List of Contents | Preface Chapter Title Page 1 Introduction; Dimensional Analysis; Similitude 2 Basic Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics: Definitions of Efficiency 7 3 “Two-dimensional Cascades 4 Axial-flow Turbines: Two-dimensional Theory : 5 ‘Axial-flow Compressors and Fans ! 6 ‘Three-dimensional Flows in Axial Turbomachines 7 Centrifugal Pumps, Fans and Compressors 8 Radial Flow Gas Turbines : 9 Hydraulic TurbinesPreface ‘This manual is a supplement to the book Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery,5th edition and provides detailed sotutions of the problems given at the end of each chapter of the parent book. The manual actually originated as Worked Examples in Turbomackinery (Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics) and ‘was written for the second edition of the above book. It now includes many new problems taken over a much broader field, so it has expanded considerably. The good news is that it is free! In most engineering courses there is often only a limited amount of time available for problem solving and this is were the manual can be of great benefit. In courses on ‘Turbomachinery itis vital for the student not only to understand the analytical development of a theory but can also apply the theory to the numerical solution of the problem. In my experience students often become better acquainted with the analytical processes of the theory after tussling for a while with a detailed calculation The standard of the problems solved varies a lot. A large proportion of the problems are comparable in standard to those set in examinations for the Honours Degree in Mechanical Engineering (at a British University) but quite a few are considerably harder and would match the standard of questions set in some Masters degree examinations. Some of the problems are noticeably quite easy to do and are intended 10 Jure the student on to the more difficult areas! Theoretical derivations have been kept to a minimum in the manuel unless some particular point required emphasis. On a point of clarification and to avoid needless repetition, | have used roman numerals e.g. eqn (i), for referencing equations derived in this manual and arabie numerals, e.g. eqn (2.1), when citing equations from the parent book. Similarly, the Same logic applies to figures. S.L.Dixon Aaguat, LOOList of Symbols ert ae sede oe aeoeee sneer area sonic velocity, position of maximum camber passage width, maximum camber tangential force coefficient lift and drag coefficients specific heat at constant pressure. pressure coefficient, pressuse rise coefficient ideal pressure rise coefficient specific heat at constant volume axial and tangential force coefficients absolute velocity spouting velocity drag force. diameter equivalent diffusion ratio. hydraulic mean diameter energy. specific energy centrifugal force in blade acceleration. friction factor gravitational acceleration - head. blade height effective head head loss fue to friction - gross head net positive suction head (NPSH) specific enthalpy rothalpyARE zz2z3 Fer GB = ss = Ps Py incidence angle constants nozzle velocity coefficient lift force, length of diffuser wall blade chord length, pipe length Mach number mass, molecular ‘weight’ rotational speed. axial length of diffuser specific speed (rev) power specific speed (rev) suction specific speed (rev) number of stages, polytropic index pressure atmospheric pressure vapour pressure heat transfer. volume flow rate dryness fraction reaction, specific gas constant Reynolds number reheat factor universal gas constant radius entropy, power ratio blade pitch, specific entropy temperature time, thickness blade speed. internal energy specific internal energyaw volume, specific volume work transfer specific work transfer relative velocity axial force 2 cartesian coordinate directions tangential force, actual tangential blade load per unit span ideal tangential blade load per unit span tip clearance loss coefficient profile toss coefficient net secondary loss coefficient ‘number of blades, Ainley blade loading parameter absolute flow angle relative flow angle circulation ratio of specific heats deviation angle fluid deflection angle, cooling effectiveness enthalpy loss coefficient, total pressure loss coefficient efficiency minimum opening at cascade exit blade camber angle, wake momentum thickness profile loss coefficientH dynamic viseosity v kinematic viscosity, blade stagger angle, velocity ratio p density ° slip factor, solidity % blade cavitation coefficient ¢, ‘Thoma's coefficient, centifugal stress e torque 4 flow coefficient, velocity ratio y stage loading factor Q speed of rotation (rad/s) ron specific speed (rad) Qqyp power specific speed (rad) {%s suction specific speed (rad) o vonicity o stagnation pressure loss coefficient SUBSCRIPTS av average c compressor, critical D diffuser| xr h hydraulic, hub i inlet, impeller id ideal is isentropic m mean, meridional, mechanical, material nozzle a normal component ° stagnation property. overall polytropic, constant pressure R reversible process, rotor r radial rel relative s isentropic, stall condition 3s stage isentropic t turbine, tip, transverse v velocity X, ¥. 2 cartesian coordinate componerits 4 tangential SUPERSCRIPT + time rate of change - average blade angie (as disfinct from flow angle) nominal conditionChapter 1 Introduction: Dimensional Analysis: Similitude Rotor blades Outlet vanes Rotor blades Outlet vanes Flow —> Pee (a) Single stage axial flow (b) Mixed flow pump cempressor or pump Flow direction Guide vanes Runner blad Outlet diffuser Vaneless diffuser Figy | — Flow ~ Volute 2 \ { er Draught tubes. impeller SS. (c) Centrifugal compressor or pump (d) Francis turbine Some Turbomachine Geometriesi | | | i | | ij i | [ Chapter 1 Dimensional Analysis, Similitude 1.1 A fan operating at 1750 rev/min at a volume flow rate of 4.25 m8/s develops a head of 153 mm measured on a water-filled U-tube manometer. It is required to build a larger, geometrically similar fan which will deliver the same head at the _same efficiency as the existing fan, but at a speed of 1440 rev/min. Calculate the ‘volume flow rate of the larger fan. : Solution, For geometrically similar fans the dependent variables gil (che net energy ‘ransfer) and the efficiency 7 are expressed in terms of two functional relationships of the independent variables, aH ? where Q is the volume flow rate, D is a characteristic diameter of a fan, Nis the 1, ND, evn) 1,Q.N,D, pos) rotational speed, y the dynamic viscosity of the Duid and p the fluid density. Using either the formal procedure of dimensional analysis or the less formal but more direct process of dimensional elimination (see Q.1.4) with p, N, D as common factors, the dimensionless groups are 2 LQ, atl, voi Sgr Oe bo 2. = 1(2,, BD) 77H i ‘The group pND*/n defines a dow Reynolds number Re based upon blade speed and fan diameter. ft {s assumed for the purpose of this problem tat the effects of changes in Re are small and can be ignored, Thus, the performance character~ istics ave reduced to : B= ® ot ? 3 wy2 8.1, DKON For the evo fans to have the same eiclency it follows from eqn. (i) that che volume ‘ow coatticient Q/(ND') must be the same. Thus, the volume Gow rate of the Second fan is ay = {AYNYO,/0, Likewise, for the two fans to deliver the same head, then gH /AND)? must be the same which follows from eqn. ({) and the fact that avn’) is fixed. Hence, with Hy +H, then 1 ND, = ND, (wv) Substituting eqn, (tv) into eqn. (il) 2 n= Ayn, = 4.25(1750/1440)" = 6.277 m/s Te will be observed that the-numerical value of the head developed ts not actually used in solving this problem. 41.2, An axlal dow tan 1,83 m diameter is designed to run at a speed of 1400 rev/ ‘min with an average axial atr velocity of 12.2 m/s. A quarter scale model has been ouatfonal speed! of the model fan is 4200 rev/min, Determine the axial air velocity of the model so tht dynamical similaricy with the full-scale fan is preserved. The effects of Reynolds number change may be neglected. ‘built to obtain a check on the design and t A sulteteny large pressure vessel becomes available in which the complete model cam be placed and tested under conditions of complete similarity. The viscosity of the alr is independent of pressure and the temperature is maincained constant, At what pressure must the model be tested? oe Salon, The volume dow rate Q = gpaseac where 6, ithe axial velosiy. @ ‘Thus, the volume flow coefficient Quinn’) can be replaced with ¢,/(ND). For ymamical similarity and ignoring changes in Reynolds number the axial velocity of the model is 7Dimensional Analysis pp = 12.2% 4200/(1400 « 4) For complete similarity the Reynolds number of the model must equal that of the prototype. Thus, Re, = Re, ‘m nae 7 2 ~ Pm NgDn PND, ‘nnn, Bee 0 Ts ¥ 7 : ‘As the temperature remeins constant w,, =, and, from the gas law, pap. Thus, eqn. (1) becomes 2 ND; Poe 2 Ei Bg = PyM/Ngdp/Pry) ix (2.400/4200)< 5.33 am. Pano 1,3. A water turbine is to be designed to produce 27 MW when running at 93.7 rev/ ‘min under a head of 16,5 m. A model turbine with an output of 37.5 KW Is to be tested under dynamically similar conditions with a head of 4.9m, Calculate the model speed and scale ratio. Assuming a model efficiency of 88%, estimate the volume flow rate through the model. It fs estimated thet the force on the thrust bearing of the full-size machine will be 7.0GN, For what thrust must the model bearing be designed? : Solution. For geometrically similar hydraulic turbines the dependent variables are the power output P, the efficiency 7 and the volume flow rate Q. The independent variables are the speed of rotation N, the characteristic diameter D, the useful head H, the dynamic viscosity u and the density p. The functional dependences are weinen a3 Pg. Q = fle, N,Digti.n)” By the application of dimensions} analysis the following non-dimensional groups are4 8.L. DIXON : | formed using p, Nand Das the commen dimensional factors to eliminate the dimensions ofthe other variables (see Q.1.4), : 2 P 9.» gah, Ne De = x: a > woos 7" oh” De ‘A remarkable fearure of dimensional analysis is the ability to form a new non dimensional group trom any other two such groups provided that the total number of groups inthe functional relationships) remains the came. Thus, by combining the power coetilelenr with che headcoetticen to eliminate the diameter (whieh is not piven in the problem) anew non-dimensional group, the power specife speed is formed, Le. (vat . tate, . nt cme) 75 : evi a eX Deh tah @ raring tre square soot ofthe above expression, the power specific speed is, y y 5/4 ng Ue ‘Assuming that changes in Reynolds number have negligible effect upon the performance, the model (m) and prototype (@) will have the same NJ, when ‘operating under dyaamically similar conditions. Thus, earn NP? NUP a By Ya Sa . Pa ad NCP) GH) y 5 = 93.7 (27 x 10°/37.5 x 109) (4.9/6.5) ¢ = 531.2 rev/min ‘The scale ratio is determined from the head coetficient which is the same for mode! @ axa proronpe, 1.2. mw : Pa? «ND, y y CH) My = (4.9/6.5)? 99.7/851.2 2. DD, mp 0.09264Dimensional Analysis + the prototype is 10,8 times bigger than the model. ‘The turbine efficiency ts defined > PHoxoH) hence, the volume Mow ate of the model turbine ts iq = Pay MOB Hy on) = 97.5 x 10°/(10° x 9.81 x 4.9 x 0.88) - : 0.8865 m/e ‘The thrust force X 1s 2 new variable which cam be related dimensionally to the other known variables, As force is the product of pressure pgH and area which ie Proportional to D*, then a force coefficient can be defined as R = xHeguo?) For éynamical similarity this willbe the same for both model and prototype, hence i 2 Xp 7 X pCa /Hy)Opy/DQ) 7x 107(4.9/18.5%0,09264)? = W.sen 14; Derive the non-dimensional groups that are normally used in the testing of ws turbines and compressors. ‘A compressor has been designed for normal atmospheric conditions (101.3 kPa and 15°C). tn order to economise on the power required itis being rested with a ‘hrortle in the encry duct to reduce the entry pressure. The characteristle curve or HS normal design speed of 4000 xev/min is being obtained on a day when the ambient Temperature ts 20°C. At what speed should the compressor be run? At the point on the characteris curve at which the mass flow would normally be $8 kg/s the oMEY pressure is $5 kPa. Calculate the actual rete of mass flow during the test. Describe the relationship between geometry and specific speed for pumps. Solution, As the fuid density p can change very appreciably aezoss compressors and ges turbines of large pressure retio it is necessary to employ compressible Auld relations. For a compressor ofa given condiguration and size represented by6 S.L. DIXON : 4 diameter D, operating at rotational speed Nand mass flow rate vi and at specified Inlet stagnation conditions (p,4, Ty). the dependent performance parameters are the outlet stignacion pressure pay, the eificiency 7 and the overall stagnation emperature rise OT,. Odier dependent parameters may also be used (c.f, eqn. Gect3)). The dependent vaclables can be expressed inthe form of tree unkaowm (Js Il,) ‘etional relationships as Pog D+ AT, = MND ADyy Toys YH) where wis the dynamie viscosity and y =C,/C,, ‘The dependent variables can be made dimensionless without difficulty by writing Pogo Pe OTT * {ND Port Bor? ye © vince ee coratece, 9g, Ty ve been repel yy #5 /OT,) 4 ag TORT) 2 ‘The most convenient and least formal method of finding the -Dhtang Sieniiera ope ooo ove ace of ere a rei ties at ate cl arian thie, dre ote ow erely meen veep, Nend Dace else, These variables have the respective dimensions. wi, Tad L. ‘Considering in detail the eden of oe eimsstelene gre by cepened mann, Variable Dimensions.) Bliminating Feo 7 70,2 AMlogND? T e oe ee cies see elle : and (ML T") resulting in oT a pa To 2 7 ‘The group p,,ND’/u ig @ Reynolds number Re based upon blade speed (ND) and compressor size. The group ND/ao} is a blade Mach number M, ‘The groupDimensional Analysis 7 #8/(0,,ND9) is not very convenient for compressor tescing but may be enely tana formed inte normal forin as follows:= a, Ay 510) (tal) Pg1ND® 94 ,D%ND) Pot Dp (ND) UBT) : PD \ y asthe group (0,/tNDy"%) = (iyoty"%)) a combination of dimensionless Variables which have alzeady appeared as separate independent groupe it canbe simply deleted trom the above grovp. Thus, the tnt non-dimencionl form of the compressor functional relationships is Pog OT, AAART, Deg Pa? Fay P10. g—. Re My) o For a given compressor of a given size and handling a specific gas it has become the custom in practice.to drop y, Rand D from the above set of dimensionless groups. ‘The resulting relationships are then y an? oul, Ee. ke (a) Pa ty which are no longer dimensionless. tte cee ote tine, zene esr ee uly rece a8, 9 and 7, 20 ate dimensional action eatosips ae FL OT, = 0.15 ype Typ ND, ys 4) By 8 process of reasoning simtlar to that used for a compressor ihe variables are Feduced to a smaller number of non-dimensional groups, i.e. Ye weet tte. gel, ty PD? Tor Fon’ Pag’ Be8 S.L, DIXON eterring to Fig. 197 ad Sgoring any eects due to changes im Rey the design point Sito 2 ofa compressor is Uniquely represented by one value of N/T," and one value of aT /pgy- Atte Interseation of these vo curves there i bur one value foreach af the dependent variables, Pop/Pgi» 7 and ATQ/T,,~ Under normal atmospheric {alice conditions, py = 10L.3 HPA and T, = 200K, the compressor desifh speed Nis 4000 rev/min and the mass flow rate ch is $8 kg/s. Design potnt conditions scl? obtain forthe new enzy conditions pg) *55 KPa, Ty; *290 Kby adivting the speed and mass flow rate to maintain the design point values of AT, "/Pgy and N/T ay = Thus, . . Me ia N’ = N(T,i/Ty) 7 = 490002987288) 4035 rev/min B= OylPa iT ay/T ao” 1, th = (S5/101.3)(288/293) "58 = 31.22 kg/s For a pump specific speed Is defined, eqn. (1.8), by y y, = nog where Nis the speed of rotation, Q the volume flow rate and H the head rise, For & siven speed N, high specitic speed would be obtained in a pump of small head rise and large volume flow rate, e.g. an axial flow pump. Conversely, a low specific speed pump would be typified by a radial dow machine of relatively small flow rate end & high head rise.Chapter 2 \ | Basic Thermodynamics, | Fluid Mechanics e | &% 2 Flow directien [ | Control Volume of a Generalised TurbomachineChapter 2 Thermodynamics 2.1, For the adiabatic expansion of a perfect gus through a tusbine, show that the overall efficiency 7, and smell emage elclency y, axe related by ye = Gre? va-ey where €2 2°" Y/Y, andy is the expansion pressure ratio, y is the rato of specific heats. ‘An axial flow surbine has a small stage efficiency of 867, an overall pressure ratio of 4.5 t0 Land a mean value of y equal to 1.933. Calculate the overall turbine efficiency. Solution, The overall efficiency of a turbine is assumed to mean the total to total efficiency defined, eqn. (2.21), by Te = Mor “Border “Bors) a For a perfect ges, h= Gy, so thet : yy Toon * Tors) = = Tya/Fa MO * Typ6/Toy) oO a ‘The overall total pressure ratio is = Payor * For/To2s dey yee) € = Tyae/To = Consider 2 small pact of the expansion process as shown ‘othe sketch, This expancion is best imagined as 2 small sage with en enthalpy drop ch, and corresponding pressure drop dp,. The amall stige efficiency is defined as. 3 % = Mafbigg ai)10 S.L. Dixon Now an elementary change in specific entropy can be related, using the laws of thermodynamics, to the elementary changes in other properties. From eqn, (2.16) Tas = dh ~dp/e which is applicable to both reversible and irreversible processes on a pure substance, For a constant entropy process it follows that agg * olPo Substituting this result and the perfect gas relations, p,/p, = RT, and dh, =C, eT, into eqn. (iis) Tp 7 PoMpSTo/SPo * C/T) VRMWD dT feng where Gy = yR/(y-1), After gearranging th above equation aT YT, = [7_CriVv] a7Q/, Integrating and puring in the Limits for the overall process, 5 7eCr-D/y ToxfTo1 = Co2/Poy) = pRaWY eT Substituting eqns. (Ji) and (Iv) into eqn. (i), the required relation is obtained, yy 2 Ge eya-e) Wome =4.5, y#1.388and 7, = 0.66, es POW 1/4,50°7498 = 1/1.486 = 0.6868. 27? = 0.68680 = 0.7239 7 2 Dg = (170.7239)/41 ~0. 6868) = 98.16 per cent 2.2, Air is expanced in « multi-stage axial flow turbine, the pressure drop across each stage being very small. Assuming that air behaves as a perfect gas with ratio of specitic heats y, derive pressure-tempersture xelationships for he following processes: () reversible adiabacte expansion; (i) Sexoversible adiabatic expansion, with small stage efficiency 7p‘Thermodynamics a (ii) reversible expansion in which the heat loss in each stage is a constant fraction k of the enthalpy drop in that stage; (iv) reversible expansion in which the heat loss is proportional to the absolute temperature T. Sketch the first three processes on a T, s diagram. If the entry temperature {s 1100 K, end the pressure zatio across the turbine 1s 6 to 1, caleulate the exhaust temperatures in each of these three cases, Assume that y is 1.993, that 7, +0,85, and that k = 0.1, If Ip 29:85 Solution, ({) For 2 reversible adiabatic expansion the entropy does wot change. From eqn. (2.18), with di = 0, Tds = dh - (I/pkip =0 J. dh =c, aT = (V/piép * RT4P/0 4 T/T = B/G, Yee/p = [y-n/y] ¢9/2 Integrating this result berween limits, denoted by an initial state 1 end a final state 2, yielas duty) = [o-/¥] Lal0,/0,) ae very. TYT, = @\/e, (ii) Iehas already been shown in the solution of Q.2.1 for an irreversible adiabatic expansion with small stage efficiency 9. tha 1 ge Y Jor that Telv-D/ TT, = fp) PY wa. | Iris a consequence of the fecond Yaw of Thermodynamics that the entropy of & Re 4 substance (J.e, a system) undergoing an irreversible adiabatic process must increase. The magnitude of the entropy increase ean be formulated from eqn. (2.18) as follows Tas = ch -dp/p = 0,47 - RTCH/p nds = C,aT/t-Rab/p Integrating and inserting limits, the enteopy increase is2 S.L, DIXON 1 7 Cy Amery, R La fo) = R{dn@,/) - [vv J Gert} Substituting for T/T, from eqn. (ti), and simpiltying g for T/T 1 = RAs 9) 4,02) (sia) (ii) rom the fecond Paw of Phermodynamics, when en elemest of heat dQ is tmansferred reversibly from the surroundings fo ¢ unit mess of substance at an « absolute temperature T, the specific entropy increases by an emount ds = 6Q,/T . ‘Thus, a reversible heat wanster from the substance to the surroundings (2, < 0) will cause the specitic entropy to decrease. In the reversible expansion through the turbine with reversible heat loss the sigs of the three elements ds, dh and dp in the expression €Qq = Tés = dh - dp/p are all negative, Writing dQ, = Hh, eqn. (2.18) gives Tas = kdh = dh-dp/p Si (WC,AT = ép/p = RTED/P 2 at (ep/eXy-1/ [40] - Integrating and inserting limtes as before, Tyhy = Gyoer EO ay Additionally, It Is easy to determine the magninude of the corresponding specific entropy change, as follows: ds = ke, aT/T = -kC, net, /¥,) = -kCyCy-1N/ [yA-W) n/p) = -Lato,/09) ¥R/-®) ita) (Gv) ‘The heat loss in each elementary stage is reversible and proportional to T. ‘This condition is satisfied by 4Qq = Tas = dh -dp/p bcISH ii ii ie ii ‘Thermodynamics 3 J ds © C,aT/T - R éb/p dle, - aye * Lavoe) = Corp} tacryt,) ‘After rearranging and exponentiating, y/o), py/e, = T/T) exo (8)-8/R] ww) ‘The sketch shows the way the entropy changes as - _ the alr is expanded from the initial ste 1 to the final state 2 corresponding to the first three oe processes, The final temperatures (end specific entropy changes) axe easily determined @ scar tne preceding equations, so With T, = 1100 K, p,/P9 #6, 7, =0-85. y= 1,333 and k = 0.2, From eqn. (i, 2ii 9.2498 793.1 x ai Ty, = 1100/6 Za From eqn. (i!) 3 Tyg = 1200/6779 = 751.9 K and the corresponding entropy increase is, from eqn. (tis), (byyr#WR = oastnd = 0.2688 From eqn, (it) - 0.2776 _ e Toy = 1o0re = and the corresponding entropy change is trom eqn. (ila) 669.0 K gr = -00.1/0.9) bab = 0.2 i 2.3. A multi-stage high-pressure steam turbine is supplied with steam at a stagnation pressuce of 7 MP2 abs."and a stagnation temperature of S00°C. The corresponding specific enthalpy is $410 kJ/kg. ‘The steam exhausts from the turbine at a stagnation pressure of 0.7 MPa abs., the steam having beea in # super=ee i { | “4 SL. DKON | a et ae ee ae { like a perfect ges over the range of the expansion and thar y =1.3, Given that the j turbine Low process has a emall-stage etticiency of 0.82, determine i (0) the temperature and specific volume at the end of the expansion; ' (i) the rebeat factor. ‘The specific volume of superheated steam is represented by pv = 0,281(h-1943), where p is in kPa, v is in im? /kg and his in kI/kg. Solution. (i) In che notation of Q.2.1 the actual temperature ratio across the turbine, from eqn, (2.37), is si (y-y Taal Ton * Wor? oo)? were 7 (v-D/Y = 0.62% 0.3/1.3 = 0.1892 and P/04, * 10 ‘a 190-1892 | 2 Tyy/Teq = 1.5461 ‘The Inlet stagnation temperature T,, = 500+ 273 = 773 K, heace the outlet stagnation temperature is = Tyg 7 778/1.5461 = 500K ‘The specitic volume v,, corresponding to stagnation conditions at outlet is determined with the superheated steam relation pv = 0,231(h ~ 1943) and the perfect gs law py =RT. Combining these two equations, TyglMoy = Ogg IME, 1948) Sg 21948 = hay IMT LAT, = 6410~1949)500/773 = 948.9 = 2691.9 Ki/kg = 0.231 x 948,9/700 = 0.3131 mo ig (Gi) The reheat factor Is defined, eqn. (2.39), a6 Ry * Wp‘Thermodynamics 1s where the overall or total to total efficiency ts Ne = Tor Tord For Tors) OT yafT aE“ Typq/Toy) * A= Tog/Toy [2G pa/rah""] (1-1/1, 84619701 -2/20°° 58) 0.8461 x 1.7033/(1-5461 x 0.7013) 90,8568 0.8568/0.82 = 1.045 wR 2.4, A.20 MW back-pressure turbine receives steam at 4 MPa and 300°C, ‘exhausting from the last stage at 0,35 MPa, The stage efficiency {9 0.85, the reheat factor 1.04 and the external losses 2% of the actual enthalpy drop. Determine the rate of steam:dlow. [At the exit from the first stage nozzles the steam velocity is 244 m/s, specific volume 68.6 dm /kg, ‘mean diameter 762 mm and steam exit angle 76 deg measured from the axial direction, Determine the nozzle exit height of this stage, Solution, From the definition of reheat factor, eqn, (2,39), the turbine total to total efficfency can be immediately determined:- Fe = DpRiy = 0.85% 1.08 = 0.088 Using the notation given in Q.2.1 the isentropic stagaation enthalpy d0p,hyy ~ Byogs can be determined using steam tables or, less accurately but more quickly, using & Mollie diagram for steam, From steam tablesat p,, = 4 MPa 40 Dar) and ae 300°C the initial steam condition is superheated (about 50°C of superheat) with hyp = 2963 Kivkg and 5, = 6.964 KI/kg °C), Inspection of the tables shows that at gq 70-85 MPa (3.5 bax) the vapour saturation value of specific eMtroPy'Sg59 > 2oy° ‘This means the ‘sentrople state point o25 1s in the lquldvapour phase. The azyness traction q can be evaluated for point 02s, 8 2 - 8259 ~ Yon)| { | EL 16 3.L, DKON = (6,364 - 1,727)/5.214 = 0,8893 Hence, the specific stagnation enthalpy at point o2s is Meas * Bor + gop ~ Myoa) © $84 +0,8893 x 2148 = 2494 KI/kg ‘Thus, the isentropic stagnation enthalpy drop is Bo “Boag 7 2963 = 2494 = 469 KI/ke As the total to total efficiency is known the actual stagnation enthalpy drop can be found, i.e. yp “Bay = Tydtgy “Bygg) = 9-884 x 469 = 414.6 KI/ig and this Is the specific work done by the steam, OW, The actual specitie work delivered at the ourput shaft is less than this because of the mechanical losses. The shaft power delivered is = Ig? aw where 1,, is the mechanical efficiency. Thus, the rate of mass flow WHI AW) 20x 10°/(0,98 x 414.8 x 10°) 49.22 eg/ : From the equation of continuity and assuming uniform flow at all radii, in = pac, = pid necosa . @ —erce, she blade neigh hos mov/(rd_ © cos ay) = 49,22 x 0,0686/(17 x 0,762 x 244 x .2419) = 0.0099 mas ‘ = 23.9 mm 2.8, Steam is supplied to the first stage of five stage pressure-compounded stesm turbine at a stagnation pressure of 1.5 MPs and a stagnation temperature of 350°C. ‘The steam leaves the last stage at a stagnation pressure of 7.0 kPa with a corres-‘Thermodynamics a ponding dryness traction of 0,95. By using a Molller chart for steam and assuming that the stagnation state point locus is a straight line joining the initial and final states, determine ¢) te over taaboel ellen and tot sal ellecy aevaning te seam ees the conderser witha vel 20/2 (wy oe span anans bene ech sage suming hat ch sage | dons the same emt of Wot, «idee wat cat eeny teen sag, () the atet wr based pon sagstlon condones, Seaulon, i ie aban is mor acura fou stm test deerine ta vera condone ashe nl pressure especitad, Forte inecsage © Gxescns were pressures are tet specie, the sluone segue? are Frey eit ye ute of Moles chart forse wt ny smal os a : accuracy. i (0) Brom the mblegat 9, =1,5 MPa 1S bir) and T,, = 250°C the saguation ettaloy —(e j “TK a. yy = S148 KI/kg atl che stagnation eneropy 85) = 7-102 HY/thg °C). Referringto 04 Ty dean the shetch ofthe Mollier diagrem, the exhaust total condition is the state point 05. p = a a Pcperlits of Fluide’. ‘The exhaust stagnation enthalpy is ; . R ¥ Naat gs Me? oe 2 163-40.95 x... = 2451.6 /Ag - Where Nigg Ryog axe the liquid and vapour saturation enthalpies at pag, = 7 KPa. Hence, the actual specific work done across the whole turbine is, - e AW = hy nhyy = 696.4 Ki/ag. = 3148 - 2451.6 ‘The corresponding isentropic stagnation enthalpy gg... at the exhaust pressure Pg is cbtained by determining the dryness fraction q.. 8 7 617% 6) p06 0,948 fog) > (7-102 = 0,559)/7.715 chy fakes = Moe *%Mgo6"Mioe) = 268+ 0.8481 x 2409a S.L. DIXON = 2206 Ki/kg Hence, the overall isentropic stagnation enthalpy drop which is also the overall ideal specific work is = 3148 = 2206 = 942 KI/kg ‘The overall total to total efficiency 4s, eqn. (2.21), ee = AW/ AW nase = 696-4/942 fee = Mh ‘The overall total to static efficiency is, eqn, (2.22), Tag + AWAD Waa eee 1 5%) = WA Maat bed : arate where iis assumed tut ¢,2/2 «(2/2 = 4 x 200” = 204/g + Teg 7 $96.4/(942 +20) Rash (i) and (Lit) The specific work is divided equally between the five stages so that the specific work done per stage is Ob, = OWS = 159.3 K/Kg ' A straight line Ss drawn on the Mollier chart between state points O1 and 06 and the intermediate stage state points determined. The following table shows the stagnation pressures, stagnation temperatures or dryness fractions, the actual and isentropic stagnation enthalpies for each stage. ‘The individual isentropic stagnation enthalpy drops for exch stage are shown (Oh,,) and the stage total to tote] elfciencies determined trom 7. = Bh,/A hs. Jt should be noted that the values of fh, shown in the table are obtained from the intersection of the isentrope at the beginning of a stage with the ischar at the end of that stage. The reason the stage efficiencies increase as the flow proceeds through the turbine Is because of the reduced slope of the constant pressiire lines at the lower Pressures (end lower temperatures) causing Ah,, to reduce,Thermelyamles » state Po + ho hos Abos Stage point (kPa) (ci/ka) (eI /kg) effic. % eters soot dst sented dene Hci & aoe) ony amas SOD ° mo oS atuseg ase WETS ss ot ao 28 oes eos ay BRT =~ 06 7 - 0.95 2451.5 2405 = (iv) The reheat factor in a turbine Is defined for a finite number of stages by By * [gy Maas) yn Rag) ee 1 Map = Tans AM max i fH Re = (225 + 212.7 + 199.4 + 193.1 + 185,8)/942 1.078| Chapter 3 Two-dimensional Cascades Settnag Contraction pee Sui gie-srege fon eOiltuser Cascada Layout of a conventional low-speed cascade wind tunnel. (adapted from Carter et al. (1950), see Ch. 3)Chapter 3 Two-dimensional Cascades Setting Contraction Cageade! Teng Section Suction sim Cascove Onis, Line of Layout of a conventional low-speed cascade wind tunnel. (adapted from Carter et al. (1950), see Ch. 3)( 20 Chapter 3 ‘Two-dimensional Cascades 3-1. Experimental compressor cascade results suggest thatthe stalling lift Coefficient of a cascade blade may be expressed as, «3 1 °, ( 2) = 22 1 where cy and c, are the entry and exit Velocities. Find the stalling inlet angle for @ compressor cascade of space-chord ratio unity ifthe outlet air angle is 30 deg, Solution. The lit coefficient C, ofa cascade blade is defined, eqa, (8.16s)a8 the force L per uni blade length acting in the direction normal tothe average velocity Smx tivided by the product of the average dynamic pressure and blade chord ¢. 1.0. 1 Cy = Leet) vere cy *6,/eot og antian g, «cane, tune). For compressor bade siete, cine eprses @:8), arma cee fow angle, te wesc ow tga epee rato 5/2 and te dag cate, Cy * Meedeose tans, -u2e)-cy ane 1s ascumed in tis problem that Cy = 0 and that Sq is constant. From the velocity triangles, shes Se 7 ey c0sa, = cy e089, wy ‘Thus, with eqns. (2) and (\)) and the given expression for stalling, Cy y/e)* = 216/2) cos iq (f2n ay = tan 2,}eo8 a,/eos a) = 2.2 tees (UH With s/€ = 1.0and a, =30deg, only ay remains unknown in eqn, (ii), Although it ‘Possible to produce a polynomial equation in tan a, from eqn. (li) itis far Jessi i t ‘Two-dimensional cascades a ‘trouble to solve the equation numerically. The procedure used is to select several Values of o, and calculate the numerical values of ag, ete until valve of a satisfies the equation, 3 Ste cos q,, (ana, ~tana,)/eos'a, = 1.1/cos¥a, * 1.6986 Gv) 3 where tan a, = 0.5774, cos* a, = 0.6495. . ay 48 47.5 49 50 wna 41,0000" 1.0913 1.1508 1.1918 wn a, 0.7887 0.0943 0.8699 0, 9846 a (38,26 39,84 40.82 41.49 cos, 0.7852 0.7679 0,7587 0.7490 tuas enn. (wy | 0.9987 1,260 1.5356 1.7320 ths By graphical interpolation the inlet flow stalling angle is a, 7 49-81 deg. 3.2, Show, for a turbine cascade, using the angle notacion of Fig. 3-24, that the lift cetictent ie : A c, = Us/e\(ana, rane.) cosa, +Cytan a, L 1 1 1. 2, where tan o,, = 3 (lana, - tana,)and C, * Drags oc,, £). 2 ‘A cascade of turbine nozzle vanes has a blade inlet angle &, = 0 deg, a blade outlat angle a, of 65.5 deg, a chord length £ of 48 mm and an axel chord b of 32 mm. “The Dow entering the blades is to have zero incidence and an estimate of the deviation angle based upon similar cascades is thet § will be about 1.5 deg at low outlet Mach number. Ifthe blade load ratio “Y-_ defined by ean, JAr51) is to be 0.88 estimate a suitable space/chord ratio for the cascade. Determine the drag and lift coefficients for the cascade given that the profile loss coefficient A= ApyGrez) = 0.035. 3.272 S-L, DIXON Solution. The figure shows part of a turbine blade cascade, the velocity eriangle < assuming ¢, {8 : constant and the o force diagram, From the velocity triangle q the mean flow 3 ey direction 6, is defined by tan eheana, - Fpq “7 ean ay tan a,) 0 that Cy 76/608 a, Referring to unit depth (span) of blade, the lift force L acting on the xX blade ls perpendicular to ¢,, and the drag , force D acting on the blade 1s parallel toc... PY? The resultant force R has components X and Y in the axial and ‘tangential’ directions respectively. Resolving forces, Ls Yoora, +X sing, ° D = Xeosa, +¥ sing, wo With constant ¢, the axlal force acting on one biade is X= @-p)) a) ‘The tangential force acting on one blade is, trom the momentum equation, 2 : ¥ = ps yo#ey,) = ose, "tana, tana.) w) where p is a mean density through the cascade. With the ‘incompressible’ flow sprains (or simplicity, p, = p+ pe? ten me eal pressure los acros the cascade is, Tenia - OP, * PorPon = Py-Pp #7 ele, -c2) Se PLT Py = OP, 9 15 ey) ”iin ‘Two-dimensional cascades 23 ‘Substituting eqn. (v) into eqn. (iti), sr tilalitie 2 X= sap, +} pc, (seca, - sec” ay)s tan? a,)s Tiahieg = 54p,+4 6, (ane, > = 8A, +p sc7 una, can wo After using eqns. (v) and (i) im eqns. (i) and (i follows that D = 8p, cose, L = pee? atc o,, (an ey +tane,) +54, sing, With me detinitions C, = L/($ 6,7 pand C, = D/(bpc, 26), 1 + M/E) C08 a, (en 9, +4a,) +Cy tan og (el) Cp = o/t) cos a, Lar Moeg)] iy The blade load ratfo, ean. of. 2 Bee eee eereeeea (415 53) Vp + He/b) 0087 a, (tan, ten 9,) Accascade ext he tow angle 6 las tan te bade out angle af by the amount of he deviation, 5 = 655-15 = O4eeg At cascade Inlet the blade angle flow angle a, { is zero, the flow incidence is zero so that the ‘Thus, with a, = 0, the space/chord ratio is s/t WML Ys/o) = (/L)-yz/sin 20, (82/45)0.85/sin(2 x 64°) = 767 From the velocity tangles, ¢, =e,c08a, = ¢,, cosa, thenc,, =c, cds a,/eos ty Mane, + Etna, Thus, eg =#8.71%" Usa this expression i eg. (vil) the drag coetfietent becomes ~Py S.L. DIXON a 4 Cp = (6/6) cos o (=) D ‘im\T 7 TPS = W/L) A cos, feos” 0, = 0.767 x 0.035 x eos" 45.71°/c0s? 64° 478, From eqn, (vii) the lift coetfictent can now be calculated Cy = 2% 0.767 x cos 45.719 x tan 64° +0,0476 x tan 45.71° - = 2,196-+0.049 = 2.245 NB. Ina turbine cascade with o> 0, the drag slightly increases the lift which is the converse of what occurs in a compressor cascade. e 2.8. Acomprestor cascade it be designed forthe flowing cones: Nomi ld eae ete = eg cascade camber angle + Goaee pty stor at m+ 10 Using Howell's curves and his formula for nominal deviation, determine the nominal incidence, the actual deviation for an incidence of +2.7 deg and the approximate lift cocffictenr at this incidence, Solution. The nominal deviation angle, eqn. (3.38) is wn gt = move) where, from eqn. (3.402), the coefficient m is me 0.25(28/4)" + 3° /500 Assuming a circular arc camber line, a/£ = 0.5, and m = 0.23430/500 = 0,29 . $1 = 0.29% 90x1 = 8,7 deg. Referring to the notation given in the sketch, the blade angles are,‘Two-dimensional cascades 2s af = at = gt = 50-87 = 21.3 deg af = af +0 = 21.3430 = 51.3 deg ‘The nominal Now inlet angle can be obtained trom the tangent difference approni= mation, eqn. (3.38), or less precisely from Fig. 3.46, A wnat = ane? +155/L141.56/0)] = tan 3041.55/2.5 = 1,197 = 50.43 degand e* = aj -a,* = 20.13 deg ‘The nominal incidence is $0.13 51.3 © -LI7deg - For i =2.7 deg, (i-i*)/e* = Oy By20.13 = 96. From Howell's curve of relative deflection €/e* against relative incidence (i Nye, Fig. 497, the value of Efe" 21.15. Hence, the actual deflection & = 1.15 x 20,13 =23.18 deg. The ‘actual inlet Now angle is a, 17S] F4=51.9+2.7 254 deg, The actual autet ow angle is ay = "2787 € #54 ~ 23.15 = 30.85 deg, Thus, the actual deviation angle for an incidence of 2.7 deg, is sar ay = 90.85 - 21,3 = 9.58 deg ‘The approximate lift coefficient, eqn. (3.17), 1s1. rrr 26 S.L, DIXON Cy, = As/L) e089, (ana, -tn a) where it Is assumed that Cp 1s negligible. The mean Gow angle is 1 He ° 4. tana, = Flame, tuna.) = 5 (an54°+tan 30.88) = 0.9868 14, = 44.62 deg 2, = 2x cos 44. 62° (an 54° - tan 30,85°) = 109 ~ "St. A compressor cascade ts bull with blades of clrcular arg camber line, @ space/chord ratlo of 1.1 and blade angles of 49 and 21 deg at inlet and outlet, Test Speen om he cscade one nt ac ince =) ein e § =8.2 deg and the total pressure loss coefficient = Ap MG pe) = 0.015 ositive ineidence over a limited range (0 < 1 < 6°) the variation ofboth § ant for this particular cascade can be represented with sufficient accuracy by linear approximations, viz. At $ = 0.06, % 0,001 where { s in degrees. For a flow incidence of 5.0 deg determine © @) the dow angles at inlet and outlet: Gi) the dittuser efficiency of the cascade; - (Ui) the static pressure rise of alr with a velocity $0 m/s normal to the plane of the cascade, e Assume the density of alr is 1.2 kg/m? Solution. () Atzero incidence, 1 0, the deviation §= §, = 8.2 deg and che total Pressure loss coetlicient G= = 0.015. Ati=s deg. 7 = Sy #065/eN = 8.2+0,00x5 = 8.5 dag a Saco 0.015 +0,001x5 = 0.02 ‘The flow angles at 5 deg incidence areTwo-dimensional cascades 27 Fay +i = 4845 = S3deg +6 = M485 = 29,5 dog (i) The compressor cascade decelerates the Mow between inlet and outlet and the efficiency of the process, assuming incompressible flow, can be expressed by the iffuser efficiency, eqn. op. Tp = ©,-P WE Fee, 6) L 2 1 7 Pa “PL™ Pop “Poi *2AG) “E2) * ~ APG +z ale, 62, then - debe? -e2)] ALF rept ~ e080, feos"a,)) = 2 5a ~ 20s", /e08",) - 1 where Be bez ee,) and ¢, 08 a, = ¢, 08 a) 2, ae used, Substituting values for a,, a, and 2, Jp = 1 ~0.02/0 - cos”53°/eos” 29. = 0.962 (iii) The static pressure rise is 202 2 P27Py = Jp Py rezV2 = Ipc, eee” a, ~sec7a,y/2 3.5.) A cascade of compressor blades is to be designed to give an outlet air angle 2 0f 30 deg for an inlet air angle a, of $0 deg measured from the normal to the plane of the cascade. The blades are to have a parabolic are camber line with a/k =0.4 (i.e. the fractional distance along the chord to the point of maximum camber). Determine the space/chord ratio and blade outlet angle if the cascade is to operate at zero incidence and nominal conditions. You may assume the linear 2-45.bS.L. DKON appraximetion for nominal deflection of Howell's cascade correlation: £1 = (06 -0.2 0396 5/2) deg as well as the formula for nominal deviation: o [omy od] Fn are in part (a) above, Determine the lift coefficient when the incidence of the flow is Bodog, Assume tc there isa ear relatonahi between €/e* and (L-1V/e+ In this region take cy 0.02, : Solution, (a) As the cascade is designed to operate at the ‘nominal’ condition, then the als angles given are also the nominal flow angles, i.¢, 0, =a ay =a; = 30 deg, Thus, the nominal deflection is (1 =50 deg and et = at rat = (06-0.20213 - 0/2) = 20Geg "20 = (16-0,2x 30X3 - s/£) = 10(3 ~ s/z) The nominal deviation ts ; y, S™* [0.250204)" + a /s00] a¢6/2) = [0.25 x0,64+30/s00 Ja = 0.20720 As the incidence is zero the blade inlet angle a,’ =a," =S0 deg, The nominal deflection is used again to solve for the blade camber, i.e. & = fo ft of vay “gt = 0-5" = OC -0,2072) © = 20/(1 ~0,2072) = 25.2 deg Hence, the blade outler angle is obtained from a Jot af +8 = 50-25.2 = 24.8 dog (©) The change toa smaller space/chord ratio will affect the nominal deviation and4 ‘Two-dimenstonal cascades 29 nominal flow outlet angles. The new nominal deviation is St = (0.23% 0.64 +0,7/500) 25.2(0.8) = 4.318 +0,04508a" ‘and the new nominal outlet angle is obtained from f= aft BF = 4.843.918 +0.04508 a S * 28,12/0,9549 = 29.45 deg ‘The new nominal deflection is € = (16 =0.2x 29.45)(3 + 0.8) = 22.24 deg ‘Thus, the corresponding nominal inlet angle is Fay + et = 29.45+22.26 = 51.69 deg and the nominal incidence is obtained, wee, = $1.69 -50 = 1.69 deg ‘The Linear relationship between.deflection and {acidence {s in the form, eet =k = KG "ye which satisfies che initial condition, i.e, € = €* when i= (ai)/e* =0.2, the value of k is found to be 0.75. ‘Aluid deflection is . With €/e¢ = 1.15 at ‘Thus, att =2deg, the actual © = £*+0,75(f-1") = 22.2440.75 (2 1.69) = 22.47 deg ‘The actual outlet angle is Fire = 5042-2247 = 29.53 deg ‘The Lift coet#icient is determined using eqn. (3.18), Cy, = Heit) cos a, (ana, -ane,)-Cy tine, ane, =H = ean 52? neg, + Hane, tune) = Nan s2? an 29.58%)| I | 30 S.L. DIXON $(2.200 +0.5668) = 0.9252 42.71 deg and cosa = 0.7349 2 x 0.8 x 0,7348 (1.280 - 0.5665) = 0.02 x 0.9232 = 0,820 3.6 4) Show athe presure ise cota 6, = 4n/d pe ate compresee catee i sisted to te soer fies yoand te nal peavure los coon 3 by the following expressisns: 3p 7 Tpit ~ se0%ay/seca,) 1 =(e0c a, + J y/s00o, seep = anrlboe? ed B= Ap dec.) 91, 0, = flow angles at cascede inlet and outlet. @) Determine a suitable maximum inlet ow angle of a compressor cascade having 8 space/chord ratlo 0.8 and ay = 30 deg when che dttsion factor Dz is iimited to 0,6, The definition of dttsion factor which should be sed is the ‘erly Lieblem formula, a= (3A te (6) The stagnation pressure loss derived from flow measurements on the above cascade ig 149 Pa when the inet velocity ¢ is 100 m/s at an air density p of L.2kg/m®, Determine the values of @) pressure rise; (i) dittuser etticieney; (UU) drag and lift coetticients, Solution. (@) The loss in toxal pressure across a compreseor cascade due to irreversible processes is, for an incompressible ow, Ap, ef) = Lig? Pou Pon ~ @y~Pa)+ zAley ~e,) Pada eles (aan a, ~ tan o,) | the oo cop areN.B. This version of the diffusion factor was not quoted in the parent book but was cbiained from the chapter “Experimental Flow in Two-dimensional Cascades” by S.Lieblein in “Aerodynamic Design of Axial-flow Compressors”, NASA SP-36 , | | | | (1965). | 1 i- a ‘Dwoedimenstonal cascades 3t era 2. = -ap+ foes [t -ey/ey] where Op =p, ~p,, is the static pressure rise across the cascade. With ¢, 08 a) constant -ap/Chpe) + (1 ~c0s"a,eos"0,) 1 = appre, ) = 608" 1/08 oy pee, 1+ Teorey = c09a,/c0s"e, 1 = ($4s0c70,)/see7 a) : ® hE etinon ot eeteser ecteney dp = Fee? 2.) 75 eo, = gpl fre) = ott -secPa,feeee,) () For a compressor cascade of specified geometry the diffusion factor Dj. increases rapidly with increasing inlet flow angle as the positive stall “pont” is 6 substituted in the Lieblein approached. With e, #30 deg, s/ = 0.8 and Dy, formula:~ 0.6 = 1 ~c08 9/0.866+ 0.4(0n 0, = 0.5774 cosa) y Putting: x = cosa, (x7)? = sino, and rearranging, : , 300.066-40,42 0.5774) = 0.41 +(x) 7] (B,464x = ye = rex? is 1ax? = 6.9241 = 1 ‘Thus, the maximum inlet Dow angle (I.e. for positive stall) to give a diffusion factor Dp = 0.6 is - = 87.8 4 (©) With c, =¢, cosa, = 100 x cos $7.8 53.29 m/s, the total pressure loss coefficient is immediately found, i.e32 S.L, DIXON Ss deythoe) = usd iexss.2s% « 000s Using eqn. (i), = (0.0875 + sec?30°}/sec?57,8° 1 = (0.0875 + 1.3333) x 0.53297 = 0.5965 The pressure rise is, 7 1 202 “ AP = Pp-Py = FC, ec)” = Fx0,5965 x 1.2% 10 = 3.579 wa From eqn. (i) the dittuser ettctency is, a Ip = Sp/tt ~ 6087e, feos*a,) = 0.5965/(1 - 0,53297/0,866%) = 0.5965/0,6213 = 9.96 The drag coctticient is detied, eqns. (3.160) and (2.47), a8 Sp 7 PAregt) = 2ap,coss,/thoc,% ) . SUs/l)eos*o, where Fano, taney) = Hans7.8°+ean0%) « 1.0827 ey 47.27 deg = 0.0875 x 0.8.x cos?47,27° 9.0219 ‘The lift coettictent ts defined for a compressor cascade, eqn. (3.18), as C1, * Mere )eos ofan a, - 06.) -Cy tang, = 2x 0.8.x cos 47.27°(tan $7.8° ~ tan 30°) - 0.0219 x"1.0827 = 1.0972 - 0.0237 velocity( wey?! NN 3.7 (@) A setof circular arc fan blades, camber @ = 8 deg., are to be tested in a cascade wind tunnel at a space/chord ratio, s/1 =1.5, with a stagger angle § = 68 deg. Using McKeenzie’s method of correlation and assuming optimum conditions at an axial velocity ratio of unity, obtain values for the air inlet and outlet angles. (o) Assuming the values of the derived air angles are correct and that the cascade has an effective lift/drag ratio of 18, determine @ the coefficient of lift of the blades Gi) the efficiency of the cascade (treating it as a diffuser). Solution. (2) The mean flow angle a, is determined with eqn (3.42) when § = 68 deg. tan a, = tan § + 0.213 = 2.688 = 69.59 deg. For a circular arc camber line with 6 = 8 deg., the blade angles are given by :- a = 45-72 deg Atthe.optimum efficiency condition, transposing eqn (3.44), we obtain the ideal static pressure rise coefficient, viz. 1s Gy = 0567 ~ 55 — 0.4008Hl i | 1 From eqn (3.43), % 284 (16, a conat (1-C,F = 0.7744 ‘The deviation angle 6 is found using McKenzie’ result, eqn (3.41), = (1.1 +0318 Xs /)3 = 4.098 deg. Oy ay 8 = 64 44.098 » 68.1 deg, 0s a 00s cf, = 0.373 = 0.2889 a, = 2321 deg, (b) From eqn (3.18) the lift coefficient can be determined, ie. GQ -2t cos @, (tan a, - tan @)- Cptai a, tana, = i tan a, + tana,)= 2.901 J. Gi, 70.98 deg./ O47 G.=2 x 15 x 008 70.98" (tan 73.21° - tan 68.1") - = tan 70.98° oka” NN Cy = 0.8085 - 0.1611 C, “9.8085 C= Ter = 0,696 ‘The aerodynamic efficiency of the cascade can be calculated from eqn (3:26), 2G Mo" '~G, sin 2a, seo 18 sin 70.98°Chapter 4 Axial Flow Turbines 8 passages. rotor blade showing the coolin; (courtesy of Rolls-Royce plc) Cooled turbineChapter 4 Axial Flow Turbines 4.1. Show, fox an axial Sow turbine stage, that the relative stagnation enthalpy across the rotor row does not change. Draw an enthalpy-entropy diagram for the stage labelling all salient points, Stage reaction for a turbine is defined as the ratio of the static enthalpy drop in the rotor to that in the stage, Derive expressions for the reaction in terms of the flow angles and draw velocity eriangles for reactions of zero, 0.5 and 1.0, Solution, It is assumed that the axial velocity chrough che stage is constant, i.e. Sqr 8x2 = gg 7 + that the absolute velocity at inlet to the stage ¢, equals the ‘absolute velociny at outlet ¢, and that the flow is adiabatic. Referring to the velocity diagram, Fig. 4.1, and enthalpy-entropy diagram, Fig. 4.2, the specific ‘work done by the stage, which causes the specific stagnation enthalpy of the Guid to decrease, eqn. (4.2), is AW en ohyg * Ue yp Fey.) © As the nozzle flow is adiabatic and the nozzle does no work, then ba * Bop aw From the velocity triangles, using the Cosine Rule, 2 2 p= Ute. = 2c, costir/2~2. re) Pos UP seg ~ nue, cou(n/ata,) = Utes + te, Uv) + Wey, wd Subtracting eqn. (lit) from ean. (iv) and re-arranging, . * 2a stig) eae eeeie () Combining eons. (3, () and, Aotng at my =n ge wy + bedeed 5 seaeral Ueyg +eyQ) 2 Fle ie 12 = thy hy) + Fey| 34 S.L. DIXON Braitt! Ly? x Shyt gw) = ayedwd wy ‘The Kelative stagnation enthalpy is detined ash, 4, =h +Lw? and eqn. (1) howe fat 1 is equal at inlet and outlet of the turbine rotor from which itis deduced that it ‘ust be constant through the rotor, ‘The stage reaction, eq, (4.17), is R= thy -hg)/th, =hy) 7 MyrBsdrgy =hgs) oting that ¢, =, for a "normal" stage. After substituting for (, “h5) from ean, @) and (hy ~hy) trom eqn. (vi), (vty ‘The numerator is factorised as follows, 22 ae 2,02 MEME GeO 6,2) # OH5- yale + Mya) AE Mg + My2 = Sy teyy, OOD. (vi) reduces to Re (ys -My IQ) = (ran py -tanp,)e /2U) (witty Alternatively, with w,, =U +e, trom the velocity diagram, 5 1 Re Utes = QU = 3 + (an mran Bc, A2U) (ex) aad, with w= ya R= QU Fey, =e IQ) * I Hfanay-tan ade M20) 6) The velocity and simplified Moller diagrams forthe three resctions R = 0, 0.8 and 1.0 for azbitrary but constant values of flow coeiticient ¢ (and stage loading factor (6,+¢,,}/U are shown below. (0 RAO, can (ni) gues 8, 2B, hence w, = wy and hy =hy.Axial flow turbines k a1 (i) R=0.5, ean. (ix) gives a * & hence ¢5 = Wy, a. chy thy ohy a ; 4 Wea, 2% 0 parsons’ ceactionsusbine the ror blades are similar to he a Fy Le ‘but With the angles measured in the opposite direction, The efflux angle relative to each row of blades is 70 deg from the axial direction, the exit velocity of steam from the stator blades is 160 m/s, the blade speed is 152.5 m/s and the axial velocity is constant, Determine the specific work done by the steam per stage. A turbine of 607% internal efticiency"consists of ten such stages ae described above and receives steam from the stop valve at 1.5 MPa and 300°C, Determine, with the aid of a Moliter chart, the condition of the steam at outlet from the last stage. A| Oty B owas peg 4.2. (@) An axial flow turbine operating with an overall stagnation pressure of 8 to 1 os has a polytropic efficiency of 0.85. Determine the total-to-total efficiency of the turbine. (®) If the exhaust Mach number of the turbine is 0.3, determine the total-to-static efficiency. (©) If, in addition, the exhaust velocity of the turbine is 160 m/s, determine the inlet total temperature, Assume for the gas that G, =1.175 ki/(kg K) and R= 0.287 ki/(kg K). ‘Solution. (a) For an incremental pressure change dp the corresponding isentropic and actual enthalpy changes for a perfect gas are, 1 dp why -l) ene ad dhon,dh, "DART py Rearranging the above we get, EG tH) ® f-(h,2 which, after integrating over a finite pressure ratio p,/ p,, becomes ayfr-tN 4 (2) a Ne ‘With stagnation conditions under consideration, the total-to-total efficiency is ny o-tNr 1 (tu) (Da) wtanty VA) Pa) es eee tole if (‘e} 1-[2e fy Pu) > Evaluating the constant needed, y = 1/{1- R/C,) = 1/(1~0.287/1.175) = 1.323. Thus, a 0.2441. Hence, with 9, = 0.85 and p, = 8, we get1-0.6495 The ~ T6019 0.8804 (©) We now employ the expression given in the solution Ex. 42 for evaluating the total-to-static efficiency, viz,, mh and a similar expression for the total-to-total efficiency, viz., My ae ce el] Equating for Ah, in the last two equations and rearranging we obtain: yn) ee" at e5 1 With = 7 h + 0 ~1)M;1°") then upon substituting the values M, = 0.3, y = 1.323, we determine the value for - = 1.0609. Hence, s (©) The expressions for the Mach number M , = c,/a, and the static enthalpy 2 y= OF, «RR ca wecombined give eee (y-1MG‘Substituting the values, c,.~ 160 m/s, M, = 0.3 and y = 1.323, then we obtain h , = 880.6 ki/kg. AsO, fig, = fy +46) = 880.6 + (1607 /2) x 10? = 893.4 kivkg. By rearranging the equation for 7, used in part (b) above we get: fos a {Bos | = 1 - 0.8804 (1 - 0,6019) = 0.6495 hg Vlad | o1 = 893.4 / 0.6495 = 1375.5 ki/kg. = hy/C, = 1375.5 /1.175 = 1170.6 K 4,3. The mean blade radi ofthe rotor ofa mixed flow turbine are 03 m at inlet and 0.1 mat outlet. The rotor rotates at 20,000 rev/min and the turbine is required to produce 430 KW. The flow velocity at nozzle ext is 700 mis and the flow direction is 2t 70° to the meridional plane. Determine the absolute and relative flow angles and the absolute exit velocity if the gas, flow is 1 kp/s and the velocity of the through flow is constant through the rotor. ‘The sketch Fig.(1) shows the components of the flow at inlet to and outlet from the rotor in the meridional plane. The through flow velocity is constant $0 that C,2 = Cas» whereGag = Cy 008. = 700 x cos 70° » 239-4 m/s Tr séRt, Fry: @) ‘At N =20,000 rev/min, 2 = 2094.4 rad/s, r, = 0.3 so that U, = Qr, = 628.3 mis; aol and with r = then U, =2094 mis. TLrveert Fig. (2) —> Considering the inlet velocity triangle, Fig. (2, -_ G8in cy _ 700 x sin 70" 628.3 | tan B, = SERS A 6 ‘a? o By = 102 deg, Wy = Gqq [008 B, = 239.4 /008 7.02 = 241.2 m/s insesT Fuy.(3) —_> Using Buler’s turbine equation and referring to the velocity diagram at outlet from the rotor, Fig. (3), we have: = Usegr + Uses _ 430,000 - 628.3 x 700 x sin 70 =19.8 mis 209.4 ca} = tan *(q,/c,3) = 18.44 deg. Again, referring to the outlet velocity triangle,The absolute exit velocity ¢, = ¢,,/cosa., = 252.4 m/s and the relative exit velocity W, = 6,5 /cosf, =375.3 mis In this eel} flow. turbine the flow: Pees a Sghificant Change in radiuié across the pee lores ‘work output than woufa be obtained font afurbine with a purely two- -cimiensional flow. Its instructive ete determine by how much the work output is iaflleeeday ihe ceiee ads To dothis: somere-vorking of the tothalpy equation is needed. Using eqn (2.128), viz, 1 tehste- +30 - Ue =h +e +¢')-Uc, where c, = e,? +6, isthe meridional velocity. Adding & subtracting zu to the rhs of the expression for I , we obtain Tahs3lg- Of eel -0']From the velocity triangle, c, - U = w,, and so the above expression becomes: Taha d(w- UP )aswt =e ‘As we assume that the rothalpy is constant across the rotor from station 2to station 3, (see the cautionary remarks under the heading Conservation of Rothalpy, Ch. 7), then (ws - 2 AW, « 3(0? U3) +(e -6 zo ‘The contributions of each term on the ths of the above expression are: Hut ~ Uj) = =(628.7 - 209.47) = 175.5 Kirke, be: $04 -¥)- S153 241.2") = 41.35 bike 3) = 4 (700? ~ 252.4) = 2132 ese“The sum of the values of these terms equals 430 ki/kg in agreement with the given value of AW, It is seen that the contribution to the work output of the rotor due to the mixed flow effect is very significant (over 40 per cent of the total). |36 S.L, DIXON © Solution. The velocity diagram for the stage can be readily constructed from the dat supplied and the specific work obtained from a scale drawing or, more accurately, by caleulation, It will be noticed that as the efflue angle relative to 8,“ P, = 70 deg, the velocity triangles are similar and the reaction is 50 per cent. The specific work per stage is each blade row is equal, 4 OW = Ue. +65) Solving for the unknown swirl velocities using the usual sign convention Syq 2 Sia, = 160 sin 705 = 180.4 m/s Sys 7 Wz 8in8,-U =e, sine, -U + io4-128 = 2am 2) AW = 152.5(150.¢ - 2,1) . 2 Ki /kg Ths ses rater ih adsl he ep ding se Ye OUP © Gygetyg/ = ue.snses ~ oss Artin wit ose sage tn at soe Wil proce suie wk ot 226.2 k]/kg and this is equal to the change tn stagnation enthelpy of the steam gg “Nop between turbine inlet (A) and curbine exhaust (B), i.e. bg oRyg = 226.2 Kiseg Reis Implied that the “internal” etticfency is the total to tocal efficiency, defined as Fee = Og -hy/hgy = ‘oBs) 226,2/0.8 = 282.8 ki/eg ‘oA ~ Mops From steam ables or Males char at py = 1.8 MPa (S bs) and 7 = 300% aq * 3089 417%g Sg = 3089 - 226.2 = 2812.8 K/kgAtal flow turbines 37 Iggy = 2756.2 K/h ‘The less laborious method of determining the exhaust steam condition is by plotting these specific enthalpies on a large scale Mollfer chart for steamy From sucha plot the exhaust steam condition is Pog = 420.kPa (4.2 bar); 2, Top = 1c A.e. the steam is still superheated ac exhaust, e byS 4e2. Values of pressure (kPa) measured at various stations of a zero-reaction gas | | | turbine stage, all at the mean blade height, are shown in the table given below. ee, Stagnation pressure Static pressure Nozzle enry 414 Nozzle exit 207 Nozzle exit 400 Roter exit 200 ‘The mean blade speed is 291 m/s, inlet stagnation tempersture 1100 K, and the Dow angle at nozzle exit is 70° measured from the axial direction. Aseuming the magnitude and direction of the velocities at entry and exit of the stage are the same, and the axial velocity remains ceastant, determine the total to total efficiency of the otage, Assume a perfect gas with G = 148 kd/(kg °C) and y = 1.933, Solution, The total to total efficiency of a turbine stage is defined, in the usual notation, as With e) =e, this can be rewritten as eee)38 S.L. DIXON CMe PEN TM 39] with the perfect gas assumption, In order to determine the efficiency of the stage the velocity diagram must first be solved, ‘The stage reaction is defined as R = Qh, | so that zero reaction means hy equals hy. The relative stagnation enthalpy A928 + hw? is rt 12 constant in the rote, then hy +h =hg+ hey and, therefore w, = Wy. exit ey must be determined to complete the velocity diagram. At rozele ext - Dy T Tya(P2/Po2) 0.2498 11100(207/200)' 2 933.1 K 26,(Tg-T) = 2x 1148(1100~993.1) = 383,200 The velocity at nozzle 619.1 m/s 119.1 cos 70° = 211.8 m/s Referring to the velocity diagram, ¢, =¢, cos a, P= 3 Gyq = Sp Sina, = 619.1 in 10 = 582.8 m/s I Myy 7 Sq 7 U7 S848 +I = 290.8 m/s ‘An important pont to note is hat Wy * my (¥y =W,). Thus, yg Hyg TU Myg TU = 2908-291 i = 0.2 m/s i.e, the ow leaving the stage is very nesrly axial in dicection with 2 small angle of swirl og = ean'(-0.2/211,8) = ~0.05 deg, Eifectively ¢, =e, =e, =211.8 m/s. ‘Thus, with T, = 7, = 993.1 K and T,, = T,) #1100K 2 ToT = Tye /00,) - 7, + 1100-- 211.87/(2 x 1148) - 993.1 = 7.40Axial flow turbines 39 70° ‘ 28 6191 m/s 21-8 evs U=231 m/s Using the isencropic relation between temperature and pressure Z (yy = es To13/Por) a = 100¢e00/419°°493 = si7.1 x 7 Tyas 7 9881 -917-1 = 16.0% ie Ag TM LateaT.e = 90.2% | Gol det. tna certain axial ow turbine stage the axial velocity ¢, 1s constant, The absolute velocities entering aad leaving the stage are inthe axial direction, Ifthe ow covtticiont «,/U is 0.6 and the gas leaves the stator blades at 68.2 deg trom the axial dicection, calcu () the stage loading factor, AW/U; (i) the flow angles relative tothe rotor blades: - (il) the degree of reaction; (ivy the total to total and total to static efficiencies, ‘The Soderberg loss correlation, eqn. (4.12) should be used. Solution, (@) The stage loading factor is ve AW? =e, /U, ase,4#0 = ©/U) wna, = 0,6x tan 68,2" = 1.50 (Gi) From the velocity dlagram 7 tan, = Use, = 1/0.6 = 1.667 59,04 deg. |40 S.L. DIXON tnB, = tna,-U/c, = 2.5-1.667 = 0.9395 By = 39.81 deg (ii) The stage reaction, eqn. (4.228), ts R = (anB, -anp,) 20) = 0,3(1.667- (io) The coal eo otal eftietency of anormal stage ©) =3) 5, Dee = Ma ~Bys/Mgy “Bozge) = o w/t why thy = [t+ 05-00, -rg) Referring to Fig. 4.2, the enthalpy difference hy, 4 usually simplified to hy ~hy efficiency. Nagar SUL 29 (hy “hy MT4/T,), With oa small oss inaccuracy ig determining Hi Tee = [EO yy hy rg, -29] : | coat ee oe ea MUM sa scl he ee cmt fy ta ‘Thus, te total to total efficiency becomes, eqn. (4.54),7 a 2 te = [ee BEES “ 2, { | Axial flow turbines | ‘The total to static etciency, defined as Fes = Mor “Bago, “Hye 1,2, = [1+ Oy -r50, +5 6,1/0 -h)) 4s used when the exhaust kinetic energy 3 useful inthe form, dey is wasted. This efficiency is most Sang Beal) i = fig ROS Tne 8 e "hs [; Wy Bs) | The enthalpy loss coefficients can be expressed, eqn. (4.12), i in terms of the fluid deflection & (eg) of each blade zow, that Is, J = 0,06 [1 +1.5¢4/100)"] Where, for the nozzle, &= Ey = a, +e, = 68.2 deg (i.e. a, =0) and, for the rotor Tow, E= &, =P, +8, = 59. 31 +5906 =98, 85 deg. Thus, Sw 06791 and J Jig + 909868 atter using the above equation, | 2 2 | ofag Tate at Syste’ ey ee Ie 0 Rare = fir 2.09863, 25144? + 0.06791, 0.37147 7 Hi ' Te 2570.6 [ess] Dee = 90.6% From eqn. (W), with ey =e ee * [2+ 0.265 wes] sag(ty) 4.7. Amaxial flow gas turbine stage develops 336 MW at a mass flow rate of 27.2. kg/s. [tthe stage entry the stagnation pressire and temperature sre 772 kPa and 727 ° Crespectively. The static pressure at ent from the nozale is 482 kPa and the comesponding absolute flow direction is 72°to the axial direction. Assuming the axial velocity is constant across the stage and the gas enters and leaves: the stage without any absolute swirl velocity, determine, (1) the nozzle exit velocity (2) the blade speed 3) the total-to-static efficiency (4) the stage reaction. ‘The Soderberg correlation for estimating blade row losses should be used. For the gas assume that C, = 1.148 ki/(kg K) and R = 0.287 ki/(kg K). Solution. (1) The velocity diagram for the stage is shown in Fig. (1) and the corresponding h-s diagram in Fig. (2). For the nozzle flow i Frge(t) 9 seer fie", 8 Chapt of huh, = $eh = th = Gtali-( 22)" Sebulioms jer Mamual \ of, (25)4 ; 1.148 x 10 b-() - 1.2753 x 10° Ike tye ttn St Oa wO"T 2 7 Tea” bh - 8h, . 2 27 . hy oe where £, is given ah,” 1+l/e Deed cedeereettt tee aoe 13(23)'| = 0.041415 x 0.72"]- 0.0711 AA, 1.2753 x 10° * 8hy -Tojogmi 7 Timo 846 Me ide Ah, ~ 5 hyy = 1.19065 x 10° oC, = 488 m/s (2) The specific work done is 7 6 awe ™% 3.36 x 10! = 123.5 Whkg see 2: AS gy = 0 then. AW = UG, = Ug, sina, AW sina Also the axial velocity is c, = ¢, cos a, = 488 x cos 72° 150.8 m/s (3) The fluid deflection in the rotor row is ey = B, +, where, from Fig. (1) tan py = a2. $88 « sin 72” - 266.1 7508 = 1.3128Y266 7648 tan Bs =~ 750.8 Hence, By = 52.7°, B, = 60.46° and ey = 113.16° f= 0.041415 x 1.13167] - 0.1168 whee y= Azhen 72 a ce gu gle +") 8 Fe = $150.8" + 266.14") x 0.1168 «5,466.8 1 1 Thus, n= ee * i. Disses 146 Aypue +5 hy +4e7)/ 00 1 1 Te" TE x 150.8 + 8465+ 5466)/123.53 x 10° ~ 1+0.2048 My = 0.830 (4) The stage reaction is most conveniently expressed by eqn (4.22c) Rats (tana - tan a,) = so that with a, =0,150.8 x tan72° eee af - ka Beat oG tan a 766.14 oRSEC EEE “ SL. DKON absolute velocities at inlet and outlet are not equal. A steam turbine stage of high hub/tip ratio Is to receive steam at a stagnation Pressure and temperature of 1.5 MPa and 325°C respectively, Ir is designed for a blade speed of 200 m/s and the following blade geometry was selected: Nozzies | Recor Inlet angle, deg ° rs Outlet angle, deg 70.0 | 36,25 Space/chord ratlo, s/t oar | - Blade length/axial chord ratio, H/o | 2.0 2a Max, thickness/blade chord 02 | o2 The deviation angle ofthe flow from the rotor row is imowm to be 3 deg on the evidence of cascade tests at the design condition, In the'absence of cascade data for the nozzle row, the designer estimated the deviation angle trom the approximation 0.1985 (0 where @ is the blade camber in degrees. Assuming the incidence onto the aozzles is zero, the incidence onto the rotor 1.04 deg and che axial velocity across the stage is constant, determine: a () the axial velocity: (i) the stage reaction and loading factor: (iit) the approximate total to total stage efficiency on the basis of Soderberg's loss correlation, assuming Reynolds number etfects can be igncred; Gv) by means of Inrge steam chart (Mollier diagram) the stagnation temperature and pressure at stage exit, Solution. ‘The total to total efficiency of a turbine stage, applicable to the case ¢ not equal toes, is 1 Dee = Pay “HygW/Mg, “Mozag) = AWAAW + "losses") = Ufa +05-%259/80] Employing the approximations 1, ~ and by, nase 7g “ggg eee tls assumes cy =e5.) * 1a "Mag5 = Pa “Agg? thenAxial flow turbines 4s Dee * MLL + Chg hg, ths -3.)/ OW] Defining the enthalpy loss coetfictemts, eqas. (4.82) and (4.8b), 2 2 SN =i. 2s "3 Me 25 SR ret [ieGudeheedveam]? G) The flow directions at inlet and exit of the nozzle and rotor blades are obtained from the blade angles with suitable corrections for the incidence i and deviation & of each blade row, At aczzle exit the deviation is Sy = 0.198 s/t = 0,19x70%0,42 = $.6 deg ‘Thus, the nozzle exit flow angle is 8) = Of - by = 7075.6 = O44 deg For the rotor, the relative flow exit angle is Bs = 8; -5_ = 5625-3 = 53,25 deg and the relative flow inlet angle is B= BL +1 = 4841.06 = 49.08 deg From the velocity diagram, U=c,(tan a, -tan ) therefore, & 7 ¢, = U/ftane,-tanp,), = 200/(tan 64.4 tan 49.04) = 23.9m/s . (ii) ‘The stage reaction ts defined, eqn. (4.222), as| 46 S.L. DIXON R = (,/2UKan, -1an 9.) : = (213.9/400y(an 53,25 - tan 49.04) | = (213.9/400)(1.3392 - 1.1520) 2.19 ‘The stage loading factor is We AWA = Wyse IMU = (/UMan By tean py = (1.152 +1,3392)218,9/200 ae = 22664 By? 93:25" UF 200 m/s (ut) The otal co ort eticieny of he stage fr the cts0 When cy 5 not eas toe te givenby ean. () above, The enthalpy toss coetticients for the norzle and zota a ‘78 evaluated using the analytical simplitication of Soderberg’ lose correlation, ear. (4-12), J* = 0.04 [1 +1.5¢€/100)") and making suitable corrcetions for blade aspect ratio in each case, 1 1 e For the norzle row, atthe nominal aspect rtio H/o = 3.0, Syi = 0.06 [141.520.6447] = 0.06488 ‘te Cow deSeccon inthe sors om, ey oy (ta, =O). Avaspect ratios other than the nominal, the enthalpy logs coetticte nt Sy, for nozzles van be found, eqn, (4.13), LT 2 + Jy'K0.999 40.021 7x = (2,06488)(0.993 +0,021/2) = 1.06861Axial flow turbines a A Sag = 0-06861 | For the rotor row, at H/b = 3.0, | wt 0.04 [1 #1.5 x 1.0257] = 0.1028 ' where the flow deflection in the rotor, &p “Py +8, 102.3 deg. The correction for the aspect ratio in the case of a rotor row, eqn. (4.138), is Ve Say = C+ Sq 0.978 + 0.075 B74) me = 1,1028(0.975 +0.075/2.1) = 1.1146 i 1 Sqy = 01S i ‘The quantities in eqn. (i) are evaluated separately for convenience, le, ' ! - seca, = sec os m/s cy +e, see a) 213.9 64.4 495.0 m/s shyed = cme case? + esx = 60H vy * Sg 806By = 213.9% 500 53.25" = 957.5 m/s : 2 2 Ban st ang LS qy MP = Oe1EEx 957.57 = 14.65 x10" mje" = 14.65 WA aw =p? = 2.664% 2007 © 106.8597 Using eas. (, 4 “1 Doe = [P+ Us 6 + 16,8702 x 108.6] © = 1.478 ieateos = ssh It (iv) At py #1.5 MPa (15 bar), T,, =925°C, the stagnation enthalpy at entry - gy “008. Rig is obtained (abies). Now | myn Megne = Fo Poser = Ay = 106.670.9715 = 122.3 K/h sass = 3093.5 - 122.3 = 2971.2 k]/kg Fi | PAVE Sere roe | gg + 3088.5 = 106,6 = 2986.9 K/ag i ity = 26% Take un 44 oe tee4.9 (a) A single stage axial-flow turbine isto be designed for zero reaction without any absolute swirl at rotor exit. At nozzle inlet the stagnation pressure and temperature of the gas are 424 kPa and 1100 K. The static pressure at the mean radius between the nozzle row and rotor entry is 217 kPa and the nozzle exit flow angle is 70°, ‘Sketch an appropriate Mollier diagram (ora T’- s diagram) for this stage allowing for the effects of losses and sketch the corresponding velocity diagram. Hence, using Soderberg’s correlation to calculate blade row losses, determine for the mean radius, (1) the nozzle exit velocity (2) the blade speed B) the total-to-static efficiency, (©) Verify for this turbine stage thatthe totl-to-total efficiency is given by: where 9 =c/U. Hence, determine the value of the total-to-total efficiency. Assume for the gas that C, = 1.15 ki(kg K) and y = 1.333, Solution. (a) Fig (1) shows a sketch of the Mollier diagram for this stage and Fig. (2) the corresponding velocity diagram, Now, considering the nozzle expansion, 2+ & and = 004 +1.5(z,/100} |= 0.0604 ts \" =93L.56K 1100 x (2 424, — i SERT fis. eteey “)ae ote Aa + ln Te), USHL10 -88158) 5 e799 ae 2 1g 1th 1.0694 : #:¢, = 601.9 mis (2) Considering the velocity diagram, 008 @, = 20586 m/sand cy =c, tan q =2U WU aye, tn = 2628 mis \WsEee Fag) —_> (3) The total-to-static efficiency is determined from the approximation, eqn (4.10a), From the velocity diagram, & -w(2) = 53.95" and f= fi so that & =107.9°, hence é oot 18 ]-2rosss h-hh = Rhy = (ty -ty) (ty h) = = Seu} = 2U" = 159,952 m?/s*a 4 0:10985. x 349.87 40.0694 601.9" + 205.867] ' ae 2 x 159,952 (b) The specific work done by the stage can be expressed of both %}, or 7, i.e. AW = 7,(Pay~ho)= Mable, = MalOh, -4e3) AW ti -1 pele Ag Sper setl uae The Me Ry PAW andas AW = Ucy, = 2U* and, as = a ao = 0.7279, then Heed -{ 205.86, y Wy 0.198 \2 x 2828 ws may = 0.8923 4.10 (a) Prove that the centrifugal stress at the root of an untapered blade attached to the drum of an axial-flow urbomachine is given by:= AR,N7A, 1800 where gy = density of blade material N = rotational speed of drum A, = area of the flow annulus, 2 (b) The preliminary design of an axial-flow gas turbine stage with stagnation conditions at stage entry of Pa, = 400 kPa, Ty, = 850 K, is to be based upon the following data applicable to the mean radius: ; Flow angle at nozzle exit, = 63.8 deg Reaction, R = 0.5 ' Flow coefficient, c/U,, = 0.6 Static pressure at stage exit, p, = 200 kPa Estimated total-to-static efficiency, 7, = 0.85. Assuming that the axial velocity is unchanged across the stage, determine (1) the specific work done by the gas (2) the blade speed @) the static temperature at stage exit. () The blade material has a density of 7,850 kg/m? and the maximum allowable | stress in the rotor blade is 120 MPa. Taking into account only the centrifugal stress, assuming untapered blades and constant axial velocity at all radii, determine for a i mean flow rate of 15 kg/s, () the rotor speed (rev/min)@) the mean diameter @) the hubltip radius ratio. For the gas assume that C,= 1050 Ji(kg K) and R = 287 Ji(kg K). ‘Solution, (2) For an element of blade length daz, = ~ Q* g, rdr, hence aR, 20 rd 2°? wr} )i2= Palo as A= a(n) 2 a ‘. a= a(Z) Ane » as Q= AN 130 (b) Fig. (1) shows the Mollier diagram for the stage and Fig. (2) the corresponding velocity diagram. For the overall pressure drop we find, INSERT Fran) +Q— =T{4\’ = (ey “ Ts (2) 855 703.3 K where 7 Ah, = C, (Tq ~ Toy ) = 1050{850 ~ 703.3) = 154, 000 = 154 kirkg As 7, = AW/AA, = 0.85 (given), then 7 OW = 130.9 idk| | | i ; (2) Considering the velocity diagram we can see that Af = U(2c, an @-U)=U"(2h en @ -1) a os o-( =) : (ee) = 301.6 m/s 2pran qi 2 x06 x 20823 - (3) The static temperature at stage exit can be determined from the enthalpy drop from point 01 to point 3: T= AIC, = (tes ~Feh)C, = Ta (the “4h VC, We need to determine the kinetic energy of the flow at exit, be? = ${¢? +3). Cg =C,tan %-U= 181 x tan 638° ~301.6 = 66.2.mis c, = PU =0.6 x 301.6 = 180.96 mis Upon substituting the derived values into the foregoing equation for T,, then (©) (1) From the equation proved in part (a) above, we obtain:yr = 800% FhoAy wae ME 2 MAD, _ 151% 287 7079 2° Ress Pls 2X 108 x 181 1800_x 120 x 10° % 7850 x 0.08419 60U _ 60 x 301.6 nN 1 x 10,200 (0,200 rev/min Q) Dy = ci echt OBE 54745 m (3) The blade length is H = “Sam,” am x 02824 moHl2 D-H _ 0.51735 _ pCa reen ile 5 845, ,+Hl2 D,+H 0.61225 4.11, The design of a single stage axial-flow turbine is to be based on constant axial velocity with axial discharge from the rotor blades directly to the atmosphere. ‘The following design values have been specified: Mass flow rate 16.0 kes Initial stagnation temperature, Ty, - 00K Initial stagnation pressure, p,, 230 kN/m? Density of blading'material, 4, 7850 kg/m? Maximum allowable centrifugal stress at blade root, 1.7 x 10° Nim? Nozzle profile loss coefficient, ¥, = (Pe)~Po2 M@o2-P:) 0.06 Taper factor for blade stressing, K : 0.75In addition the following may be assumed: Atmospheric pressure, p, 102 kPa Ratio of specific heats, 7 1.333 Specific heat at constant pressure, Cy 1150 Ji¢kg K) In the design calculations values of the parameters at the mean radius are as follows: ‘Stage loading coefficient, y= AW/U? 12 Flow coefficient, ¢6 = ¢/U 035 Isentropic velocity ratio, Ulcy 0.61 where cy, = V2, -fyss)) Determine, (1) the velocity triangles at the mean radius (2) the required annulus area (based on the density at the mean radius) (3) the maximum allowable rotational speed (4) the blade tip speed and the hubltip radius ratio, Solution, (1) With the isentropic velocity c, defined above and the given data a 20.2498 and R = C,(p=1)/ p= 1150 x 0.2498 = 2873 Ike2 x 1150 x 1100 x (1-0.44348°*) = 682 m/s Hence, U = 0.61 x 682= 416 m/s, AW =Ucg =1.2 x U* os gp = 1.2U = 499.2 mis, c, = $U =1456 mis, c = 520 m/s From this derived data the velocity diagram for the stage may be constructed as shown, in Fig(1). Incseat Fig.) ———> (2) The annulus area is determined from the equation of continuity, m = 434,¢,, and, to find 9, we need to determine p, and T', Pe (: <5] hence 520° 00 2 x 1150 x1100) vr-Pit = 1 +0.06 x (1 ~ 0.63604) Pa 02184 as = Be Pay, 983604 Pa Pa,” 1.02184 230 = 143.16 kPa' a a | @ | 2 T,=T, = = 1100 52071(2% 1150) «982.4 A m 16 A AL 05073 1456 0.2166 m? (3) Eqn (4.306) is used to determine the maximum speed of rotation “h-6)] which can be converted into a more useful form as follows. als BEAL pytKs, 1800 as Q= 2 NI3O R iF é 2 yi e 800% 1800 x 1.7 x10! 30.7688 x 10° WAKA, x 7850 x 0.15 x 0.2166 N= 8,740 revimin (or 2 = 915.2 rad/s) (4) The mean radius, 1, = a ==> = 0.4545 m0.2166 Th hei a Ae — 0216 __ 9, blade height, H = 5 = 559 0.07585 m Hence, the tip radius, 7 = 7, +H'/2= 0.49243 m +. The blade tip speed, U, = Qr, = 450.7 mis : 2a, 2*1.7%10% From above, || =1-—“5; =1- "= ‘rom above, (4) aa 095 nase 70716 7h = 0846Chapter 5 Axial Flow Compressors i ‘ Section of the compression system of the RB211 gas turbine engine. (courtesy of Rolls-Royce plc).8 Chapter 5 Axial Flow Compressors L Note, In problems 5,1 to 5.4 assume that the gas constant R = 287 J/(kg°C) and that yale 5.1. An axial ow compressor is required to deliver 50 kg/s of air at a stagnation Pressure of $00 kPa. Ar inlet to the first stage the stagnation pressure is 100 kPa and the stagnation temperatixe is 23°C, The hub and tip diameters at this location are 0.496 m and 0,728 m, At the mean radius, which is constant through all stages of the compresscr, the reaction is 0,50 and the absolute air angle at stator exit is 28.8 deg for all stages. The speed of the rotor ts 8000 rev/min, Determine the number of similar stages needed assuming that the polytropic effictency is 0,89 and that the axial velocity at the mean radius is constant through the stages and equal to 1.05 times the average axial velocity, Solution, The sumber of stages is determined from the stagnation tempexature rise Per stage AT,, obtained from the specitic work done equation and velocity diagram, sod Ste overall stagnation tempersire rise through the compressor, Tay = Tq, Obtained from the overall stagnation pressixe ratio, pyg/p,,, together with the olytropic etiefency, ,. The number of identical compressor stages, n, is obtained to the nearest integer from 22 @y-Tyvar, © ‘The specitic work done by the rotor on the air, eqn. (8.1), is AW shah * CAT, UG), -6) « Referring to the mean radius velocity diagram and noticing the velocity triangles are Symmetrical fora zesction of 0.5 (he. By Sy" y, = U = Be, taney and, fom eqn. (ii)Axial ow compressors “49 A AT, = WUU-26, an a/c, au) “The average axial velocity , 1s obtained from equation of continuity, t= p AZ, the density being determined with the incompressible Dow approximation Pgh =Pai/RTQ))- Thus, = Pg MRT gy) = 105087 x 298) = 1.27 kg/m? $8¥E0g1 Fy 4.91 4x sof x 1.177(0.728" - 0.496)] Po : = 159.1 m/s ‘The axial velocity at the mean radius is eg 1 10S E, = 167.1 m/s ‘The mean blade speed is U = TN /60 = TN, +4,,1/220 = 17x 8000(0,436+0.728)/120 = 243.8 m/s Mesa radius velocity diagram U=243-8 m/s + Polysropie efticiency for a small compressor stage is defined, eqn. (2.31), a3 = ch, /4n = vép/e, aT = (y~1)Ta Br Bgl p/C, AT = (y “ITE ypat) ster using the perfect gas celtions, py =RT andC,= yR/(y=I). = T = constant x pY™/Y Ip &) As the stages are similar with idedtical velocities, stagnetion conditions can be used—— 50 S.L, DIXON inegn. (iv). Thus, across the whole compressor, “1 TealTea = OsgfPay = 518.5 x0.89) SE = sus a = 1.6764 LT yy *Toy * 0.6764 x 296 va 17 an He 200,2°c 7 From eqn, (il) Or, = 243.0(203.8 - 2 167.1 e x tan 28.8°) = 14.87% : Using eqn. (1) R= 200.2/14.87 = 13,74 1 The number of stages required is 1 5.2,_ Derive an expression for the degree of reaction of an axial compressor stage ‘@ terms of the flow angles relative to the-rotor and the flow coettictent, Daca obtained from esrly cascade tests suggested that the Limit of efficient werking of an axial-low compressor stage occurred when ( a relative Mach number of 0.7 onto the rotor ts reached; (ii) the Now coetticient is 0.5; i i) the relative Bow angle at rotor outlet 1s 30 deg measuced from the axial e dicectio: (iv) the stage reaction is 50%, Find the limiting stagnation temperature rise which would be obtained i the first Stage of an axial compressor working under the above conditions and compressing aiz at an inlet stagnation temperature of 289K, Assume the axial velocity is constant across the stage. Solution, The degree of reaction of snana flow compressor stage is defined as the = —‘Axial ow compressors SL ' Statle enthalpy rise in the rotor divided by the static eathalpy rise in the stage, i.e, R= (hy -hy)/ts-hy) © AS the relative stagnation enthalpy is constant in the rotor, thea Assuming a normal stage (Lie. ¢, =¢3), then a Bag Ba 2 AW = Uy 2 ‘yw ‘Substituting into eqn. (1) R= ww h7 20, -¢,.)] yt HyyNyy “Wy 0)/ [20,9 -6,,)] a where it is assumed thet c, 1s constant across the stage. From the velocity ‘langles for the compressor stage, ¢,=U-w,, and c,,=U-w,. so that ya Sy 7 yi Myr Skmplifying ean. (4), R= (wt, M/W = Gans, ttn 8.1/2 «a where the flow coeiticfene = c,/U. ‘The data given in the problem enables the velocity diagram shape to be drawn wr oe immediately, The magnitudes of the velocity vectors must be calculated from the ‘aformation concerning maximum relative Mach number. From the velocity 0.5), with ¢ rapid increase in total pressure losses as stalls approached, ~ The assumption regarding constant flow angle relative to each blade zow would also {fall to hold as stall implies flow separation off the blade suction surface, 5.6, The proposed design of a compressor rotor blade row is for 59 blades with a ctreular are camber line, Ax the mean radius of 0.254 m the blades are specified with a camber of 30 deg, a stagger of 40 deg and a chord length of 30 mm. Determine, using Howell's corseletion method, the nominal outlet angle, the nominal deviation and the nominal inlet angle, The eangeat dtfereace approximation, Proposed by Howell for nominal conditions (0 A =1(0.237- 0.17) = 0.13477 m? and the axial velocity ¢, = QA =2.5/0.13477 = 18.55 m/s. From eqn (5.37), blade efficiency is: pe BPs, hence cy = 325 _ 14M = pUey, a ger O8xL2xIRTr or\ | Radial position Root Aon Angle, @, (deg) 33.79 (b) From egn (2.45 b) «+. Overall increase in static pressure, Ap = p,~ p, = 467.2 Pa Velocity at diffuser exit, cy = c [Ap = 18.55/2'5 = 7.42 mis 5.10. The rotational speed of a four-bladed axial-flow fan is 2900 rev/min. At the mean radius of 16.5 cm the rotor blades operate at C, = 0.8 with C, = 0.045. The inlet guide vanes produce a flow angle of 20° to the axial direction and the axial velocity through the stage is constant at 20 mis. PGFor the mean radius, determine (1) the rotor relative flow angles (2) the stage efficiency (3) the rotor static pressure increase (A) the size of the blade chord needed for this duty. lu (1) Atthe mean radius the blade speed U = 0, = 303.7 x 0.165 = 50.11 mvs Q==N =3037 radis, where 30 103. s, INSERT Fxg.) From tan (Dy Cy =¢, tan @& = 20x tan 20° = 7.279 ms ,_ Uren : tan fj = —*" «2.8695 and so ff = 710.79 dex. Z = 2.505 and so 68.24 deg. (2) From eqn (5.402), : 47+. p=3.22 deg. and {2, = 69.59 deg. Oe [im (959-322)-3 12220" 0.8396 (3) From eqns (5.37) and (538), l 1 i = Pa = RCAT +5 Hey = ,,UC, +> Hy = os au + $1) = 1.2 «7.279 ( 0.8396 x 50.11 + 45x 7.279) = 399.3 Pa (4) Eqn (5:36) gives p, - p,= ; pe oj 24-2 s/ cos* ff cos y" 1 2 2 hence, £ 4&2) 08"/4 cos F _ 399301216 0.9984 _ 4 5 s Faekc, sin(- 7) ~ 06x400x08 x0.9162 | | Ass= 2m = 0.2592 then the blade chord 1 = 0,07144 m_ (7.144 cm) ' 5.11. A diffuser is fitted to the axial fan in the previous problem which has an efficiency of 70 per cent and an area ratio of 2.4, Assuming that the flow at entry to pethe diffuser is uniform and axial in direction, and the losses in the entry section and the guide vanes are negligible, determine (1) the static pressure rise and the pressure recovery factor of the diffuser (2) the loss in total pressure in the diffuser (3) the overall efficiency of the fan and diffuser. Solution, (1) From eqn (2.456) the diffuser efficiency is: Be clas w= decaf A] = 0.6 x 400 «0.7 x (1-125 The pressure recovery factor of the diffuser is _fa-p) tr | a tye? ~ 0.6.x 400 O58 (2) From eqn (2.56), we get C, = ¢,, -22 4%: 7| | «bpp = (C,1-C, bas = (0.84-0.588)240 = 60.48 Pa (3) The overall efficiency of the fan and the diffuser is: where 5A py = sum of the total pressure losses = (1-7 AW + diffuser losses ig ei-|t- Bose.| [yy = y -SPoae 8 -[¢ ByAW + ie uw 1 where AW = C,AT, = Uc,, = 50.11 7.279 =364.8m°/s* 60.48 wtp = 0.8396 - ————= = 0.7014 9 = 0886-7 3648 ploChapter 6 Three-dimensional Flows in Axial Turbomachines (a) Cross-channel flow (b) Corner vortex Secondary Flow resulting from Boundary Layer on the Annulus Wallscs Chapter 6 ‘Three-dimensional Flows in Axial Turbomachines 6.1. Derive the radial equilibrium equation for an incompressible Guid lowing with axisymmetric swirl through an annular duct. Atr leaves the inlet guide vanes of an axis dow compressor in radial equilibrium ‘nd with a free-vortex tangential velocity distribution, The absolute static pressure and static temperature atthe hub, radius 0,3 m, are 94.5 KPa and 293 K respectively, At the casing, radius 0.4 m, the absolute static prescure ts 96,5 kPa. Calculate the flow angles at exit from the vanes at the hub and casing when the inlet sbeolute stagnation pressure ts 101.3 kPa, Assume the fluid to be taviseid and incompress- thle, (Take R = 0,267 kI/{kg°C) for air.) wae an FMT Solution. A detailed derivation ofthe radial equilibrium equecion Ja-poeed Cio. PIER and so only a brief outline of the important equations (for en incompressible fow) is given here. For a fluid element which is in radial equilibrium (c, = 0), rotating about an axis at radius T with a tangential velocity component cq, the static pressure gradient is 2 a 7 PF 0 ‘The total pressure p, in an incompressible fluid dow is 12 1 2 ptzee = pt tole ee) sy 2 Zee, oq where ¢, 1s the axial component of the velocity c, Differentiating eqn, (18) with Fespect to r and combining the result with eqn. (1), the required form of the radial equilibrium equation is found, viz., 2 ae, eG sxe 1 %E ¢ 4 Steg) way oe a ‘The inlet guide vanes ofthe ava How compressor dedect the incoming aia How vay trom the meridional plane imparting a fee-vocteesvicl to the New. Fos 2 feee-vortex, rep *K ‘onstant, Substituting for ¢g in eqn. (1),‘Three-dimenstonal flows 6 2 oe _ x g. 5 ww, [After integrating eqn. (() and porting limits at the hub and tip, 2 1 ea ac P (& in o) ‘The boundary values given are that at Fer, = 0.4m, p= p, = 96.5478, and at . Fos 4,5 0.3m, pp, + 45k, TT, = 293K, é te ae et cae ©, Py) ee o aag MSI Hot “18 70,37 ~1/0.47) ead e fp -1/62) . 2 reg = 27.06m°/s “Thus, for any radius x the maguitude ofc, can be found. To determine the How angles, c, 18 needed and mis can be found with eqn, (ti, og = 2,-pI/e- Ki = 2(101,3 - 94,5) x 10° /1.124 = 732.1/0.3" 3965 = 62.97 m/s = constant for all radii oe « ‘oh. 27,06 e, * @arxo3 * beet ee 27.06 e une * o> * areog = LOM ‘Thus, the flow angles at the hub and tip are, respectively, oy, = $8.08, a, = 47.08 6.2. A gas turbine stage has an initial absolute pressure of 350 kPa and aEee ese aa cece eee een eee sts. | 66 S.L. DIXON temperature of S65°C with negligible initial velocity, At the mean radius, 0.36 m, conditions are as follows: Nozzle exit flow angle 68 deg Nozzle exit absolute static pressure 207 kPa Stage reaction 02 Determine the ow coefficient and stage losding factor at the mean radius and the reaction at che bub, radius 0.31 m, at the design speed of 8000 rev/min, given that the stage is to havea free vortex swirl at ths speed. You may assume that losses are absent, Comment upon the results you obtain. (Take ©, = 1.148 KI/tkg°c) aad y = 1.33) : Sclution, Sufficient data are given to solve the mean radius velocity triangles from which the flow coefficient and stage loading factors are obtained, Atr =z, =0.36m, a) = 68 deg, p, 207 ¥Pa, R=0.2, T,, = 7, = 938 K and Por “Pop 350 kPa, assuming adiabatic frictionless nozzle flow, Since 12 Bea" Betae2, = 20, 9°T) - z ry 25,7 [eyes] > 2x 1148 x 638 [2 « (207/350)°48] = 95.51 x 104 484.9 m/s ‘The mean blade speed is U,, = QN/60}r,, = (2 x 8000/60)0,36° = 301.6 m/s Hence, the mean flow coefficlent is Foy 7 &[Uq = 69 008 e9/U,, 2 = 484.9 x cos 68°/301.6 : 0.6023 ‘The stage reaction is defined az?‘Three-dimensional ows - @ eo feazegtCeemaes RrvBs Poa =Pas 2 Aypthgchythy —«, 90% ‘oi Pog "Pat hy 2 “¢3 o2"%o3 Leg = Le 27s L - © Toa “Pag Were) ~~ At the mean radius, = QU UR) = 2x 301.6%0.8 = 482.6 m/s, se) sine, = 484.9x sin 68 = 449.6 m/s = 33.0 m/s ‘The stage loading factor ar the mesn radius is 2 e Yn = AWG, = (ogy cgg)/U,, = (449.8 - 33)/301.6 1.381 From eqn, (i) above, the reaction ‘at any radius is R= 1 =) eg )/A2) where, for a tree-vortex, Sep *Ky/ty Ogg = Ky/r and the blade speed U= tr, Substituting for cg), cg, and U Un Re tester) Velocity triangles at mean radius Solving for k with R =0.2atr =z, Sane ny R= 1-0.8/t/r,,y ‘The reaction at the hub, x = 2 =0.31m, ts Ry 7 1 0.8/0.861' 29.0796 S.L. DIXON ‘The negative reaction would imply that diffusion of the flow occurs it the rotor row (ue. Ww, . Similarly, the far downstream axial velocity of the stator dise at r/r, = 0.7S'is the same as the fax ‘upstream axial velocity of the rotor disc and is labelled c,. The axial velocity for the second disc in isolation is L ye FS ( Seu Ft Scot) exPLrR- BYE, =I] (it) 3002 ~ Seo forx $8 , and 1 Se * Sxe0t 2x02 * Sxoo! ) exp [-1&- 8/6, -x,)) (wv) forx9S . Substituting vaues fF 61 Sop 4 Tye, ey 180-25 exp [29 te-8)/e,] . x <6 cz = 100425 exp [-2mG-5)/r,], x98 “The axial velocity variation for the two dises in combination appropriate to each region, from eqns, (6.48), (6,49) and (6.50) are, - ey, = 100425 [exp(2rrx/t,) - expl2mix-8/e)] . x <0 eg 2 180 - 25 fexp(-2mx/z) + exp 2mg-8)/x)) , 0 35 = inaseS = ips i GP ai0a) east bors : = BB oad = sana Wf 1B6qs RE pyAyc RT.) = a 10? x 0,1 x 30,5/(287 x 353.5) 186.95 + Sa880hg/s $6202, N34 S.L. DIXON ‘mum relative flow Mach number of 0.9 and an absolute Dow which is uniform and completely axia!, Determine the optimum speed of rotation for the condition of ‘maximum mass flow given that the mass flow rate is 4.536 kg/s, Also, determine the outside diameter of the eye and the ratio of axisl velocity blade speed at the eye Up. Figure 7.4 may be used to assist the calculations, Solution. The compressible flow relation between mass flow rate, speed of rotation and the flow parameters at the eye tip {s given by eqa. (7.11), 2 ng? My sin’a,, cos, 0.6598 x10" Bs Eh ee 1 +0.2M,," cos”, when y "1.4, R= 287 J/Cag°C), p, = 101.3 KPa and T,, = 288K, Now rather than using the appropriate curve in Fig. 7.4 to determine the maximum mass flow condition, greater accuracy is obtained by differentiating the RHS of the above equation with cespect of cos ad sertng te result to zero, Putting x = c08 By, M,, =0.9 and differentiating ete., the following equation is found, (1 +0,2622741 -3x) = 12967027) Bix! = 4.134x7 +1 = 0 Solving this quadratic equation, the only valid root is x? = 0.2846 “208 8, = 0.2546 = 0.5046 = 59,7 deg Hence, : = 9.729 x 10° x sin” 59.7°x cos 58.7°x 0.84 0.6598 x 4.536(1 + 0,162 x cos” 59.7)¢ = 6.547 x 10°(cad/s)? “2 = 2559 rad/s = 24,430 rev/min me From the equation of continuity, the rate of mass flew is oat ini 2 Ars THERES SyCenwrifugal compressors a5 | | where k=1- 0,47 =0,84 and p (ot che relatively high Mach number prevailing) is sought from compressible ow thecry. From the Inlet velocity triangle (see sketeh), War = Sx SPs Also My = W,y/y and My = 6/8) Us a LeMy = M,, cos Bg, = 0-9 0.5046 a = 0.4541 oo oy, “Thas, using the compressible flow relation, 1 1 2a 2 e Ty/T, = 14 FO -WM) + 140.2x 064541" = 1.0812 | cg Mya, = My fORT) : | 0.4541 (1.4 x 287 x 262/1,0812) /2 + sans el), 25 | cn Po T/T.) Pop 1/2. 0812) Pg1/3-106 | rs, 2 Tye I fe mek ey Poy Ry 2 ASSIA LI ay 0" i 47x 1,018 x 10° x 0.843 151.4 i 1 ae 1.45, = 202.4mm e ‘The ratio of axial velocity to blade ip speed atthe eye is 4 gy /Ug, 2 OB LS Hes Aa experimental cen comprestr iste wih tee-vertx guide anes in order to reduce the relative air speed at inlet to the impeller. At the outer radius of he eye, als leaving the gudesvanes has a velocity of 91.8 m/s at 20 deg tothe alaldizecton, Dewermine ee inlet relative Mach number, assuming frictionless flow vhzcugh the guide vanes, andthe impeller ‘oa ool etcleey.rr 86 S.L. DIXON ‘Other details of the compressor and its operating conditions are: Impeller entry tip diameter, 0.457 m Impeller exit fp diamter, 0.762 m Slip factor 0.9 Radial component of velocity at impeller exit, $3.4 m/s Rotational speed of impeller, 11,000 rev/min Static pressure at Impeller exit, 223 kPa (abs.) Solution, The inlet guide vanes reduce the inlet relative velocity w, by deflecting the absolute flow through an angle a,, producing a tangential velocity cg, in the same direction as the blade motion (see sketch of velocty triangle at inlet). The required © ceative vach number, which wil be greatest at the shroud, is defined as, Mie 7 "14 where, from the inlet velocity triangle 2 . rar = yy) tS = yRT, 1.2 : Te ty deve, = 208-3 x 91.57/1005 2 283.8K ; Sey = (4 287 x 283,02 = 337.7 m/s e@ ‘The inlet blade tip speed is Us, = Shx,, = 11000x (77/30) x 0,457/2 : = 263.2 m/s eq, =e, Sima, = 91,5x sin 20° ay * 6, Si = 31.3 m/s Bae cine i See [pss.2? «2 265.2% 31.3 49 ypCentrifuge] compressors 7 = 247.3 m/s Myo) 247-3/887.7 = 0.7324 rel ‘The impeller total to total eifleiency is (see Sol. Q.7.2) Oggfeg ho ag a Tool T or 4 | som ee 7th spcie wok Ta : QW = 00° Ty PRINTER , Ty To = 438.9 m/s (0.9 x 438.97 ~ 263,2.x 31.3)/(1005 x 268) 0.8708 ‘The impeller total pressure ratio is 1 e | ta ta, Ta | Por Pon Pp Pan T2 | wT = 1,2 | Now Top" T2472 /C, | 2 2402 | : sie =F 1-2 +e FL styMgy = 1-676, Ty) = blogg +e, MAC, Typ) i egg =U, =0.9 x 438.9 =395 m/s Tyg * 1.5704 x 268 = 452.3 K fT yf gq = 1 = 95? +53.471/(2 x 1005 x 452.3) = 08252 (yy = Tox POPs) : a Tote? 4 13.5 w= (5/0.82529¢2237/191.9"79°5 -1 0.5704 oe “Jalo #25. A contritugel compressor has an impeller with 21 vanes, which are radial at dD ekit, a vaneless diffuser and ng inlet guide vanes. At inlet the stagnation pressure| a8 S.L, DKON ts 100 kPa abs, and the stagnation temperature is 300 K. @) Given that the mass flow rate is 2.3 kg/s, the impeller tip speed 1s $00 m/s ‘and the mechanical efficiency is 96%, determine the driving power on the shaft. Use eqn. (7.18a) for the slip factor. (U) Determine the total and static pressures at diffuser exit when the velocity at that position is 100 m/s, The total to total efficiency is 82%. (ui) The reaction, which may be defined as for an axial flow compressor by eqn. .10b), is 0.5, the absolute flow speed at impeller entry is 150 m/s and the diffuser ‘ efficiency Is 84%, Determine the total and static pressures, ebsolute Mach number and radial component of velocity at the impeller exit, E iv) Determine the total-to-total efficiency for the impeller. e@ () Bstimate the inlet/outlet radius ratio for the diffuser assuming the ‘conservation of angular momentum. (i) Find a sultable rotational speed for the impeller given an impeller tip width of 6mm. Solution, (i) For a radial vaned impeller, =O and the slip factor (eqa, 7.184) ia @, = 10,637/21 = 0.9087 MelIm = 095” Posen i Ps 2 2 yg Bap £ Upcgy = OU = 0.9087 x 5007 = 226.6 iI/ig ‘The shatt power, P : LP = 2.3% 226,4/0.96 = 542 7 (18) ‘The total to total efficiency of the censrifugel compressor is Bases” Boy g Tot Tegae/ To 2 e@ eae Ngeedetarecy aero ra) G-D/y Tose (2a) ; Te Pou Bes elite , ope fpeeiggestis 53.5 ] vy) _ fisCentrifugal compressors 89 om Tg 63/@C,) viel) wy f-eJeng] e Neg 7 aa" Bar) tor i = aetna score | 57.94 a sobs [2 -u0e?/axs2.792100]° = 510.9 ee 2 Py (Gul) At impeller exit the absoluce Mach number M, = ¢2/8, where the speed of sound a, = /((-h,}. The enthalpy hy and velocity ep ere evaluated as follows, From the definition of reaction R= (hy~hy)/(b,-hy) = 0.5 and ose rane a nyety # hagety tbe? ee = [22st 2aas nn] xt = 2.7 L a = Foz hy) = 116.4 Ki/kg = @,-k = : x10° = Gyr Fe emye my = OLS = 11.25 +116,4) x 10 = 406.7 Ki/kg e eB + Hg-hy) Hee hs = af 9h M = 2f226.4 4301.5 - 406.7] x10° = raax1 — — ‘Thus, M, Wy yt ewes sen)? = 120 22b°G + O0Sx 300 “The dittuser efficiency is defined (ogaJ0}. 28 rirmlarly te eqn (2-45- A)90 S.L. DIXON “1 TT my [ego gO =} i yh, [: ce ag why, ] ie [rto.texns.en0e.]°5 « a.a26 509/226 = 244.1 18 wy) yi(y-1) ; (ay age sa Faas rad From the impeller tip velocity triangle, eeteee tet 2 = $2 "Sop 3 anal 242.4 x 10° » (0.9057 x 500y 193.2 2 2 ey + (0, U,) 22 (iy) For the impeller, the total to total efficiency is “1 ~ east _ tala 9-1] 4 2 Boa Ban Bag Ma 4 178.5 301.5(6,082 0.899 ~1/226.4 (¥) Assuming angular momentum is conserved, req = constant, and 2 aie gees eerste 08 5 * aguy Tweresao * 2.2208 (W!) The angular velocity of the impeller is L = U,/@tz,). The impeller tip +Adlus ls found trom the equation of continuity, * PyAgSzyy Where A, =2r9by, ‘and the equation of state, Thus,Centrifugal compressors a op he SMe? PRT, OB) 406.7 x 10" QR = Uyoybye, afin = 500 x 2,101 x 0.006 x 193.2/2.3 2.201 kg/m? = 529.5 rev/s = 31,770 rev/min ET age censiuga pr is used to ralse water aginsca uae Bat of 18.0 m, ‘The suction and delivery pipes, both 0.15 m diameter, have respectively, friction head losses amounting to 2,5 and 7.5 times the dynamic head. The impeller, which ottes at 1450 rev/min, is 0,25 m diameter with 6 vanes, radius ratio 0.45, inelined backwards at B = 60 deg. The axial width of the impeller is designed so as to give constant radial velocity at all radii and ts 20 mm at impeller exit, Assuming an hydraulleefticiency of 0.62 and an overall efficiency of 0.72, determine (@ the volume flow rate; Gi) the slip factor using Busemann's method; (Wy) the power required to drive the pump. Solution. (i) The actual head H which is delivered by the pump is defined as the difference in head measured between the outlet and inlet Qanges of the pump. It is equal to the static head H,, defined as the difference in level berween the two open Feservotrs, plus all external head losses. The external losses comprise the friction losses in che suction and delivery pipes together with the kinetic energy e Ieaving the delivery pipe. Thus, | (Gi) the impeller vane inlet angle required for zero incidence angle; | Hos HL +Q.2547.5 4197/08) | | where the average velocity in the pipes, both of diemeter d, is € = sQyend?) = sQyimrx 0.15%) = 56.59 m/s He 18 + 10.75 x (56.59Q)"/19.62 = 18 +1755Q? m Now the ideal head H, = U,cyo/g and the hydraulic efficiency of the pump is defined asa 2 S.L. DIKON Hl ogH My" eS Pega zi = gH i Ule The Busenaan lp tacos 9 voed im mon pump design cleats, i »/ > Fenlteg 7 A= BP, an 8/9, can Bs) where A and B are constants determined by the geometry ofa particular pump, ay 4s the impeller vane outer angle and 9, =c.,/U,. The vane tip speed Uy Is Uy = TFND,/60 = Tx 1450 x 0.25/60 = 18.98 m/s By = QMMD,b, UL) = sQvtrx 0.02 x 18.98) = 3.351 Va For this pump the radius sat r,/r, = 2.222 is sutietently lage (.e.> exponentia Gm cos Py It)= = be found by merpolating trom te graph og shown, which wes obtained trom Fig. ae : Thus, 308 = 60 deg and Z = 8 the value of (0.918 with suticent accuracy. Atter ~ — Abettucion et hy A z U,' (0.818 - 1.732 9,) +481, see eqn, 7.17c) for Bo be assumed equal to unity and A can os o7 H. = 9,0," (0.818 - 3.351 x1.732Q)/g 38+1755Q? = 0.82 x 18.98% (0.818 - 5,804Q)/9.81 6 ¢ ° 6 8 Blode number, Z After simplifying, z a? +0,09969 -0 00378 = yi i Ceneritugal compressors 2.Q = 0.02982 m°/s = 29.32 am'/s 93 (U) With the volumetric flow rate solved the Busemann slip factor is easily obtained, Now 9, = 3.351 x 0.0293 = 0,09825 sh Oy = (0.818 ~ 0.09825 x 1.732)/(1 - 0.09625 x 1.732) = 0,6478/0.8298 = 0.7807 (it) The fmpetier vane inlet angle f for zero fow incidence is obtained smn SA el, * Galley = Byyfey = 0.09825/0.45 0.2183, a5 c,1 “6,26, for ths pump, Thus, A = 77.68 dog (Gv) The power required is Ws fp 7 PQaty, » gH F175 V>—, é = 29.32 9.81 x 19,81/0.72 = 7.794 kW Peer Sle7.8. A centrifugal pump delivers 50 dm */s of water at an impeller speed of 1,450 revimin. The impeller has 8 vanes inclined backwards to the direction of rotation with an angle at the tip of 8,’ = 60°. The diameter of the impeller is twice the diameter of the shroud at inlet and the magnitude of the radial component of velocity at impeller exit is equal to that of the axial component of velocity at the inlet, The impeller entry is designed for the optimum flow condition to resist cavitation (see eqn (7.8)), has a radius ratio of 0.35 and the blade shape corresponds to a well tested design giving a cavitation coefficient 0 = 0.3. ‘Assuming that the hydraulic efficiency is 70 per cent and the mechanical efficiency is 90 per cent, determine (1) the diameter of the inlet (2) the net positive suction head (3) the impeller slip factor using Wiesner's formula (4) the head developed by the pump (5) the power input. Also calculate values for slip factor using the equations of Stodola and Busemann, comparing the answers obtained with the result found from Wiesner’s equation. ‘Solution. (1) At the optimum design condition to resist the.onset of cavitation, eqns (7.8 2), (7.8 d) and (7.8 c) were derived, i.e, a | @ [2 ** lea) )| | i Ak © o,(1 +o)" é aa Usingean @), 6= GE =( Uy = ry = N 5,/30 = 10.717 ms and ¢,, = 0.3397 x 10.717 = 3.641 ms 2 pat-(20) = 1-035? = 08775 Val 2 a [ee = 0,0706 As Qe krics then tao VE Vinx O8TTS x aoa OTS ™ ©. Theinlet diameter d , = 14,12 em (2) From eqn (b) above the net positive suction head at the optimum condition is: 15x03 Fe 9.81 (0.5 x 10.727) = 2.635 m (@) To determine the values of the various slip factors we use : 64 @-S2- a. U, ~ 2x0,” 2x 7a = 0.17 and , = 60°‘The Wiesner slip factor, eqn (7.19 b), is: sfeoshi 0.7072 ow = 17a Hence the mass flow rate is found: me x0.8775 x 1.2098 x 340.2 x 0.45463 z 3373S ~ 56 kole iy Tht ig,(rhs) ge (0) The specific work done on the air is: 2 AW Urey ~ Ulm = 003 ~ Ue where ¢y, = ¢ sin a, == 200.32 x sin 20° = 68.51 m/s andU, = QR, = 3335 «0.16 = 539.76 m/s AW = 0.9 x 539.767 - 337.35 x 68.51 = 239,095 Ske, Pa mAW = 1254 MW By combining eqns (7-21) and (7.22) an expression for determining the pressure ratio of the impeller is obtained, viz. P naw)? 990729,055)" Pa eeor| (+ Toosx26e ) 7 S222Chapter 8 Radial Flow Turbines Scroll > 1 Nozzle blades ——. 4 Oifluser Layout of a 90 deg. Inward Flow Radial TurbineChapter 8 Radial Flow Turbines 8.1. A small inward fow radial gas turbine, comprising a ring of nozzle blades, @ radial vaned impeller and an axial diffuser, operates at Its design point with a toval to total efficiency of 0.90. At turbine entry the stagnation pressure and temperature of the gas is 400 kPa’and 1,140 X. The flow leaving the turbine is diffused to ¢ pressure of 100 kPa end hes negligible final velocity. Given that the flow is Just choked at nozzle exit, determine the impeller peripheral speed and the flow outler angle trom the nozzles. For the gas assume y = 1,333 and R = 287 J/(kg°C). Solution, shows 2 meridional section of 2 90 deg inward ow radial turbine and citfuSer together with the design point Velocity triangles at rotor intet and rotor outlet, At this condition the relative velocity w, at rotor inlet is in the radial direction and at rotor outlet the absolute velocity ¢, is in the axis] direction (i.e, €g2 =U, and cg, = 0). Thus, the specitic work, eqn. (8.4), 45 AW = heh ‘ot ” Pos ~ Uy - Ua%95 * Referring to the simplified Mollier diagram shown below, the total to total efficiency of the combined turbine stage and diffuser is d= a, ) Pee * Por ~ Pagar = ‘ol ‘otss + BT Tosa] Boao Moses? After transposing and substituting for the isentropic temperature T.,__/T., in terms 7 = otss/Tol of the pressure ratio,Radial Cow turbines 98 pe : yy o2 * pae%a [= Cada se = 0,9 1149 x 1140 [1 = (200/400)°"7499} = 1.179 105 = 0,7073) = 0.3481 x 10° Hence, the blade tip speed is U, = 587.4 m/s. 2 ‘At nozzle exit the absolute fow Mach number is M, * €,/8, = (Ufa) coser a, @ In eqn. (i) the valves of both a, and a, are tuninown and another condition must be used to solve the flow angle a,. Across the nozzle the stagnation enthalpy remains constant, {0 Bar * Mee 162 eee: = 0,1, +50; = C,T) +5 U, easee” a, After rearranging, Ly cosee? Ty/Tyy 2 1- F Uy cosee” aC, Ty) 1 2 : = 1+ FOU, fa,” cosec” ay ww weere Gy Ty = WAT YAY = ayy-) Using eqn. (i) 2 2 a TyfTyy 7 yay)? = Uz cosee” ay/0Mya,,)? « Cees eta ay a i sna, = Oyryn Grn] 7 Substituting values, y y Ms a, = ORT) 2 = (1.339 x 267 x 140) /?NE eee ee 96 S.L. DIXON = 660.4 m/s 1 ss sin ag + (587.4/860.4) (140.1665) ”2 0.3007 2 Hence, the nozzle flow outlet angle is a, = 73.88 8.2, ‘The mass flow rate of gas through the turbine given in Problem 8.1 is 3.1 kg/s, the ratio of the impeller axial width/impeller tip radius (b,/,) is 0.1 and the nozzle Isentropic velocity retio (J) is 0.96, Assuming that the space between nozzle exit and impeller entry is negligible and ignoring the effects of blade blockage, determine: () the static pressure and static temperature at nozzle exit: (4) the impeller tip diameter and rotational speed: (iil) che power crancmitted assuming a mechanical efficiency of 93.5%, Solution, (i) The static cemperature T, at nozzle exit can be obtained immediately trom either eqn, (i) or eqn. (Lil) In the solution of Problem 8.1. Using eqn. (iit), i? 1140 $87.47 /(660.4 x 0.9607)" 2K 2 = Ty, U/M, a, sin ‘The static pressure p, at noztle exit may be found using the nozzle isentropic velocity ratio, eqn. (8.17), ' a * Alt a5 - i to determine the isentropic erature ratio as follows e the emo ompeatre 2 T/T 8 lows 4 : 2 wi 4 hy Bye = T8257 8 ca ha Hp = Moy BoM Oy Mag) * Toy THVT - Tad After some rearranging, TylToy = Ga Ty/T y/9y = 1 ~~ 977.2/1140)/0,96 = 0.8450 PyfPy * Tyg/Te IO 0.8454 = 0.5096Radial Now turbines 2. Py, = 0-5096 x 400 (i) Applying che equation of continuity at nozzle exit ms eyAaesg where, from the design point velocity triangle, Seq 7 Uz cet ay 2 and the flow area is AD 2ar by. Hence, using the gas law, BAT; UR Gy 3.1267 x 977.2 x an 79.66% 2b, Uy) garx 208.8 x 10° x $87.4 0.1 = 0.05999 Lt, 7 0.20m ‘The impeller tip diameter is 40 em. ‘The speed of rotation is N S0U,firD,) = 60x $87. 4/(r x 0-4) 7 28, 050 rev/min (ii) The power transmitted taking into account the mechanical losses is ‘ - 2 eee. Wet 7m AW = 7 rnUy = 0,995 x 3.1.x 587.4 = 1,000 ew 8.3, A radia carbine is proposed as the gus expansion element ofa nuclear powered Brayton cycle space power system. ‘The pressure and temperature conditions through the stage at the design point are to be as follows: Upstream of nozzles, p,, = 699KPL, Tay = 16145 Ki 527.2 8a, T, = 1,029.% Nozzle exit, Pyi | { | 98 S.L. DKON Rotor exit, Py = 384.7 ka, Ty = 9S K, Ty = 924.7K. ‘The ratio of zotor exit meaa diameter to rotor inle tip diameter is chosen as 0.49 and the required rotational speed as 24,000 rev/min. Assuming the relative Gow at rotor inlet is radial and the absolute flow at rotor exit is axial, determine: () tte total to static efficiency of the curbine: (6) the roter diameter: : (GU) the imptied enthalpy loss coetticients for the nozzles and rotor row. ‘The gas employed ia this cycle is a micture of helium and xenon with a molecular Weight of 39,94 and a ratio of specific heats of 8/3, The Universal gas constant is, Ry = 8.314 kI/Ckg-mol K), Solution. () The toa to state efficiency ofa radia How eaxbine is defined, ega. @.6, a8 Pes ~ May hygl/Moy ~ Mgcg) = OTTO = Ty Tap) a fs =s yD = Tei [2 = O50] a srarniesy/[t 80789994] 1 ~ 0,8076)/@1 - 0.7875) = 0.9084 (i) At the design condition the relative flow at rotor inlet is radial and, trom the ‘Velocity triangle (Fig, 8.3), cy =U. As the absclute flow at rotor exit ie axis], ‘€g3 = 0, and the specific work AW = u?, *u, = hyn yg # CAT) T9) “oO ‘The Universal gas constant R, = Rm where m is the molecular ‘weight’ of the gus mixture, Thus, Rom Rom = 8314/39.94 = 208.2 J/(kg°C) ©, = YR y-3) = 2.5% 208.2 = 520.5 I/lkg°C) 520.5 (1145 - 924.7) = 1147x108Radial flow turbines 99 = 338.6 m/s Hence, the rotor tp diameter 1s D, = GOU,/TED + 60x SBBL6/(rrx 2.4% 104) = 0.2694m (ui) The enthalpy toss coetficien forthe nozzles, eqn. (8.16), 1s determined as follows: : e tn 12 (hog PggMCy eg) = Fy ToT "TD Fra OpsPF op For] on “7 Dy Pra TeiPalPad Ta FP {ozs = 1148 627.27699)°"4] ans - 102) (402s - 1022.8) /2148 ~ 1025) = 90,0536 “The enthlpy loss coefficient for the rotor is defined, eqn. (8.20), as gr The enthalpy loss h, hy, is determined using the epecitied static pressures and ee hy JAG M5) a) _ temperatures, “4, * 2 =c,[t,- (repr sg 2 SyLFa- Tela] + Sp[Fa Tele} e = 520.5 [ou.s - 10290684.7/827.2"*] = 3,831 ig From the rotor exit velocity Biangle aeciaa : ws efrus fe) and? : ience, gftz) andes 2ST 3 ‘T,). Hence, 2 a ag? foe 26,05 T)* Up yly) Substinting for U7 using eqn, (i, the relative kinetc energy at Toter exit is, Panbe 2 lara Hevesi 7] weal K Ae Y [pe * Gene Peal ga" | Phe) ] Fe Fape/Fon = M9” Top? | tee |) = alee A] | 100 $.L. DIXON «= sao.s[ 924.7 914.8 +24 0.s?as -904.9 ] = 19.07 R/kg Substituting these vaiues into eqn. (Ii), Bq = 3.801/19.07 = 90,2009 8.4. A film-cooled radial inflow turbine is to be used in a high performance open ~ Brayton cycle gas turbine, The roter is made of @ material able to withstand a Temperature of 1145 K at a tip speed of 600 m/s for short periods of operation. ie Cooling air is supplied by the compressor which operates at a stagnation pressure | Fatlo of 4 to 1, with an adiabatic effictency of 80%, when air is admitted to the | compressor ata stagnation temperature of 68 K. Assuming that the effectiveness ‘of che film cooling is 0.30 and the cooling air temperature at turbine entry is the same as that at compressor exit, determine the meximum permissible gas temperature at entry to the nurbine, ‘Take y =1.4 for the air, Take y = 1.33 for the ges entering the turbine. Aseume R = 287 J/(kg K) in both cases, Solusion. The sketch shows a Brayton gus turbine cycle {m the form of Mollier diagram. The compressor raises the stagnation pressure of the air from p,, t0 Pop St am adiabatic (otal to tol) efticleney i, of 0.80. From the definition of efictency, eqn. (38h bh caret Hence, the actual stagnation tinperature at compressor exlt is, Fon 7 Tea [t+ (Oni -2) My] =u fhe 89 120a {@) Thejet velocity is eves by: gasJ2x9.81*120 247.79 mis c= Kite = ae, =047 447.19 = 22.46 mis the blade speed is: U pat = EBB osst5m 92.15 a ee FXODICE . 9.0758 aes a= [% feas Coe As Q= 2ate, wD 2 643 d 9.2.(a) Water is to be supplied to the Pelton “west of a nydrceetric power Plant bya pipe surface is 200 m vertically of uniform diameter, 400m long, from a reservoir whose S me flow of water to the Pelton wheel is 30 mls. ouzles. The required volu ction toss is not to exce above the 1 2d 10% of the available head and { = 0.0075, If the pipe skin fri determine the minimum PIPE diameter. from the available range of suitable pipe diameter ) available are: 1.6, You are required to select en, The range of diameters (2) to satisfy the criteria 21" 4, 2.6, 2.8. For the diamet (b) stock size: 1.8, 2.0, 2.2.2 er you have selected, determine (a the friction nead loss in the PPE (2) the nozzle exit velocity assuming no friction osses occur in the nozzle and the water feaves the nozzie at atmospheric pressure(3) the total power developed by the turbine assuming that its efficiency is 75% (based upon the energy available at turbine inlet). Solution. (a) Using eqn (9.6) with the pipe flow velocity, V = 40/( 7d") 2 ono? hy = 22 rence a » 22 Va 2), afsye a 2 x30" aq te 2EO0075 40030" «44 oy 9.81 x(#7/ 4¥ x20 od =2.138m (b) (1) Choosing ¢ =2.2 m from the available stock sizes, the pipe flow velocity is: 4x30 V=QlA= = 7.892 mis # ‘ = 2fv? 2.x. 0,0075 x 400 x 7.892? ga 981x2. (2) The available head, h, = 200 - 17.32 = 182.68 m, the corresponding velocity is: V = J2gh, = 59.87 m/s (3) The power developed is,| | P= nymgh, = Osh, = 0.75%30 x10? x9.81 x 182.68 = 40.3 x 10° oP =.40.3MW 9.3. A multi-jet Pelton turbine with a wheel 1.47 m diameter, operates under an effective head of 200 m at nozzle inlet and uses 4 m°/s of water. Tests have proved that the wheel efficiency is 88 per cent and the velocity coefficient of each nozzle is 0.99. ‘Assuming that the turbine operates at a blade speed to jet speed ratio of 0.47, determine (1) the wheel rotational speed (2) the power output and the power specific speed (G) the bucket friction coefficient given that the relative flow is deflected 165° (4) the required number of nozzles if the ratio of the jet diameter to mean diameter of the wheel is limited to 2 maximum value of 0.113. Solution. (1) The jet velocity is: V, = Cyf2gH, = 0.9902 x9.81%200 = 62 mis and the blade speed is: Us Qr=QDI2= = 29.147 mis Q = 2U/D = 2x29.147/1.47 = 39.66 rad/s N= 378.7 reviminuy (2) The power is P = 0gQH, = 0.88% 9810 x4 200 = 6,906,240 906 MW os fa aff . ka} 39.66% 6906 (eH, (9:81%200)* ay (3) From eqn (9.4), the runner efficiency is: ye = DIK HAL eos £ e088. 2 (l- ) 2 «0.47 x 0.53 koos f= 1- = -0.7664 Q 4x4 x 0.1661 x 62 : Thus, the choice is clearly N = 3 9.4. A four-jet Pelton turbine is supplied by a reservoir whose surface is at an elevation of 500 m above the nozzles of the turbine. The water flows through a single pipe 600 m long, 0.75 m diameter, with a friction coefficient, f = 0.0075. Eachnozzle provides a jet 75 mm diameter end the nozzle velocity coefficient Ky = 0.98. ‘The jets impinge on the buckets of the wheel at a radius of 0.65 m and are deflected (relative to the wheel) through an angle of 160 deg. Fluid friction within the buckets reduces the relative velocity by 15 per cent. The blade speed to jet speed ratio, s# = 0.48 and the mechanical efficiency of the wrbine is 98 per cent. Calculate, using an iterative process, the loss of head in the pipeline and hence, determine for the turbine (1) the speed of rotation (2) the overall efficiency (based on the effective head) (3) the power output (4) the percentage of the energy available at turbine inlet which is lost as kinetic energy at turbine exit. Solution, (1) A simple iterative process is used to determine the frictional head loss. Guess H, = 480m (i.e. hy,=20m) ¢, = Kya, = 0.982 x 058x280 = 95.1 mis The flow velocity in the pipe is: V = 4c,4,/ 4, naxx With c, =95.1 m/s, then V = 3.804 m/s and A, = 1.223 x 33.8047 = 17.7 m Now, repeat the above calculation, this time with h 5.33 mis, V =3.813 mis «. 1.223 x3.813" =178m result she ion has ed,(1) The blade speed is U= tc, = 0.48 x 95.33 = 45.76 m/s =U Ir = 45.76! 0.65 = 70.37 radls (2) The overall efficiency is. 1% = 7.7% where 7 = Ki = 0.9604, 7, = 0.98 and = 2.0.48 x0.52 x 1.7987 = 0.8979 My = 248 (= All ~ k cos my = 0.845: (3) The output power is: P = #22 QH, where Q=4GA, = 4 x9533 x 2x 0.075") 4 = 1.6846 m/s e ws P= 0.8451 x9,810 x 1.6846 x 482.2 = 6.735 10° The power output is 6.735 MW. - (4) From the velocity diagram, Fig. (1), , = ¢, ~U = 9533 - 45.76 = 49.57 mis 0.85xw, = 42.136 m/s andUF ew =2Uw, cos, = 12094 + 1775.4 ~3623.7 = 15.66 mis ! Let R ,, = fraction of the energy available at turbine inlet which is Lost as k.e. at exit, then 9.5. A Francis turbine operates at its maximum efficiency point at 7, = 0.94, corresponding to a power specific speed of 0.9 rad. The effective head across the ! turbine is 160 m and the speed required for electrical generation is 750 rev/min. The runner tip speed is 0.7 times the spouting velocity, the absolute flow angle at runner entry is 72 deg from the radial direction and the absolute flow at runner exit is without swirl. Assuming there are no losses in the guide vanes and the mechanical efficiency is 100 per cent, determine, (1) the turbine power and the volume flow rate (2) the runner diameter | (3) the magnitude of the tangential component of the absolute velocity at runner inlet . (4) the axial length of the runner vanes at inlet.: - TR ae ‘Solution. (1) Using eqn (9-1), Qy = (eHe)" where Q = 30" = 78.54 rad/s PQ, yas 0.9 125 I— = =——(9.81 x160)" = ¥ f oe (eH) sea O Si x10} * = 1132 P 12.82 x 10° 1d: = s = 8.09 mis and = Sagi, 094% 9810 «160 $ (2) The blade speed is U, = 0.7¢y = 0.72gH, = 39.22 mis 2U, _39.22%2 = =05 wD, = p, = Fh = Sa 709887 LO Q) P= pOAW = pQU,ca Cg =O Pp. 12.82 10° 2 2 _ 376 Ca aU, © 10 x 8.69%39.22 sus (4) As Q= 227K bc, and ¢, =a! an y= 7.6 tan 72° = 0 = OMRare,)= 86/2 x 0,5 * 12.22) = 0.226 m 9.6. The power specific speed of a 4 MW Francis turbine is 0.8, and the hydraulic efficiency can be assumed to be 90 per cent. The head of water supplied to the turbine is 100 m. The runner vanes are radial atinlet and their intemal diameter are three-quarters of the external diameter. The meridional velocities at runner inlet and outlet are equal to 25 and 30 per cent respectively of the spouting velocity. Determine, (1) the rotational speed and diameter of the runner (2) the flow angles at outlet from the guide vanes and at runner exit 1 i (3) the widths of the runner at inlet and at exit. Blade thickness effects can be neglected Solution. (1) From eqn (9.1) the rotational speed is | 3: 7 B ie 5 ‘To determine the runner diameter we need to determine the blade speed, which is obtained as follows. With eg =O then U,= cq, = V7 aH, = 29.71 mis 2U, _2*29.71 2 BU 28277) | 0.9558 m - Bo ea8 (2) The spouting velocity is cy = J2gH = 44.29 mis, thus Gy 2 Gq =025% 6 = 11.07 ms and ¢, = 0.3xe, = 13.28 m/s reAf U, 0.75 x 29.71 Ae tn (4)-S3" Soden ay (3) At runner inlet the width is Q_.._43 __oisom 2mKc, 2% #K0A279x 11.07 4 b= Qo. = = 0.1692 m Qatme, 28 %0.75x 0.4279%13.28 9.7.(a) Review, briefly, the phenomenon of cavitation in hydraulic turbines and indicate the places where it is likely to occur. Describe the possible effects it can have upon turbine operation and the turbine’s structural integrity. What strategies can be adopted to alleviate the onset of cavitation? (b) A Francis turbine is to be designed to produce 27 MW ata shaft speed of 94 revimin under an effective head of 27.8 m. Assuming that the optimum hydraulic efficiency is 92 per cent and the runner tip speed to jet speed ratio is 0.69, determine (1) the power specific speed (2) the volume flow rate (3) the impeller diameter and blade tip speed.1 \ 12 (c) A 1/10 scale model is to be constructed in order to verify the performance targets of the prototype turbine and to determine its cavitation limits. The head of water available for the model tests is 5.0 m. When tested under dynamically similar conditions as the prototype. the net positive suction head H’, of the model is 135m. Determine for the model, (J) the speed and the volume flow rate (2) the power output, corrected using Moody's equation to allow for scale effects (assume a value for n = 0.2) @) the suction specific speed, 5. (8) The prototype turbine operates in water at 30° C when the barometric pressure is 95 kPa. Determine the necessary depth of submergence of that part of the turbine mostly likely to be prone to cavitation. Solution, (a) Cavitation, which is local boiling, can occur in the low pressure conditions prevailing in the exit region of hydraulic turbines. Boiling commences when the static pressure of the water is reduced to the vapour pressure corresponding. to the temperature of the water. It is found to occur on the suction surfaces of the turbine runner blades at or near outlct and can cause severe erosion of the blade surfaces. The best remedy requires an increase in the pressure at turbine exit, usually by deeper submergence of the turbine. This remedy can itil some increase in civil engineering costs because of the bigger excavation needed and, because of the complete submergence of the turbine, increased problems of access for inspection or maintenance. Under off-design operating conditions of the turbine another type of cavitation can occur in which a ropelike, twisting vortex of vapour is generated along the axis of the13 diffuser from the turbine exit. This rotating vortex can cause a heavy vibration and Jead to damage of the diffuser, It can be prevented or lessened by air injection along the axis through the tail spinner of the turbine, (b) (1) With the given data and Q = ZN = 9,844 radis, the power specific speed is: nee OYPTR 9.84/27 «10710 _ 1617.5 se = en 3 “T7083 (oH, (9.81 x27.8} 11083 1459 rod Itis also worth noting that the specific speed, ©,, is 0, = 22 152d sos 7 P 27% 10° og, 0.92% 9810 27.8 07.6 m/s (2) The volume flow rate is, (3) Now c= c, =/2gH, = 22.49 mls.. so the blade tip speed and diameter are U, = 0.69 x 22.49 = 15.52 m/s D, = 2U,/Q = 3.153 m (©) (1) For the model turbine, from considerations of similarity, we have: 8A = constant (spy| 14 3 2 = constant ee = 4.(Ba) = 4241x107 D, D, (2) Correcting this result to allow for the effects of scale (i.e. size!) using Moody's ‘empirical formula, eqn (9.23), viz. tog (Da = = (0.1)? = 0.631 and = 0.873 reget Dl (0.17 31 and so 7, Thus, the corrected power output for the model turbine is: 873 0.92 20.6 = 19.55 kW @) The suction specific speed of the model is: OQ _ 41.75. 0.456% Qs ee ase (sti, (9.81x1.35) = 4.06 (rad) is result is in agreement with uoted by Wislicenus (see ean.1S (d) From the tables, (¢.g. “Thermodynamic & Transport Properties of Fluids", by Rogers & Mayhew (1995)), for water at 30° C, the vapour pressure p, = 4.242 kPa. From the definition of the suction specific speed, a value for the net positive suction head H, can be found: oy? a eazy 2 =+(| 93 = — x(— =|’ (1053p = 2: (2) D = Fai" aon ) (1059) = 250m HF, is the amount of head needed to avoid cavitation at turbine exit and, from eqn (9.24), is equal te (p,- p,)i(,2g)-z. where z is the elevation of the turbine exit above the surface of the tailrace, as shown in Fig. (1). Thus, Pa~ Pe (95-4242) x 10° = fat n= 7.504 = 1,748 m eating! + 10 «9.81 i Clearly, z is positive (as drawn) when (p, - p,V/(2g) > Hy. The height determined here for z represents a limit which, if exceeded, would allow cavitation to occur. 9.8. The preliminary design of a turbine for a new hydro-electric power scheme has under consideration a vertical-shaft Francis turbine with a hydraulic power output of 200 MW under an effective head of 110 m. For this particular design a specific speed, .9 (rad), is selected for optimum efficiency. At runner inlet the ratio of the absolute velocity to the spouting velocity is 0.77, the absolute flow angle is 68 deg and the ratio of the blade speed to the spouting velocity is 0.6583. At runner outlet the absolute flow is to be without swirl. Determine:(2) the hydraulic efficiency of the rotor (2) the rotational speed and diameter of the rotor (3) the volume Now rate of water (4) the axial length of the vanes at inlet. } Solution. Data: P=200MW, H,=110m U,/c, = 0.6583 2, =09 (1) The hydraulic efficiency is determined from : ‘py = ZEM and so U, and ¢ ~ are required e si, Gy = 2g, = 46.456 mls. Uz = 0.6583 x46.456 = 30.58 m/s i 235.77 mis Cg, # ¢, Sin. = 33,166 mis : 30.58%33.166 _ 9 o4 : 981x110 SS woN = LS2 rev/min and D, = 2U,/2 = 2x30.58/12.068 = 5.068 m 16 5 5 aa i { @ yp -Reoletteh _ Qu! ie} _ 99 x098 one = 12.068 rads P(7 eras «22 rene o= (SY (ete = 1222m%s He) P 200 x 10° Alternatively, 97.2 mils OT gH, 094%9810%110 — (4) From the equation of continuity, Q= #D,b,c,, we get: Q 1972 BD yo, #X5068x13.4 be where ¢,, = ¢, 608 @ = 35.77 0.3746 = 13.4.mis 9.9. A Kaplan turbine designed with a shape factor (power specific speed) of 3.0 (rad), a runner tip diameter of 4,4 m and a hub diameter of 2.0 m, operates with a net head of 20 m anda shaft speed of 150 rev/min. The absolute flow at runner exit is axial. Assuming that the hydraulic efficiency is 90% and the mechanical efficiency is 99 %, determine (2) the volume flow rate and shaft power output : abtamun (2 the relative flow angles at the runer inlet and outta the hub and athe ip. tli. Solution. (1) The power delivered to the rotor is given by: P= ol 22) (eH)! = 19.67% 10°WHence, the shaft power delivered to external devices is: Pag = P= 0.99 x19.67x108 = 19.47 MW The volume flow rate is: e P 19.67 10° 7 -—P_. ber i Wg, | 0.9% 9810 x 20 ULanis 6 (2) The specific work done is AW = PTW 76.6 més? - Qi xill4 The axial velocity and blade tip speed are: 4x14 = = 9.2 w Fae) 9.234 mis. 5.078 x 2.2'= 34.56 m/sWe can determine the relative flow angles at the various radii from:BEG KeFig. (2) Ref asRE QH-3Cs joln? 72° 3 C3 Wa ie Fig! Raf QTRef. Q4:7Fig. (i) Ref. Q 4-4e Bal C2 Bs ; a we C3=Cx i U ! Fig. (2) | @ Rf QA.4Ref Q 410| Fie.) ~ REQ. GAWy 1 Ay oy Fic. (1) A ht RoE QSEBFig. (1) Rf Q S101 1 cy | A i e Y Ww Fia.(\) | RF. Q7.4Bef QAG