RESIDUAL SOLUTION OF MAGMA AND ITS ORE DEPOSITS

Arranged by :

Achmad Adyatma Ardi

NIM : 072001710001

GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF EARTH TECHNOLOGY AND ENERGY

UNIVERSITY OF TRISAKTI

JAKARTA

2019
 PREFACE

Praise the presence of Allah SWT who has given His grace and guidance
so that I can complete the assignment of this paper entitled Residual
Solution of Magma and Its Ore Deposits on time.

The purpose of the writing of this paper is to fulfill the lecturers'

assignments in the ore deposits course. In addition, this paper also aims
to add insight to readers and also to writers.

I thank my father and mother, and also to Mr. Ir. Budi Wijaya, as a
lecturer in ore deposits who has given this assignment so that he can add
knowledge and insight in accordance with the study program that I
undertake.

Achmad Adyatma Ardi

 CONTENTS

COVER i
PREFACE ii
CONTENTS iii
1.Hydrohermal ore deposits
1.1 Hydrothermal systems : generalities and background
1.1.1 What fluids form hydrothermal systems ?
1.1.2 Components of a mineralizing hydrothermal system
1.1.3 Mass-balance requirements for the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits
1.1.4 Hydrothermal solution chemistry, aqueous complexes and mineral solubility
1.1.5 Products of hydrothermal fluid flow
1.2 Hydrothermal deposits formed around magmatic centres
1.2.1 Porphyry deposits
1.2.2 Greisens and related ore deposits
1.2.3 Skarn and carbonate-replacement deposits
1.2.4 Polymetallic veins and vein fields associated with magmatic centres
1.2.5 Low-sulfidation epithermal deposits
1.2.6 Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) deposits
REFERENCES
 1.1. Hydrothermal systems: generalities and
background
Hydrothermal activity involves the transport of matter in aqueous solution in rocks. The
term hydrothermal system is analogous to petroleum system. In the latter the source
rocks of the hydrocarbons, the timings of maturation, migration pathways and traps of oil
or natural gas are analysed. A hydrothermal system comprises the sources and sinks of the
fluid, the sources and sinks of all chemical components transported in solution in the fluid
or fluids, the complete pathways along which the hydrothermal fluids migrated through
the crust and, additionally, the processes and events (tectonic, magmatic etc.) that caused
fluid migration (the driving forces). Temperatures and pressures and their evolution
through the lifetime of a system are also considered. Ore deposits extend over only small
segments of any hydrothermal systems. The systems have dimensions of a minimum of a
few kilometres vertically and laterally, where they develop around a magmatic centre, or
as large as the scale of an orogenic belt or a sedimentary basin, and known lifetimes in
some cases of millions of years.

1.1.1 What fluids form hydrothermal systems ?

Waters from any source can in principle carry and precipitate ore minerals. We can
divide hydrothermal fluids into those that rise from depth and those that are ultimately
derived from the Earth’s surface and flow downwards into rock. Fluids that are
granodiorite solidus.
Pressure–temperature phase diagram of water over the range of conditions of
hydrothermal ore deposit formation with contours of water density in g
cm 3. The light-shaded
area shows the field of possible felsic melts. Water density varies from liquid-like at high
pressure and relatively low temperature to vapour-like at low pressure. At conditions ‘A’,
liquid water will boil to vapour if the pressure is reduced. At ‘B’ liquid water will not boil
but will become steadily less dense on steadily decreasing pressure. This is the field of
supercritical fluid. The dark-shaded area shows the field of possible saline liquid and
less-saline vapour coexistence where NaCl and similar salts are in solution in the water.
Hydrothermal systems: generalities and background
pressures close to lithostatic pressure or rock
pressure, and are thus overpressured with respect to most groundwaters. Where fluid
pressures are approximately lithostatic pressures, the gradient in hydraulic head is such
as to drive overall upward or oblique-upward fluid movement. Fluids derived from the
surface have pressures close to hydrostatic pressures, that is, the pressure of the
weight of the overlying column of water, and these fluids may migrate laterally or
convect. Each of these two groupings can be subdivided to distinguish the following
fluid types based on source.
Fluids derived from depth:
 Diagenetic and metamorphic fluids ¼ fluids released from minerals through mineral
devolatilisation reactions.
 Magmatic (magmatic-hydrothermal) fluids ¼ fluids that were dissolved in silicate
magma and is released from solution (exsolved) on decompression and/or crystallisation of the
magma.
Fluids from the Earth’s surface:
 Meteoric waters ¼ groundwaters derived from the hydrosphere (rainfall, etc.) and
heated on interaction with rock on percolation to depths of up to a few kilometres
depth in the crust.
 Ocean waters – heated as a result of infiltration into the rocks of the ocean floor.
 Connate waters ¼ waters buried with sediments in pore spaces.
Basinal and shield waters may also be differentiated. These are meteoric, ocean or
connate waters that have circulated through and resided in, respectively, sedimentary or
crystalline rocks such that their compositions have been modified by reaction with
minerals. These are the fluids found at present at greater than about 1 km in many
sedimentary basins, for instance in oil fields, and in crystalline rocks. Where these fluids
are highly saline they are often term
ed basinal and shield brines.
More than one fluid may be involved in a hydrothermal system. The fluid type in a
system may also evolve with time. Fluids other than aqueous fluids, most frequently
hydrocarbon gases and oils, may also be present in hydrothermal systems and, although
they are rarely considered to be carriers of ore metals, they may interact with aqueous
fluids and influence their compositions.

1.1.2 Components of a mineralizing hydrothermal system

We can distinguish five necessary components of a mineralising hydrothermal system

(i) The fluid source and controls on fluid composition at source.
(ii) The source of the dissolved ore elements. In general, metals are both dissolved into
the fluid at source and along the flow path through leaching and chemical reaction of
rock through which the fluid flowed.
(iii) The pathway of fluid migration. This can be pore space in porous rocks. In crystalline rocks the
pathways are more likely to be planar breaks (discontinuities) in the
rock mass, that is, fractures, faults and shear zones. Fluid pathways are thus often
structures, and this fact gives rise to the concept of structural control on ore
deposits (see Box 3.7).
(iv) The energy source to drive fluid migration. This may be thermal or mechanical, e.g.
pressure variations caused for instance by deformation.
(v) The chemical driving forces for ore mineral precipitation. In general precipitation is
a result of changing solubility of the ore mineral and hence one or more of changing
temperature, pressure or fluid composition.
 Mass-balance requirements for the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits
The hydrothermal system shown in Figure 3.2 incorporates two requirements for the
formation of a hydrothermal deposit:
(i) Ore elements must first be dissolved into solution and later precipitated. Dissolution
requires the fluid to be undersaturated with respect to the mineral, and precipitation
the fluid to be oversaturated. At least one physical or chemical parameter of the fluid
(P, T and X ¼ composition) must change to cause precipitation of ore minerals.
Changes in fluid composition may be the result of mixing of the fluid that is carrying
the metal with a second fluid, or of chemical interaction with rocks. The hydrothermal fluid
thus needs to move to form an ore deposit.
(ii) The fluids must be focussed from flow through a large volume of rock to flow through
a small volume of rock at the ore deposit. Ore deposits are geochemical anomalies in
which one or more ore element is present significantly above average crustal abundances. If
ore metals were dissolved out of a rock, they must be dissolved from a
much larger volume of rock, in many cases orders of magnitude larger, than the
volume of rock at the ore deposit to obtain the required Clarke of concentration for
economic ore .

1.1.3 Hydrothermal solution chemistry, aqueous complexes and mineral

solubility

Most minerals are sparingly soluble in pure water at low geological temperatures. For
instance, quartz has a solubility of a few ppm at 25 C, and most silicate and sulfide
minerals have solubilities in the ppb range. Common minerals that are exceptions to this rule
are the alkali halide salts (e.g. halite) and to a lesser extent carbonate minerals.
Mineral solubilities tend to be higher at high temperature, and especially at high
temperature combined with high pressure. For instance, quartz has a solubility of
1 g kg1 or 1000 ppm at about 400 C and 1 kbar, and higher solubility at higher
temperatures and pressures.
Solubilities of most minerals are low because the component ions have low chemical
stability in water. Many ions are too small and too highly charged to be electrostatically
bonded to water molecules .
The solubility of many minerals is dramatically increased in waters that contain
ligands. The metal ions bond with one or more ligands to form polyatomic ions or neutral
polyatomic units (aqueous complexes) that are more stable in solution in water than the
free ion. This effect is most important for the solubility of transition-row metals.

1.1.5 Products of hydrothermal fluid flow

Hydrothermal ores are only a small part of hydrothermal systems. In addition, the
following features can form as results of hydrothermal fluid flow, and are hence markers
of the passage of hydrothermal fluid through a rock pile.

1.Hydrothermal alteration
As hot aqueous solutions pass through rocks they induce mineralogical, chemical and
textural changes in addition to those of ore mineral precipitation. Some gangue minerals
will dissolve, others will precipitate. These changes are metasomatism. In ore deposit
geology, metasomatism is generally referred to as alteration. Alteration may be pervasive,
selectively pervasive (in which specific minerals or minerals in textural sites are replaced),
or non-pervasive (for instance, only adjacent to fractures). In most hydrothermal systems,
alteration affects a volume of rock many times that of the ore body. Alteration thus
provides a much larger target for detection and mapping of a hydrothermal system than
does a deposit and is commonly used as an indicator of proximity to ore in exploration.

2. Veins
Veins occur both in hydrothermally altered rock and in ore. They are tabular bodies of
minerals that have precipitated from hydrothermal fluids. In some older literature a
distinction is made between dilatant veins and replacement veins, where the former
implies mineral growth in open or fluid-filled space in the rock, and the latter implies a
planar body of hydrothermally altered rock adjacent to a fracture or a channelway.
Fractures can be present in the rock before hydrothermal fluid flow, can be formed as a
result of tectonic stresses during fluid flow, or can be generated by the pressure of the
fluid. Hydrofracture is the process of rock fracture by fluid that is at a higher pressure
than the minimum principal rock stress (σ3). This is the natural physical process equivalent
to ‘hydrofracking’ that is employed by the hydrocarbon extraction industry to
enhance rock permeability by inducing rock fracture.

3. Breccias
Breccias of different styles and textures are a common but generally minor rock type of
many hydrothermal systems. They are, however, of particular importance as they are the
hosts to ore in many ore bodies. Brecciation is a result of rock fragmentation in a pressure
gradient.

1.2. Hydrothermal deposits formed around magmatic centres

A large number of hydrothermal ore deposits of different metals are closely associated in
space and time with magmatic centres of intermediate to felsic igneous rocks. Magmatic
centres in the context of ore deposit geology are generally clusters of small intrusions
such as dykes and stocks that mark the eroded roots of long-lived volcanoes. They are
the
sites of upward migration of magma at depths of a few kilometres in the crust. In many
magmatic centres the small intrusions were derived from a larger pluton of which the top
is exposed, or its presence at slightly greater depth can be inferred. In these cases,
magmatic centres develop above dome-shaped protrusions (cupolas) or ridges on the
roof of a pluton. In other cases there is no indication of an immediately underlying large
pluton, and the small intrusions may have been sourced from significantly deeper in the
crust. Multiple magmatic centres may form above large plutons.
1.2.1 Porphyry deposits
Porphyry deposits represent a repeated and distinct mode of hydrothermal fluid
escape
from large intrusions in the crust. The three most important commodities by value
worldwide in these deposits are Cu, Mo and Au. They are the dominant world source
of Cu (> 65% production) and Mo (> 95% of production) and account for significant
proportions of production of Au, and also for Ag and Re as by-products. Porphyry
deposits are large deposits with between 1 Mt and 10 Gt of ore in pervasively altered
and veined rock in which ore minerals are uniformly disseminated at relatively low
grades. Grades are commonly less than 1% Cu in a copper porphyry deposit, about
1 ppm Au where this is an economically important product, and about 0.1% Mo in a
molybdenum porphyry deposit. The deposits are subdivided on the basis of metal
content
(Cu–Mo–Au), although most have above-crustal background concentrations of all
three
metals, and ore compositions form a spectrum between end members rather than
clear
clusters of types.
1.2.2 Greisens and related ore deposits
The word greisen refers to a hydrothermal alteration assemblage of granitic rock,
specifically quartz–muscovite with one or more F- and B-bearing mineral, most
commonly
fluorite, topaz or tourmaline. The alteration differs from phyllic alteration by the
presence
of the F- and B-bearing minerals, in general by a lack of pyrite, and by coarse-
grained
muscovite rather than the fine-grained sericite that is typical of phyllic alteration
assemblages.
The deposit type is economically less important than porphyry deposits. Most
deposits
are relatively small, with maximum tonnages of tens to hundreds of megatonnes.
The
 deposit type is, however, directly or indirectly the most important ore of Sn from the
mineral cassiterite (SnO2). Where it is indirectly the source of Sn, it is the primary
source
of the mineral mined from placer deposits (see Section 5.2). It is also an important
source
of W from the minerals scheelite (CaWO4) and wolframite ((Fe,Mn)WO4). Co-
products
and by-products of greisen deposits can be Cu, Zn, Bi and Mo, which are present in
disseminated sulfide minerals, and fluorite. Deeply weathered greisens are
additionally
an important source of high-grade kaolin, for instance in southwest England. There
are similarities in the chemistry and mineralogy of the ore and of associated
magmatic
rocks between greisens and the relatively rare Sn–Ag porphyries such as in Bolivia
1.2.3 Skarn and carbonate-replacement deposits
Skarn is a historical Swedish mining term that has become to be used for the
assemblages
of Fe-bearing calc-silicate gangue minerals (garnet, diopside, wollastonite, etc.) that
are
associated with some sulfide ores. In the study of metamorphic petrology the word is
used both ore deposit types are ores for a variety of metals
1.2.4 Polymetallic veins and vein fields associated with magmatic centres
There are a large number of small, mainly historic mines in and around magmatic
centres
in which multiple individual veins were or are selectively mined in contrast to bulk
mining of large volumes of veined and mineralised rock at porphyry deposits. Many
vein
fields are well-defined clusters of veins spread over several kilometres diameter,
each vein
separated by altered but unmineralised rock or by unaltered rock. It is in many cases
a
question of economics as to whether mining is bulk-rock or selective. These veins
mark a
hydrogeologically different style of fluid migration away from magmatic centres
than
porphyry deposits in particular.
1.2.5 Low-sulfidation epithermal deposits
Low-sulfidation epithermal deposits are mined predominantly for Au and Ag,
although
many have concentrations of Pb, Zn and Cu in sulfide minerals. The two precious
metals
have differing relative importance in deposits around the world. Some are markedly
Ag-rich, in particular the deposits in the Eocene and Miocene magmatic belts of
central
and northern Mexico.
Low-sulfidation epithermal deposits are hosted by a greater variety of rock types and
are typically at greater distances ( 2–10 km) from volcanic centres than high-
sulfidation
deposits. These deposits are hosted in sub-aerial volcanic rocks within a few
kilometres of
central volcanoes, and the typical host sequences are bedded sequences of
intermediateto felsic-composition lavas and pyroclastic rocks. The host sequences
 generally lack
abundant cross-cutting shallow intrusive rocks such as are characteristic of
magmatic
centres. One characteristic siting of these deposits is just outside of a caldera rim
fault.
Well-studied examples include Creede, Colorado, USA (Bethke, 1988); Waihi and
other
deposits in the Coromandel Peninsula (Hauraki goldfield), New Zealand (Simpson et
al.,
2001; Simpson and Mauk, 2007); Hishikari, Japan (Ibaraki and Suzuki, 1993)
1.2.6 Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) deposits
Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) or volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)
deposits
are stratabound and sometimes stratiform bodies of massive sulfide hydrothermal
ore and
associated sulfidic ores (sulfidic sediments, disseminated replacement ores,
stockwork
sulfide-bearing veins) that formed at or just below the sea floor near active magmatic
centres in relatively deep marine environments. The host-rocks to these ores are
submarine
volcanic rocks, or more rarely turbidites or other deep-sea sedimentary rocks
intercalated
with volcanic rocks. Deposits in the latter settings are sometimes classified as SHMS
–
sediment-hosted massive sulfides. VHMS ores are polymetallic and contain variable
combinations of sulfides of Cu, Zn and Pb together with Au and Ag: some are mined
for
pyrite as a source of sulfur or for production of sulfuric acid. They have variable
metal
contents, with division for instance into Zn–Pb and Cu–Zn ores.
 REFERENCES

Ridley, John. 2013. Ore Deposits Geology. New York : Cambridge

University Press