings, vibrating membranes, vibrating metal or wood shapes,
vibrating air columns.
 The vibration may be started by plucking, striking, bowing, or
blowing. The vibrations are transmitted to the air and then to our
ears.
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Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air

Columns
 The strings on a guitar can be
effectively shortened by fingering,
raising the fundamental pitch.
 The pitch of a string of a given
length can also be altered by using
a string of different density.
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Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air

Columns
 A piano uses both methods to cover its more than seven-octave
range – the lower strings (at bottom) are both much longer and
much thicker than the higher ones.
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Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air

Columns
 Wind instruments create sound through standing waves in a column
of air.
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Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air

Columns
 A tube open at both ends (most wind instruments) has pressure
nodes, and therefore displacement antinodes, at the ends.
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Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air

Columns
 A tube closed at one end (some organ pipes) has a displacement
node (and pressure antinode) at the closed end.
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Quality of Sound, and Noise; Superposition

 So why does a trumpet sound different from a flute? The answer
lies in overtones – which ones are present, and how strong they are,
makes a big difference.
 The plot below shows frequency spectra for a clarinet, a piano, and
a violin. The differences in overtone strength are apparent.
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Interference of Sound Waves; Beats

 Sound waves interfere in the same way
that other waves do in space.
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Interference of Sound Waves; Beats

 Waves can also interfere in time, causing a phenomenon called
beats. Beats are the slow “envelope” around two waves that are
relatively close in frequency.
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Doppler Effect
 The Doppler effect occurs when a source of sound is moving with
respect to an observer.
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Doppler Effect
 As can be seen in the image, a source moving toward an observer
has a higher frequency and shorter wavelength; the opposite is true
when a source is moving away from an observer.
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Doppler Effect
 If we can figure out what the
change in the wavelength is, we
also know the change in the
frequency.
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Doppler Effect
 The change in the wavelength is
given by

 '  d  d source
   vsourceT

   vsource
vsound
 vsource 
  1  
 vsound 
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Doppler Effect
 And the change in the frequency
vsound f
f ' 
'  vsource 
1  
 vsound 
 If the source is moving away from
the observer:
vsound f
f ' 
'  vsource 
1  
 v sound 
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Doppler Effect
 If the observer is moving with respect to the source, things are a bit
different. The wavelength remains the same, but the wave speed is
different for the observer.
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Doppler Effect
 We find, for an observer moving towards a stationary source

 vobserver 
f '  1  f
 vsound 

 And if it is moving away

 vobserver 
f '  1  f
 vsound 
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Doppler Effect
 A single equation that covers all cases of both source and observer
in motion (source and observer moving)

 vsound  vobserver 
f ' f  
 vsound vsource 

 the upper signs in numerator and denominator apply if source

and/or observer move toward each other; the lower signs apply if
they are moving apart
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Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom

 If a source is moving faster than the wave speed in a medium,
waves cannot keep up and a shock wave is formed.
 The angle of the cone is:
vsound
sin  
vobject
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Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom

 Shock waves are analogous to the bow waves produced by a boat
going faster than the wave speed in water.
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Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom

 Aircraft exceeding the speed of sound in air will produce two sonic
booms, one from the front and one from the tail.
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Applications: Sonar, Ultrasound, and

Medical Imaging
 Ultrasound is also used for
medical imaging. Repeated
traces are made as the
transducer is moved, and a
complete picture is built.
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Applications: Sonar, Ultrasound, and

Medical Imaging
 Ordinary ultrasound gives a good picture; high-resolution
ultrasound is excellent.
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Example
 The sound level measured 30 m from a jet plane is 140 dB.
Estimate the sound level at 300 m. (Ignore reflections from the
ground.)
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Solution
 The intensity I at 30 m is
 I 
140 dB  10 log  12 
 10 
I
10  12
14

10
I  102 W/m 2
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Solution
 At 300 m, 10 times as far, the intensity, which decreases as

I1 r2 2
 2
I 2 r1
r1 2 302 2
I 2  2 I1  10  1 W/m 2

r2 3002
 Hence, the sound level is
 1 
  10 log  12   120 dB
 10 
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Example
 A 0.32-m-long violin string is tuned to play A above middle C at
440 Hz. (a) What is the wavelength of the fundamental string
vibration, and (b) what are the frequency and wavelength of the
sound wave produced?
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Solution
 the wavelength of the fundamental is

  2  2  0.32   0.64 m

 This is the wavelength of the standing wave on the string.

 The sound wave that travels outward in the air (to reach our ears)
has the same frequency, 440 Hz. Its wavelength is

v 343
   0.78 m
f 440
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Example
 What will be the fundamental frequency and first three overtones
for a 26-cm-long organ pipe at 20°C if it is (a) open, (b) closed?
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Solution
 (a) For the open pipe, the fundamental frequency is
v 343
f1    660 Hz
2 2  0.26 
 The speed v is the speed of sound in air (the air vibrating in the
pipe). The overtones include all harmonics: 1320 Hz, 1980 Hz,
2640 Hz, and so on.
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Solution
 (b) For a closed pipe, the fundamental frequency is
v 343
f1    330 Hz
4 4  0.26 
 Only odd harmonics are present: the first three overtones are 990
Hz, 1650 Hz, and 2310 Hz.
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Example
 Two loudspeakers are 1.00m apart. A person stands 4.00 m from
one speaker. How far should this person be from the second speaker
to detect destructive interference when the speakers emit an 1150-
Hz sound? Assume the temperature is 20°C.
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Solution
 To sense destructive interference, the person should be one-half
wavelength closer to or farther from one speaker than from the
other—that is, at a distance 4.00 m  . We can determine because
we know f and v.
 The speed of sound at 20°C is so the wavelength of this sound is
v 343
   0.30 m
f 1150
 For destructive interference to occur, the person must be one-half
wavelength farther from one loudspeaker than from the other, or
0.15 m. Thus the person must be 3.85 m or 4.15 m from the second
speaker.
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Example
 The siren of a police car at rest emits at a predominant frequency of
1600 Hz. What frequency will you hear if you are at rest and the
police car moves at 25.0 m/s (a) toward you, and (b) away from
you?
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Solution
 (a) The car is moving toward you, so
f 1600
f '   1726 Hz
 vsource   25.0 
1   1  343 
 vsound   

 (b) The car is moving away from you, so

f 1600
f '   1491 Hz
 vsource   25.0 
1   1  343 
 vsound   
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Example
 A 5000-Hz sound wave is emitted by a stationary source. This
sound wave reflects from an object moving 3.50 m/s toward the
source. What is the frequency of the wave reflected by the moving
object as detected by a detector at rest near the source?
Solution

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Solution
 The frequency f’ that is “detected” by the moving object is

 vobserver   3.50 
f '  1   f  1   5000  5051 Hz
 vsound   343 

 The moving object now “emits” (reflects) a sound of frequency

 vsource   3.50 
f '  1   f  1   5051  5103 Hz
 vsound   343 

 Thus the frequency shifts by 103 Hz.

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Example
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Solution
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Terima Kasih