CHAPTER 6

ENVIRONMENT, WASTE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT

6.1 Introduction to waste management

Wastes are generated along the production of the. An effective waste management will
ensure that the waste will be managed and comply prior to the respective standards and
regulations that have been enforced by Department of Environment (DOE). Set of strategies
are embedded to handle the industrial waste in a cost-effective way.

6.1.1 Type of waste management

Generally, there are three types of waste being generated from any premises which has
been operating in industrial scale which are waste water, gas waste and scheduled waste.
These waste need a proper management to prevent and mitigate any negative impacts
towards the environment.

The treatment process for treating the pollutants is very complex and requiring many
stages where some of those treatments are energy-intensive and need to use several
chemical reagents. Most of the waste in industrial scale process have the presence of a
large amount of different chemical compounds significantly metals, salts, acids, bases,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), microorganisms and need waste solution treatment
plants to abate certain group of pollutants. (Ferella, 2018)

6.1.2. Waste water management

According to Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009, waste

water in industrial discharge is known as industrial effluent which can be defined as any
waste in the form of liquid or waste water generated from manufacturing process including
the treatment of water supply or any activity occurring at any industrial premises.

Waste water management is crucial as it greatly affect the water intake or the water
quality especially in Malaysian water which extend 14 nautical from the shore of Malaysia.
There are two main purpose in treating waste water which are (Ye et al., 2018);-
 Sanitation of cities and towns

It is essential and in need of safe disposal of the gathered waste water to the
environment after undergoes treatment which at the same time comply with the
disposal regulations. The discharge of the treated waste water are usually at the
lower basin.

 Reuse of the treated waste water

Reuse of treated waste water has been practiced more than 5 000 years along
the river basins throughout the world. It is indicated that the reused of treated waste
water as technology-based practice appeared during 20th centuries after the
implementation of waste water treatment at a big scale along with the increasing
population of human. It is forecast that large amount of treated waste water are available
for reuse purpose in the future.

6.1.3 Gas treatment system

Gas emission from industry contains air pollutants as a result from manufacturing
production. It is believed that mitigation of emission of pollutants can be started from the
designation of industrial structure and the arrangement of industrial facilities (Wang, 2018).
Gas emission from the prescribed premises are monitored by DOE as the untreated gas
emission can lead to adverse effect to human health especially to respiratory system.

Examples of gaseous emissions from industrial operations are carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrous oxide (N2O), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and steam whereas the presence
of heavy metals, particulate matter and directly effect on the human health.
Typical technologies of controlling gaseous emission in order to prevent and control
harmful substances from industrial vent are as in Table 6.1.1 (Huang & Hill, 2018).
Table 6.1.1 Technologies based on the type of pollutants

Gaseous pollutant Level of abatement Technologies

CO2 - Liquid absorbent

Membranes
Solid sorbent
 NOx Primary abatement Catalytic oxidation
Secondary abatement Thermal decomposition
Catalytic decomposition
Tertiary abatement Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
SO2 - Flue gas desulphurisation
Hydrodesulphurisation
Particulate matter - Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
Filters and dust collectors
Wet scrubbers
Odour - Wet scrubbing
Adsorption of odorous compounds
onto materials with a large surface (eg.
activated carbon)
Biofiltration

6.1.4. Scheduled waste management system

Generally, in the international level, scheduled waste (SW) defined as toxic and
hazardous waste. In Malaysia, according to Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste)
Regulations 2005, scheduled waste can be defined as any waste falling within the
categories of waste listed in the First Schedule which includes 77 codes of scheduled waste
categories.

Decision support system (DSS) determine the management of waste and improvise
the existing system to be more practicable and efficient. It is also beneficial for developing
countries in term of economic, politic and social. (Bani, Rashid & Hamid, 2011).
 Figure 6.1.1 General application for decision support system (DSS) for scheduled
waste (Bani, Rashid & Hamid, 2011)

6.2 Identification and classification of waste

Waste need to be identified to make it easier to implement the right treatment according to
the type of wastes generated.

6.2.1 Source point of waste generated, equipment and process

stream
Wastewater generated from the production of PP is water used for cooling purpose in
heat exchanger (HE). The water used is not too contaminated but still the water needs the
treatment to cool back and to remove any deposition in the water. The overall process
comprises of 4 heat exchangers and being the source of hot water outlet, which will be the
inlet for the wastewater treatment plant. The sources of hot water are from cooler E-101,
E-102, E-103 and E-104. The capacity of the wastewater is 11,255.585 kg/hr after taking
into consideration of fluctuation of flowrate that may happen throughout the process.

For gas emission, the source of gaseous pollutant is from Stream 23 as illustrated in
Figure 6.2.1. Stream 23 contains propylene and propene. The stream is discharged from
the pressure swing adsorption (PSA) as in V-105. The amount of gas that need to be treated
 in gas treatment is 30.822 kg/hr.

Figure 6.2.1 Gas waste from pressure swing adsorption (PSA), V-105

In the other hand, scheduled waste is generated throughout the process, for example
sludge that has been produced at the end of the treatment process of waste water.

Code of Scheduled Waste Description of waste

SW 202 Waste catalysts
Asbestos wastes in sludges, dust or fibre forms
SW 210

SW 322 Waste of non-halogenated organic solvents

Disposed containers, bags or equipment contaminated with
SW 409
chemicals, pesticides, mineral oil or scheduled wastes
Rags, plastics, papers or filters contaminated with scheduled
SW 410
wastes
SW 429 Chemicals that are discarded or off-specification

The SW produced are categorized under different groups which are:

Group Description
 Waste containing principally inorganic constituents which may contain
2
metals and inorganic materials
Wastes containing principally organic constituents which may contain
3
metals and inorganic materials
 Wastes which may contain either inorganic or organic constituens

6.3 Relevant Environmental Acts and Regulations

6.3.1 Environmental Quality Act 1974

Malaysia has had environmentally-related legislation since the early 1920s. But the
legislation is limited in scope and inadequate for handling complex emerging environmental
problems. So through EQA, 1974, a more comprehensive form of legislation and an agency to
control pollution was established.

EQA is an enabling piece of legislation for preventing, abating and controlling pollution,
and enhancing the environment, or for other related purposes. Pollution, as declared in EQA,
includes the direct or indirect alteration of any quality of the environment or any part of it by
means of a positive act or act of omission. Pollution is ‘controlled’ through the mechanism of
licences issued by the Department of Environment. The mode of control is by prescribing, by
means of a ministerial regulation, that licences are mandatory for:

 The use and occupation of prescribed premises;

 Discharging or emitting wastes exceeding acceptable conditions into the atmosphere,

as well as noise pollution, polluting or causing the pollution of any soil or surface of
any land;
 Emitting, discharging or depositing any wastes or oil, in excess of acceptable conditions,
into inland waters or Malaysian waters.
The provision of "acceptable conditions" is controversial because the polluter is not liable
for prosecution if the discharge are within those acceptable conditions, even if the effluents are
sufficient to severely damage the environment. Most people adversely affected by pollution do
not want to seek legal remedy through common law because of the prolonged nature of such
hearings and the costs incurred.
 Currently, 16 sets of regulations and orders are enforced by the Department of
Environment under EQA. Despite government efforts to implement environmental laws and
regulations, it has been found that enforcement measures need to be further enhanced to ensure
the full compliance with laws and regulations.

With regard to monitoring and enforcement, surveillance capability will be strengthened.

The penalty structure related to environment offences will be revised to ensure a more effective
deterrent, especially in the case of repeat offenders. The enforcement function of agencies such
as the Department of Environment, Health Department, Pesticide Board and local authorities
will be rationalized and streamlined, and adequate training will be provided for their
enforcement staff.

Environmental laws and regulations One of the three strategies embodied in EQA, 1974,
is for the regulation of pollution. The other two strategies are for preventing and abating any
form of pollution. To bring the law and other environmentally-related laws into effect, the laws
and regulations listed below have been introduced and are strictly enforced by the Department
of Environment.

(i) Control of agro-based water pollution

 Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations, 1977

 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Order, 1977

 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations, 1977, and
(Amendment) 1982
 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Order, 1978

 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations, 1978

(ii) Control of municipal and industrial waste water pollution

 Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979

 Environmental Quality (Prohibition on the Use of Controlled Substance in Soap,

Synthetic Detergent and Other Cleaning Agents) Order, 1995

(iii) Control of industrial emissions

 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978
  Environmental Quality (Compounding of Offenses) Rules, 1978

(iv) Control of motor vehicle emissions

 Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke and Gas Emission) Rules, 1977 (made under the
Road Traffic Ordinance of 1958)
 Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration in Motor Gasoline) Regulations,
1985
 Environmental Quality (Motor Vehicle Noise) Regulations, 1987

(v) Control of toxic and hazardous waste management

 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 1989

 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and

Disposal Facilities) Order, 1989
 Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Regulations, 1989
 Promotion of Investments (Promoted Activities and Products) (Amendment) (No. 10)
Order, 1990 (made under the Promotion of Investments Act, 1986)

6.3.2 Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulation 2009

The plant will discharge the wastewater as effluents, this regulation

should be applied to control the quality of the effluent, so that the
composition in this effluent will not contaminate any water sources or ground
water source. Since the location of plant is below the water intake point, the
effluent discharged from the plant must comply with the Standard B. The
examples of parameters are pH, BOD and COD. Below are the contains of this
regulation;
Regulation 3: Application

These Regulations shall apply to discharge of effluent into any inland wastes, other than the
effluents discharged from prescribed premises or other premises specified in the First Schedule
or both

Regulation 4. Prohibition against new and altered sources of effluent discharge

Notwithstanding any other provisions of these Regulations, in person without

prior written permission of Director-General shall-
1) Carry out any work on any premises that may result in a new source of effluent discharge or
cause a material change in the quantity of the discharge from an existing sourced; or
2) Construct on any land any building designed or used for a purpose that may cause the land
or building to result in a new source of effluent discharge.

Regulation 5. Requirement and approval of plans

1) An application to carry out any work, building, erection or alteration specified

in regulation 4 shall be submitted to the Director-General in the prescribed form
and shall be accompanied by the prescribed fee under regulation 21.
2) The Director-General may grant such application either subject to conditions
or unconditionally and may require the applicant) to repair, alter, replace or install control
equipment;

Regulation 6. Prohibition of discharge of effluent containing certain substances

No person shall discharge or cause or permit the discharge of any of the following
substances into any inland waters:
1) any inflammable solvent;

2) any tar or other liquid immiscible with water;

3) refuse, garbage, sawdust, timber, human or animal waste or solid matters

Regulation 7. Standard Methods of analysis of effluents

For the purposes of these Regulations, the effluent discharged into any inland waters shall be
analyzed in accordance with the nineteenth edition of the methods specified in the Second
Schedule, or in accordance with such other methods of analysis as the Director-General thinks
fit.

Regulation 8. Parameter limits of effluent to be discharged into inland waters

1) No person shall discharge effluent, analyzed in accordance with regulation 7,

which contains substances in concentrations greater than those specified as
parameter limits of-
a) Standard A, as shown in the third column of the Third Schedule, into any
inland waters within the catchment areas specified in the Fourth Schedule; or
b) Standard B as shown in the fourth column of the Third Schedule, into any
other inland waters.

2) Where two or more of the metals specified as parameters (xii) to (xvi), pursuant

to paragraph (1) of this regulation, are present in the effluent, the concentration of these
metals shall not be greater than
a) 0.5 milligrams per liter in total, where Standard A is applicable;

b) 3.0 milligrams per liter in total and 1.0 milligrams per liter in total for
soluble forms, where Standard B is applicable.
3) Where Standard B is applicable and when both phenol and free chlorine are present in the
same effluent, the concentration of phenol individually, shall not be greater than 1 milligram
per liter.
4) Where the Director-General deems it necessary, he may by notice in writing specify the
acceptable conditions if discharge including the parameter limits of effluent, with respect to
any or all of the parameters specified in the Fifth Schedule and any other parameters not
listed anywhere in these Regulations

Regulation 10. Restrictions on disposal sludge

No person shall discharge or cause permits the discharge of any solid waste or
sludge that is generated from any production or manufacturing processes or from
any effluent treatment plant in or on any soil or surface of any land without the
prior written permission of the Director-General

Fifth-Schedule of IER 2009

Parameter Unit Standard

A B
Temperature oC 40 40
pH value - 6-9 5.5-9
BOD5 at 20oC mg/L 20 50
Total suspended mg/L 50 100

solid (TSS)
Oil and grease mg/L 1 10

Eighth-Schedule of IER 2009

Parameter Standard A Standard B

COD(mg/L) 80 200

6.3.3 Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 2014

 Replacement to the Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978.

 Gazetted on 4th June 2014 and started enforced on the 5th June 2014.

 Existing Industrial Facilities are given 5 years grace period (until 5th June 2019) to
ensure compliance to the air emission limits mentioned in the law.
Applicable for:

1. Premise that conducts burning or incineration (of waste, material etc) activity.

2. Premise that discharges air pollutants into the open air.

3. Any industrial plant

 4. Any fuel burning equipment.

3 Prerequisites for success in air pollution control:

1. Stage 1 (design stage) – Adequate design

2. Stage 2 (construction stage) – Adequate quality of construction

3. Stage 3 (Operation stage) – Proper operation, preventive maintenance (plus

performance monitoring.

Construction Stage

Air pollution control systems need to be designed and constructed in strict compliance with
the minimum requirements and specification as outline in Guidance Document for Fuel
Burning Equipment and Air Pollution Control Systems (GD APCS).
 Need to submit Written Declaration Form as stated in Regulation 7 (Air Pollution
Control System) 30 days after commencement of operations.

Operation stage

 Submit Emission Declaration as stated in Regulation 18 (Emission Declaration) and

need to submit annual reports.

Air Pollution Control System

 Mentioned in Regulation 7 of CAR 2014.

 Every premise shall be equipped with Air Pollution Control System (APCS).

 APCS shall be designed and constructed by a professional engineer.

 APCS must be operated by a competent person who shall be on duty at all times
during operation hours.

6.3.4 Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) 2005

 i. Storage of scheduled waste (Section 9)

1. Scheduled wastes shall be stored in containers which are compatible with the
scheduled wastes to be stored, durable and which are able to prevent spillage or
leakage of the scheduled wastes into the environment.
2. Incompatible scheduled wastes shall be stored in separate containers, and such
containers shall be placed in separate secondary containment areas.
3. Containers containing scheduled wastes shall always be closed during storage
except when it is necessary to add or remove the scheduled wastes.
4. Areas for the storage of the containers shall be designed, constructed and maintained
adequately in accordance with the guidelines prescribed by the Director General to prevent
spillage or leakage of scheduled wastes into the environment.
5. Any person may store scheduled wastes generated by him for 180 days
or less after its generation provided that:-
a) The quantity of scheduled wastes accumulated on site shall not exceed 20 metric
tonnes; and

b) The Director General may at any time, direct the waste generator to send any
scheduled wastes for treatment, disposal or recovery of material or product from
the scheduled wastes up to such quantity.
6.4 Industrial Effluent Treatment System

6.4.1 Process Description of Wastewater Treatment Plant

6.4.1.1 Preliminary Treatment

The inlet wastewater called influent, will be pumped to screening tank where it passes
through screens consisting of upright bars, typically spaced one to three inches apart. The
purpose of these bars remove large pieces of trash including rags, sticks, newspaper, soft drink
cans, bottles, and other similar items. However in this plant, the type of screenings used is
micro screening. These screens are normally low-speed drum screens. The drums are lined with
filtering fabrics with openings of 10 to 35 µm. Wastewater enters the drum, and the retained
solid waste is collected and disposed of.

6.4.1.2 Primary Treatment

Primary treatment consist of equalization tank, flocculation and coagulation tank as

well as primary sedimentation tank. The purpose of equalization tank is to act as buffer. This
tank collect the incoming raw effluent that comes at widely fluctuating rates and postion to the
rest of the ETP at steady flow rate. Wastewater is then pumped to flocculation and coagulation
tank to coagulate impurities particles, suspended particles by adding coagulants into the tank.
Typical coagulants used in the wastewater treatment are lime and alum. Next, the wastewater
enters primary settling tank also known as sedimentation tank, for one to two hours. The flow
of the water is slowed to allow heavier solids to settle to the bottom of the tank and the lighter
materials to float. The settled solids called primary sludge, are then pumped through sludge
holding tank before further process. The partially treated wastewater from the primary
sedimentation tank then flows to the secondary treatment system.

6.4.1.3 Secondary Treatment

In this stage, aeration tank and secondary sedimentation tank are involved. This stage
is called activated sludge process. This is because air and “seed” sludge from the plant
treatment process are added to the wastewater to break it down to smaller sizes. Air pumped
into large aeration tanks mixes the wastewater and sludge. Heavier particles will be produced
that later will settle in the treatment process. Wastewater passes thorugh these bubbling tanks
in three to six hours. The aerated wastewater then flows to the second and final sedimentation
tank which are similar to the primary sedimentation tank. In this tank, heavy particles are settled
to the bottom as secondary sludge. Some of this sludge is re-circulated back to the aeration
tank as seed to stimulate the activated sludge process. The remaining secondary sludge is
removed from the sedimentation tank and added to primary sludge for further processing in the
sludge handling facilities. The treated wastewater will then flows to filtration tank as the last
stage of treatment before stored in storage tank. The sand is used as medium in the filtration
tank to filter any slip away solids from previous stage of treatment.

6.4.2 Wastewater characterization

The wastewater from this process is cooling water from coolers where the
characteristics of the wastewater are as in Table 6.4.2. The wastewater may contain traces that
is contaminated and need to be treated in wastewater treatment plant. High temperature at the
wall of heat exchanger can pose a serious scaling threat. The typical BOD for wastewater is
220 mg/L (Toprak, 2006), hence it is assume to have 100 mg/L for the wastewater of cooling
water.

Table 6.4.2 Characteristic of wastewater

Parameter Characteristic of wastewater

pH 7.8 (Allen, 2001)
BOD 100
COD 300 (Peter, 2009)
Suspended solid (SS) 1.8 mg/L (Prochemtech,
 6.5 Gas Treatment System

6.5.1 Characteristics of Discharged Gases

6.5.1.1 Propylene

Propene, also known as propylene or methyl ethylene, is an unsaturated organic having

the chemical formula. It has one double bond, and is the second simplest member of
the alkene class of hydrocarbons. It is a colourless gas with a faint petroleum-like odour. It is
obtained by thermal cracking of ethylene. At low concentration it forms an explosive and
flammable mixture with air, while at high concentrations it can cause asphyxiation and skin
burns. It is used in the petrochemical industry as a fuel and alkylate and in the chemical industry
for the production of polypropylene, isopropyl alcohol, propylene oxide and other chemicals.

Physical Properties

Critical temperature: 365.57

Molecular weight: 42.08
K

Melting point: 87.9 K Critical pressure:4.6646 MPa

Normal boiling point:225.46 K Critical density: 223.4 kg/m3

Normal vapour density:1.91

(@ 273.15K; 1.0135MPa)
kg/m3

Chemical Properties

 Propylene reacts violently with many oxidizing agents and various Nitrogen
oxides.

 The combustion products include carbon di oxide and carbon mono oxide.

28
  In liquid state, it gives explosive reactions when in contact with air.

 Propylene ignites by itself at 851 °F.

 Liquid Propylene stored in closed containers may expand leading to a

phenomenon called Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVE).

 Propylene explodes on contact with trifluoromethyl hypofluorite.

 It also explodes in contact with water.

 In the presence of lithium nitrate and sulphur dioxide,

explosive polymerization of propylene takes place.

 It has a critical compressibility factor of 0.281.

 It is toxic and has an asphyxiating effect.

 It has a mild anaesthetic effect.

 Propylene has radioactive characteristics.

6.5.1.2 Propane

29
 Propane is a liquefied petroleum gas that comes out of both oil and gas wells. Propane
does not occur naturally. Raw crude oil or raw natural gas is refined to make different types of
petroleum products, one of which is propane. Following its refinement, propane is stored as a
liquid under pressure until utilized, at which point it becomes a gas.

Properties

Chemical formula C3H8

Molar mass 44.10 g·mol−1

Appearance Colourless gas

Odour Odourless

Density 2.0098 kg/m3 (at 0 °C, 101.3 kPa)

Melting point −187.7 °C; −305.8 °F; 85.5 K

Boiling point −42.25 to −42.04 °C; −44.05 to −43.67 °F; 230.90 to

231.11 K

Solubility in water 47mgL−1 (at 0 °C)

log P 2.236

Vapour pressure 853.16 kPa (at 21.1 °C (70.0 °F))

Henry's law 15 nmol Pa−1 kg−1

constant (kH)

Conjugate acid Propanium

Magnetic -40.5·10−6 cm3/mol

susceptibility (χ)

30
 6.5.2 Gas Treatment System (Gas Flare)

Gas treatment system that will be implemented in this plant is gas flaring where the
waste gases which are propane and propylene will be burned in an open flame in the open air
using a specially designed burner tip, auxiliary fuel and steam or air to promote mixing for
nearly complete (98%) volatile organic compound (VOC) elimination (Evans & Stone, 2000).
Figure 6.5.1 below shows the schematic diagram of a typical steam assisted elevated flare
system.

Figure 6.5.1 Process Flow Diagram of Steam Assisted Elevated System

6.5.2.1 Process Description

6.5.2.1.1 Gas Transport Piping

31
 Process vent streams which are propane and propylene are sent from facility release
point to the flare location through the gas collection header. The piping is designed to minimize

pressure drop. Ducting is not used as it is more prone to air leaks. Valving will be kept to an
absolute minimum and should be “car-sealed” (sealed) open. Pipe layout is designed to avoid
any potential dead legs and liquid traps. The piping is equipped for purging so that explosive
mixtures do not occur in the flare system either on start-up or during operation.

6.5.2.1.2 Knock-out Drum

Liquids that may be in the vent stream gas or that may condense out in the collection
header and transfer lines are removed by a knock-out drum. The knock-out or disentrainment
drum is normally either a horizontal or vertical vessel located at or close to the base of the flare,
or a vertical vessel located inside the base of the flare stack. For this plant, a vertical vessel will
be used. Liquid in the vent stream can extinguish the flame or cause irregular combustion and
smoking. In addition, flaring liquids can generate a spray of burning chemicals that could reach
group level and create a safety hazard. For a flare system designed to handle emergency process
upsets this drum must be sized for worst case conditions (e.g., loss of cooling water or total
unit depressuring) and is usually quite large. For a flare system devoted only to vent stream
VOC control, the sizing of the drum is based primarily on vent gas flow rate with consideration
given to liquid entrainment.

Liquid particles will separate when the residence time of the vapor is greater than the
time required to travel the available vertical height at the dropout velocity of the liquid particles,
i.e., the velocity is less than the dropout velocity. In addition, the vertical gas velocity must be
sufficiently low to permit the liquid droplets to fall. Since flares are designed to handle small-
sized liquid droplets, the allowable vertical velocity is based on separating droplets from 300
to 600 micrometres in diameter. The dropout velocity, U, of a particle in a stream, or the
maximum design vapour velocity, is calculated as follows:

U (m/s) = G

Where

G = design vapour velocity factor

32
 𝜌l and 𝜌v = liquid and vapour densities, kg/

The design vapour velocity factor, G ranges from 0.15 to 0.25 for vertical gravity separators.

Calculating U (m/s)

𝜌v of propane/propylene mixture = 1.45 kg/

Assuming 𝜌l for propane/propylene mixture = 2.00 kg/ and G = 0.20 for average

U (m/s) = 0.20

= 0.123 m/s
Calculating minimum vessel cross sectional area, A

A( )=

Where is the vent stream flow in actual /min or Q adjusted to the vent stream
temperature and pressure.

Assuming = 100 /min

A( )=

= 13.55

33
The vessel diameter, is then
calculated by using formula: h = 3d
= 3(4.15)
=12.46 m
= A
Mass balance on knock-out drum:
=

(
1
3
.
5
5

)
= 4.15 m

Proper vessel height, h is

usually determined based on
required liquid surge volume.
For small volumes of liquid,
as in the case of continuous
VOC vent control, it is
necessary to provide more
liquid surge than is necessary to
satisfy the h/d > 3 condition. So
for purposes of flare knock-out
drum sizing:Calculating height,

34
 T
o

f
l
a
r
e

mixture gas

35
 29.28 kg/hr

Propane/propylene
mixture

30.822 kg/hr

1.54 kg/hr

Propane/propylene mixture
liquid
To drain

Assumptions:
1. Only 5% of inlet mixture may condense into liquid.

2. Liquid droplets size of 300-600 micrometres.

3. Residence time of the vapour is greater than the time required to travel the
available vertical height at the dropout velocity of the liquid particles.
4. Vertical gas velocity sufficiently low to allow the liquid droplets to fall.

Calculating mass flow rate of liquid mixture:

× 30.822 kg/hr = 1.54 kg/hr

Then, mass flow rate of gas mixture to flare:

30.822 kg/hr – 1.54 kg/hr = 29.28 kg/hr

36
 6.5.2.1.3 Liquid Seal

Process vent streams are usually passed through a liquid seal before going to the flare
stack. The liquid seal can be downstream of the knockout drum or incorporated into the same
vessel. This prevents possible flame flashbacks, caused when air is inadvertently introduced

into the flare system and the flame front pulls down into the stack. The liquid seal also serves
to maintain a positive pressure on the upstream system and acts as a mechanical damper on any
explosive shock wave in the flare stack. Other devices, such as flame arresters and check valves,
may sometimes replace a liquid seal or be used in conjunction with it. Purge gas which is
Nitrogen that are used also helps to prevent flashback in the flare stack cause by low vent gas
flow.

6.5.2.1.4 Flare Stack

A stack is used to elevate the flare for safety reasons. The flare must be located at a
location where it does not present a hazard to surrounding personnel and facilities. There are 3
types of elevated flares which are self-supported (free standing), guyed or structurally
supported by derrick. In this plant, self-supported elevated flares are used. It provide ideal
structural support. However, a strong foundation are required and nature of the soil must be
considered which the plant have. The typical stack height depends on the type of the stack. For
self-supported stack, the height can be designed up to 30 m tall. Whereas for guy wire supported
stack, the most economical design is in the 30-106 m height range and for derrick supported
stacks, the most feasible design for stack height is above 106 m (“Elevated Flare Tips,” 1999).
As for this plant where self-supported stack is used, the height of the stack is assumed to be 20
m and the diameter of the tip is 1 m.

6.5.2.1.5 Gas Seal

Air may tend to flow back into a flare stack due to wind or the thermal contraction of
stack gases and create an explosion potential. To prevent this, a gas seal is typically installed
in the flare stack. One type of gas seal (also referred to as a flare seal, stack seal, labyrinth seal,
or gas barrier) is located below the flare tip to impede the flow of air back into the flare gas

37
network. There are also “seals” which act as orifices in the top of the stack to reduce the purge
gas volume for a given velocity and also interfere with the passage of air down the stack from
the upper rim. These are known by the names “internal gas seal, fluidic-seal, and arrestor seal”.
These seals are usually proprietary in design, and their presence reduces the operating purge
gas requirements.

6.5.2.1.6 Steam Jets

A diffusion flame receives its combustion oxygen by diffusion of air into the flame from
the surrounding atmosphere. The high volume of fuel flow in a flare may require more
combustion air at a faster rate than simple gas diffusion can supply. High velocity steam
injection nozzles, positioned around the outer perimeter of the flare tip, increase gas turbulence
in the flame boundary zones, drawing in more combustion air and improving combustion
efficiency. For the larger flares, steam can also be injected concentrically into the flare tip. The
maximum permissible steam injection in the flare gas is subject to molecular weight and the
carbon-hydrogen ratio of the waste gas. The typical ratio of the steam to the flare gas is 0.15-
0.50 (Lee et al., 2012). Table 1 below shows suggested rates of steam injection for some
hydrocarbons.

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 6.5.2.1.7 Burner Tip

The burner tip, or flare tip, is designed to give environmentally acceptable

combustion of the vent gas over the flare system’s capacity range. The burner tips are
normally proprietary in design. Consideration is given to flame stability, ignition
reliability, and noise suppression. The maximum and minimum capacity of a flare to
burn a flared gas with a stable flame (not necessarily smokeless) is a function of tip
design. Flame stability can be enhanced by flame holder retention devices incorporated
in the flare tip inner circumference. Burner tips with modern flame holder designs can
have a stable flame over a flare gas exit velocity range of 1 to 600 ft/sec. The actual
maximum capacity of a flare tip is usually limited by the vent stream pressure available
to overcome the system pressure drop. Elevated flares diameters are normally sized to
provide vapour velocities at maximum throughput of about 50 percent of the sonic
velocity of the gas subject to the constraints of CFR 60.18 (Evans & Stone, 2000).

6.6 Scheduled Waste Management

Schedule wastes generated at the plant are waste catalysts, propane, propylene,
and wastewater from heat exchanger equipment. Waste catalysts are generated after
cleaning process of fluidized bed reactor where they are no longer effective in the
reaction. Therefore they need to be discarded and disposed of. Waste catalysts are
classified as SW 202 according to First Schedule (Regulation 2). SW 202 will be send
to Qualitest Engineering Sdn .Bhd. for further treatment. The wastewater will be treated
at the plant and the produced sludge will be disposed at the landfill. Furthermore, the
available facility for the treatment and management for scheduled waste code of
SW210, SW322, SW409, SW410 and Sw 429 is located at Urban Environmental
Industries Sdn. Bhd. Gebeng Industrial Zone, Pahang.

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