MAURICE CORNFORTH THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE . + The THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE DM oaautice CornforthThe Theory of Knowledge ‘By MAURICE CORNFoRTHprlht © by twvemarions, Penne Coy 196 1955 "had (ein) Ban © by Mare Carr, 1965 Ditecticat Moet: dn aroun mor Printed in the UledSate of Amica > FOREWORD 1 dhcory of knowledge! is concemed with questions shou easter sure the way they reflect rely, the way they nee tented and developed, thelr role in seal Tvse questions have alvaga formed an important part of philosophy. rim urns pilosphy the theory of knowedge has come 'o oosnpy! the Bet place, on the grounds that bere any Plilowphicl conchatons can he drawn about anything wate et we tft ake certain of what we realy do know ad the foundation on which we know it But bourgeois philoso piers have generally approached the subject In the most Abstract posible way. Taking noting else for granted than the bare existence ofthe iadiidual human mind, they have ‘led how knowledge could be born and grow up in it But ince human indsidul, and sil ess tei minds, donot eit ‘na void, this hind of ngiry was bound wo raise unanawerable {Questions and to ensineamperatively sterile, "Mars, onthe either hand, conaters that we ought 10 seudy the subject more conerily, and so ak how ideas Actually ene; evelop and ave tested in the concrete conde tone of real human ify in the materi Ife of rocey. This volume is abot how human eonseouines actually are and Aevelope: Teter to tence thin process step by sep fom ie Seginings in te simple conditioned rfl which isthe baie ‘may in which an asimal organi enters ino ative relatone thip with the external word, up te developmen of human [nowledge aed hurt feedor, Se aaCONTENTS Part Ove. The Nat end Origin ofthe Mind Moo ann Boo (Mas as Promucr avo Revtscrion oF Marr Soca Lapour axo Soca Tava "Tuovorr, Laxovaoe Ao Loste Pont Ti, The Dsespneof Iss Anernact eat Toxoto0y - Texovocroat axons Sener Scuesce ax Soctatane Part Thee, Toth and Prom Tevoe ‘Tue Roos oF Keowrz50 ‘Tue Grown or Ksowurnee - [Neceatry avo Fazanow ‘Tue Reatsamox oF Frexoom ‘Reaone Lar 35 6Port One JMB NATORE AND ORIGIN OF THE MaxDChapter One MIND AND BODY Moir a Mind [iter comes tates hat hore the mind ay be connected with its body it isnevertheles distinct ad tae om the bay. According to ths belie the mind Mninats” the bay and makes we of the organs ofthe body both to receive impreaion ofthe exeral world and to ac on Aho external world; butts existence doesnot depend on that tthe bay. Moreover, while in some off acivites che mind takes une of the body, im other of ts actives it does not. For Tintance the mind makes te of the body in is sensuous le, but inte “purer” inellectl or mpitaal activites dot not "This in eaence a very ancient conception. Thus some nitive people thik of te oul a Being a very five vapour Pike i what the word "spi originally meant—whieh sides inthe body bat which ean come out ofitand lead an Jndependent exitence For example, the soul journeys out of the body durngslep, iting forth om te mouth. Again, he wrong soul can somesmnes get ino the verong bod—as in "Spostesion:a lunatic or an epileptic said to slr fom an chars having got nt hie body And a part ofthis priv ‘Sonetption ofthe sul there arias the conception ofthe sure ‘velo the sul ater death and aloof de pre-esitence of the tal bere bir deat pilrophicalthecres about the mind are, in the fait anaes, only Teinements and ratonalisaons of such superstuons “Amongst such refinements and rationalsatins isthe doce ‘wine that mind and body are two iinet substances— °spiritual substance and material ubstance. Material substan, ‘body, is extended, har weight, moves shout i sp Shirts! substance, or tain, thinks knows fe, desis This lew ial very widely eld Tis believed that soch pope it hing, Feng and wo om are vo absolutly dllereat Inn the properties of mater, at however ley or thing feating may be bowed up with the state of owt bodies, they bblong to an immaterial rabstanc, the mind, whieh dst fiom te bo deals philosophers, who consider that theming ssparabl {ror the bed, maintain that tog, flings and oom atin no sense products of any material proce we thin snd ee fd act intligenty, for example, wach bchavioas not to be expltined from the conditions of our atrial existence but fiom the independent funeining of ovr minds, Admittedly, the mind makes we of the bouly organs; but intelligent Dchavour stems fom the fat thatthe body i animated, informed. and contlled by an immaterial principle of a spiiaal being, the mind, ‘But such idealist theories, widespread as they ar, have long been ofier by epposing macenalit views, According” to materialism, s0 fr fom mind being separable fom body, all ‘menial functions depend on their appropiate body organs And cannot be exrceed without them. All people's eomsetous ‘a intlignt activites ca be traced back forte eases, 40 that fr fom such activites being exclave products of ‘mind, mind tell It prodict—the highest procuet-of “Moder materialism, which is equipped with the revu of scienticivertigatons into the forms organelle sod with the conception of evolution x able to given deckive anewer {o the idealist conception of the mind. Mind i a product of the evolutionary development of lle. Living bodies which have reached a certain level of development of the nervous system, suchas we ind in animal an and do deelop fos of {onsiousnes; and in the couse of evolution tis conscious ‘eventually reaches the stage of thought, the actviey of the Ihuman brain, The mental funtion fom the lowest to the fuer Te he dn, he an nw se cnc a, iy io sep mse Sy adele Min andsndsag A rn tones fay shat My Sinton nan ory iy tn nd dee ox aac om aly Int Ney hat eva proces do nt et thatthe nid at amy OF sme, minds cna Nisin dot et ery ny tn, Wate Wins dey lg ate mind npr Mie icy mind ate hing ranean, data! Th pt en be Sate by any example wc we cnt spas ni Haphes a Anus Re ime atthe mead han ete tad gut od stn a te om, fame An, Nga the sr ver fn pect i wih eta hein "Spon fia at yo tg ad "Wa yor snd ET eam qe spy ar we yo tng ‘Sout? Iodine ant fhe acto, “at SMeyon cing on sts eet ington 1g eae your incites tom orb ‘ery, yw lt gu hae eaten cx Hos ve ry mit ce "Yow sgh ioe yt tale remus ae nin eng ean ‘ns ch you nay Ad yp ot yo ee Tat eho some oer yar irae ot ‘the brain, thea these remarks about your mind no longer apply. Sts och hy vor ean hn wo ge eval ns the mes f perma em hae Best Saeoret ne endowed with mind, the a en fey ets nd ee he ese ee Sno he nyo tering, on ogo SyAepenent on appropiate bodily organs, Given a ly with theappropriate organisation and the appropiate comin Ii, hoe aetsties arise and develop. Destroy the yo Is orgy and these ete are detoyed with Alt ‘mental fnetions and acti, which ar said tobe pel ‘find as distin rom matter, are functions o acts living material organisa. The mind iss product of tte “organise Gnsonnn andthe Necsus Sytem [Not every body i capable of thinking and feeling, but only ream, living bodies And not every living body’ manifest ‘hove atvies whieh are smolated with the development of mind. The appearance of mind iin Taet bound wp wit the ‘volution ofthe ental nervo ystem in ania ‘When living bodies evolved the nervous stem, and whe fiom the cara nervous system there developed the brain, then the elementary Fonction f nid, centring on tesation, fexme into being- And with the further development ef he brain~of the cerebral corte and ie higher centres, which we find in man-—thereenme into eing the higher fnctons ‘of mind, the Tunetions of thought. The brain i the organ ‘fdhought, Thinking ia funtion perlormed by the brain. Frew people nowadays would deny thee well-sablshed facts. Neverthles bli are wiely held which contract them. Such, for example, isthe bella pertonal survival after death. ‘Those who hold this belie wally suppove that in our future concious exitnce afer death iy things wl ‘sore much clearer tou han they are now. Tn other words, they believe that our minds cannot attain this fll develop ‘ment unl ater we are dead. They believe that ofr fom the brain being the organ of hough, our thought wil reach perfection enly when we have no bran ef to think with ‘Lenin maintained that in onder to ative st “an analysis and explanation” of mental process, in order to understand {heir nature and origi, iewarnecestarytost about making 9 direct study ofthe material sbstratam of mental phenomena the nervous proces”. (Wht the Finds of the role ie, “He Pore 1) The nations of this sd have een lid by ls pissy, nich the work of Re Raman physiol: [Pee ivan Piso was especialy signin. Oyun ent Kacrnmest fre alo, the nervous system was generally segarded as {uiling the primary uneion af co-ordinating the action of hello part of the organism: Sir Charts Sherington fall ths “the integrase. acon of the central nervous ten, Pavlov ined, however, onthe eed to investigate RMecoml immense part of the piyilogy of the nervous sys Fore regarded it au "a ajtem which primarily fhblsies the velaton, not between the individual parts of the ongasisy with which we have Been mainly concerned Nhe, ut between the gan and i surroundings The primary fonction of the ental nervous system 5 not sinply to regulate the foncioning of the rent pars of the organism in relation to one another, but to regulate the fnctioning ofthe organi a8 whole i elation tots ctundings "Through the funetoning of ix nervous system, the aial inthe tency bln up mit compited lato ‘wth ie eavioasen, thanks fo which i rable o ve fat {vionmien, taba is requirement and vo react to definite fondo in a delsite way. Thus the animal relates ise 0 {te urroundings in tach'a way that it eacvey aware of ‘roandings reacts appropriately to event and in turn acts bel upon then. To dal thy te animal use it sense ongane ‘ha ib, ad the gan controling the whole proces the bean "The simple sort of rele, whereby a stimulus affecting te snge trgant evokes 8 murclar neponee constitutes @ {elation or connection between the animal andisenvironment Sch ad such 2 stimulus evokes such and such a response— ‘hia dexeibes an active relationship of the animal witht roroundings Pavlov showed thatthe active relationship of the animal with is surroundings begins from certain fed ‘and constant connection between the aizal and Une exteralword, which he called wmndtine ref, and Through the ing upof temporary andverableconn ‘rhc be led sadited Th order to study the development of rleees, Pv she very fara fat tha anilsdscharge saliva salivary glands in thelr mouths asa preparation for rant hod. os dog presented with foo dechanges cvaih mountofslva. Thsita imple, unconditioned reflex Present Ah dog with fd, and alive in ts mouth; Paso the found that a bell was rung whenever 9 dog wae preset ‘with fo then, afters nn, the sand of the Ell wal ‘eruficient to nue the dog oalvate, eventhough he ee Id ot yet ben prevented. Pie alas conged rele, oraya el of ete condition, cation, the repent sociation of the bel with fn, the dog had bee con Gitioned to react (0 the bell~viereas it never had to be oniione to react w the fod. In other words the dha Teared to anocite the Bell with fod and had come to cect {ood on hearing the bl and oto grea Tr the food even ‘efre ewat ally promt ‘Whereatuncondioue rlexes ae m part ofthe hereity ofthe analy developed inthe cour of the evolu ef the speci, condoned flees ae brought into being in the urea theif ofthe invidval—andy having been brought int Beng, can also be changed or destioyed. Thus afer a tie fod is no longer presen when the bell ring, then {he dog wll cee to react to the bello can be aught to reat ttn ay al ut oly Yow bel paar phy ‘The rechasinm of reflexes i fei the brn nthe cone nections whch eit between the mntry ad moter centres ofthe bain. The seasry center ae tnt fom the motor eres the function ofthe frmer being to receive mesages nd of dhe later to send mesages out ‘They ae connected insoch s way tha when a teste comes in fmm the sense ‘otzans to the serory centres, Irs sero to the motor ents whieh then dapath a nenage othe mal any tea thatioagivenstimulan appropratresponsclomade 4 ‘An uncon Mant wonton wii ex Hanon ofthe rain, As! conditioned reflexes ave based on Winporary, viable and condiioned connections which are Time Iniieen the semory and motor centres in the course lah anno is. hel enero btwcen sensory and motor centres within he ania brain cnstitte connections between the animal fil the xtersal weld, For the funtion of the connections lhe ana be et conect the saimal wth what at ie with ie surroundings. is the uncondidoned fond-aliva connection witia the ‘yay tha allen foo i presented the dog gets ead (0 eat and Uist i And the condoned bellsliva connection within {hedog?s ain connects the dg with ts orrowndings ia such a vay that when a bell sound, which the dog as learned to hualate with food, then, once agin, the dog ges realy £0 “An anizal lives only by meant of ite connections with its surounding, ta , by tw external connections which are ‘Sablahed through the Internal connections within 8 owe. Trai, Pavlov showed tht thee connections of the animal With is surroundings are fone through the development af {Contitoned conection from uncondioned connection, tat {aby the development of condidoned releses fom uncon” ‘iin reflexes "To sum up. An unconditioned connection ita relatively constant, inherited connection between an animal and iis vironment. I, fr instance, something ssddenly panes in font af the eye, the eyelids blink: this an aueondlioned ‘unetton, which serves to protec the eye. Quit iespectve ‘tibe varying cmon widchit encounters, thenimal rates ite tthe surrounding world through such reflexes. Tei ‘bora with such reflexes, which were formed in the course of fhe volition athe species. “A conditned connection, onthe ober Band, ea temporary ‘and very variable connection between the animal and 18 5cnvironment, which i acquired by it in the conte of i individual lf, and which ean likewise disappear. Ao, Instance, will go to @ certain place for its dinner. hit yh conection which i has seqited in the courte of ie i ‘bas become conditioned to seek is dinner in that pla, other word it as feared to seeks dinner there. An i conditions change, then such conditioned connectons ca. be changed correspondingly. The dog can leara to lok far ‘inner somewhere ele Pvlow showed thatthe nervous tem of the higher annals Ins the function of acquiing and erablhing temporary sud ‘variable connection between the animal and ie surroundings, ‘whereby the sama adjust ir seats to the varying co Aine aes environment, and lo, by means of ow action fon ts environment, adjusts its environment tothe requirments tthe snimal ‘This funtion is performed inthe brain, and eonsequenlly Pavlov called the brain “the organ ofthe most complicated telationrofthe animal othe exteral weld” Acisity ond Couns, Section "Paviow ised that mental activity i the same a2 higher nereousactiviy, and thatthe diferencaspets of mentale ‘rt be explained by dats obtained from the ivergation of [igher nervous sev. "The duals which regards the so And the body a quitseparat things sl oo ly ingrained fun! he arate. "For the sient, sich dierentiaton is impenible” ‘Mental activity an activity ofthe bran. And ifthe brain fn the organ of the most compiated relations of the animal to the external wordy then we must feqardtnetal activity ft apart of the activity whereby the anna relates it 0 the external worl. Tr bars the formation of conditioned teflxes ‘Mental ife begins when things begin to tae on & meaning for the animal, and this happens when the animal, as. Teaut ef the formation of conditioned reflexes, bagi 0 {0 connect one thing with another. Something has ame 6 for an animal when the animal has leared to connect i ence with someting ese- For ceampl, 2 dog leatns Hoconvec's parieslar imation of tense of sell with the presence Bf some particular ood, of of another dog, ot i mane, ctey” An soil iy consandy reeiing an horus uber of stil throgh fis external and fteraal vn, ae leat to connect the various smal wath Yaron Thu he var i teen ily Amal to which axed espn satoratialy called forth, Int ty consate fr the aaa of signal of the fnternal werd and of own relations to the extra wordy tovwnich a whole aety of espome are made es og cal ice ey were Heage Te aware of things ir escnialy an active ate, and nota passive State ‘Po be ware of things Is nat simply to be affected by ‘em, but to rexpond to them. “Awareness nea st of al thatthe animal, by the we of it seme ongans driminaes certain features of exvifon- tment onthe fla envionment, and responds to them. For ‘ramet pets out fs fod by smell touch and sgh, and "And awareness means, secondly, that the animal attaches a imeaning to various featores of environment, ithe sae {ha connects then with other thing For example, certain things become forthe animal signals ofthe presence of fod, or ofthe approsch of something Gangerou, and 20 on, and the anal sponds asordinay. “Thur the active awarener of things whichis engendered by the formation of condoned reese meats that the animal earns to connect the atl which i actualy receives ih ‘ther thing by which snot athe tie ec afected. And fo sable to fren expectations snd fo lear by experince ‘nth way the formation of condoned selec give te tothe ference between the subjective snd the objective. This ‘ference, which has been the subject of much spect nd mysiation by phlowmpher bax natura explanation, For the diference between the ubjective and the objective begins to arb a soon a anata ben tobe aware of hin 7Ii simply the difference between the totality of actualy ‘xsing material conditions and the apects of them of whieh ‘he animal is avare and the meaning i attaches to thes ence the subjective as opposed to the objective, the mental 1 opposed to the pha, atarens as opposed to dt which itisawarenes ofall dhe dferenes arte a a raul ofthe development of the higher nervous activity of animals through {Be bullding up by! conditioned reflexes of ever more come ‘plicated relations of the animal with the external ord ‘Thesubjectveisdiferen from the objec, besa (a) the ‘animals aware omly of sone pate or aspects sid nt of the Uwhole of ts surroundings, and (8) the meaning i attches to ‘things may be wrong—tha to say, tinge may become eon nected together ruhecively In diferent way fom therein hich they are connected together objectively, in actual Tat ‘And the objective prior othe subjective, berate (0) the cxntence of things sa condition fr awarenest of Cura where fyarenes of thing ie nota condition for their existence, ad (@) thing exited long beter any awarenes of them arcee ot ‘ould have arisen on the part of Fvng organiems “Tes, then inthe atnty of the nero ytem—-the activity ‘ot building complieated and variablerelatonr with heexeral ‘woetd—thaecotount avises. When, through the formation OF conditioned seflnes, the romlations which an ail receives beyia to fonction for it a6 signal and it lam 10 ecoghise sch signals and to reyulte ts behaviour im accor. ance with them, then anew quality comes into essence in the nervous process f the anne namely, consclounesr. ‘Conscioishess snot a mteriousomething” which comes lnvobeing parallel to sde by side with, the mail ie proces ‘ofthe brain Tes eather the now quality which distinguishes thatlife proces The beala proces becomes x consis proces ‘a result ofthe brains funcdoning as "the orga of the nce Complicated reasons of the animal to the external world” ‘Consciousness the pecaliar quality ofthe rations af the animal to the extemal world effete by the Mle proce of the brain This relationship becomes one fn which the ate is avare ofits suroundings through the sumulaione ofthe 8 various centres of is brain and the connections established in he brain. Tn so fe sa anna ve Sn ch relationship swith it surroundings, ie ie conscious and is exitence "The elementary form of conssoutnest amongst animals i sensory conicoumess, of sention. Tha arin when, throsgh the formation of conditioned refckes, various wnulations of Itssense organs acquire a meaning and become sgnals forthe snimal: Foran external olserver, thse smulatons aresimply ‘nadificatons of the sens organs to which the animal responds In definite ways. Hat the He ofthe somal ha then become a ‘emu conc To ban proce, or aie prt ‘ofits brain proces, has become a conscious process In which ‘Simulation of the terse organs become seasations, Desiopment of he High Mesal Assy of Mon ‘The higher mental sesty of man, peerh and thought i not separated by any uabvidgeable gap rom the sensryeamsciour: fs which man poses in common with ether anal. Oo the contrary, it trac from the evaltionary development of the stucture and functions of the human bray asthe gaa ofthe connection ofthe animal to the external word. “When the deveoping animal world reached the stage of rman,” Pavlov wrote “an enteral iaportamt aden was {made tothe mechan of the higher nervous activi." This ‘Addion corated ofthe development of speech and thought process, ideas, ae inteparable rom speech. Ite known tat fpcech has ie material bai in certain ‘centres of the uaa, Dra, the evaluton and weskinge of which conaituted that “addon o the mechanism ofthe hier nervous activity” of which Pavlov wrote and which i pecs fo man tts part ofthe brain is injured destroyed, ot ony the ability to ‘speak impaired or lost bu so isthe ability to think ‘Speech develops as a means of communication between individuals in sciety, without which their ois Ie and so the survival ofthe species would be lnposibe, The we of peel, ‘he ality to speak and to understand what iid rote in ‘man's sensory activity, which he asl caramon with other 19animals, 1¢ has evidently developed a an addition to that fensory activity engendered by dhe new anique conditions of the human mode af saci ie and bated on the enlargement of the srctare and funetons ofthe bara bra Many sats have evlved snear of communieatng with other members of thelr species about situations of which they Sreswnre throngh thelr sentadons. Thus in havea warning ‘alto alert other bids to danger, In some eases quite come ‘leated communications occur, Tins a bee retarning to the Five performs a dance in respons o which other bees iy offin an niente direction where the fist bee has found nectar. By {peech the huanan being can likewte communicate fo others Dartculae facts of which leis aware throug his aensains But speech enables us todo fr more da ths. For I eonsis not jus reso gestures, bat the combination of words. "Through its eeneations an animal recogni ebjecu ad their semible character, snds0 responds t che diferent luaGoos which confront it In bulding up conditioned con- fection with things trough senatone, the animal i already learning to reac to and £0 disinguish what common (0 Aiferent thing that to say, wo Fecognise the same kind of thing andthe stme properties of things on diferent occasions In boman speech there are words it de Best plac, forthe digerent hinds of objects and the diferent properties of fobjecs which we recognise though our sestion. And $0, by combining these words, we can spe at will abou dierent nnd of obey, atsbute diferent properties to them, and 30 communicate nt merely information abut particular sensible fos of wich we me feweeintely awe ud which call oe fn immediate eeponse, but about the Kind of things which furround us andthe properis they hav, about Row they ean ‘be changed, about not only what i immediately and sraly present but about the pst, and fatre ad the far distant {0 pace ad about not only what is actual but what is possible (or imaginable Speech perorme an abstracting and generalising Runetion in relation to what we are aware ef through sensation, and 20 ‘makes posible the eotmuicaton of plans and Seas, and the whole higher activity of thought. To have ideas is to have Ihords and the uve of speech. And his affords us much wider ‘Sonnectioos withthe world aboutus and far diferent relations ‘wth each other than thote pose to animale without speech Fluman beings communicating by speech are placing them selves ina few and more complex elationsip with the Surrounding workd and with eachother compared with other Snimals, which are Umited to the cnaccans they build up ‘through semation sone, The hutan brain e the organ of th ‘elationsip; andthe abstracting, generalising, planning and thinking seiiy ofthe aman brain ie the actly of develo fag thn latina. “Evidently, without therenston which peopl have in com ‘man with otherspimals therecan benospecch and no tosh, ‘lace there develop fem man’s sensory acvty. At the same Hime, the development of human sensation is also modied by speech. Our senory aarenes i conditioned and directed by ‘ur ideas ‘Thur we donot merely have seaetions of sight, ‘ound, touch, ele to which we repond, but thvesenatlons ‘te integrated ino pereptions of sbjects of which we have eas and how the namser Thr i shown, or example, by the fact that in children the naming of hings is an Indispensable art of the education oftheir eres; or agin, bythe fact that People who through some brain injury have forgoten the ames of things become confsed in thelr reactions to the things. ‘Wermay conc, then, that ot ony our sencations but out thoughts and ideas as well all the Righer inlectual and ‘pital actives of man, take their origin Srom the material process ofthe human organism, depend ona bodily organ of ‘hich they ate the functions, and grow out of te internets Of she uzoan organism with its cavironment, natural and fecial, mediate by the higher nervous activity ofthe bain.Chapter Te MIND AS A PRODUGT AND REFLECTION ‘OF MATTER Move Pcs ae Prot of he Brin, Ret the Orgasm tote Surowigs Esa nhs chapter ty brie to summarise the main ondusons about the relation of matter and tind ahich have been reached by Mars snd ae uname by rey scene investigation, contrasting them with te views Baby ideals : F “Mental futon are feos of high developed mate, samy of the bain, Mental proces ae brain pocesey, Proceso ante, body eran “The extent feature of mental proces is ha in and throngs them the animal contosaly Duds up meat eam Plated and variable reladons with fa sureugs, Waa ee pw aetna xl tee through te perceptual acy of the bain And whee we {tink of thingy, we re reating one oneal ers throug the hough act othe bai. Baling that coracowinen belongs to a. mind which ests scparaion fom mater, iain gently ries upon the metod of introspection inorder to ie an account oor cence, Ths the method of looting inide ones owe fenvcousnes, 50 to speak, and tying to analyse what find te “The outianding example of the we of the intospective aaod in moder peychoogy & prychoranalys Poycho. Atay has evalved special technique of conti ‘pection, applied by the cooperation of @ patient and aychosanalat By inducing the patent toreporton whatever Gomes nto his mindy to taste hit des and wo onthe Prychoanaiat daima to dicover Genes congue a whole realm of the unconiclous. And so there hay been developed « very daborate theory ofthe diferent part of the mind and errant td fncdone ofthe cea 7d the unconcious the ego, the i andthe superego, This Is but an exenon of the method wed by al ideals piesos ‘hers and pycblogs when they ty toatalye the como far of the human sind, clasfng them, relating them and Lyng to ace their development, all'the tne tweaing ‘niciosnes ab though it were a word oni own, divorced fom the extemal teal world ‘Adopting such a methed, many Heat philosophers have ‘ome tothe cenclaion that the perceptions and fleas which fonattte the content of consciousness area special Kind ot ject which fave a meatal exitence distinct from the ‘material exience of objec oui our consumes For such ideas phlarophers, wat we ae syare ef in our sonics life not material object at I We Lane ony a ‘eat of things, and not the "thngs in thease, Thos the Englh philnopher John Locke wrote in his Eisgy on tt enor Undetendig: “The mind, in al ie ough and ‘eaonings, hath no other immediate jet bt i om dena ‘hich italone does or ean contemplate” Hence eli conclde that only God know what are the Proper of "things in themelve, for they conden oor fextaons and ideas tobe a Kind of wall inde our eoraions 4s ctng of fom the external word, Some yo ep Ste, and conclude tha Were iano reason to beleve thee {xterm materal things exit at all: nothing eas except oat Binds sid the ventaens and dene oat mind “If tes ‘ere external bode," wrote George Beisey inhi Pini f enen Bn, sini we hou eer cose to Snow ity and if there werent, we migit have he very same ‘east fo think Ghee wee as we have now" ‘But there s another method of stsdying our conscious, ‘mel the method of science, which tude ving eonsleas 23nani interactive relationship wth thee surrounding ‘Tinmethod doe aot eat conminumnes ar aspect objet ot intepecive contemplation, And wo does ot sty eon- sot Seg pe someting xg son fom the ie proce of ving concou organi bt on ontray isola thee consi aetity As Marx and Engels Sey prose tin The Geman Ida: “Cracow Sheer omc erates” "Ame have tidy he esnce of oncous atviy wo bul sup complicated sod arable active tlaons Between the ‘lnciour organi ad! ascoundings and thi foneton erormed by the brain, Conoqucnty the proces of con oust are procenes whey wre Flat outer fo he ‘Sternl wort Far lem handing the way of ur appre: lomo enteral hingy, our sensations aod eas are the means ‘whereby we apprehend the. "'Senatin Sr the erect connection between concouiness andthe exteral wos wrote Lenin, "The ophim oidelst lpi consnin th fe! hat egards eatin a8 being Box the conection betwen comsusnest andthe external Aros bot a's ncey a wal separating conan rom We earn wort! (Matsbon ant EnpirinGrisim, apter) ‘lop the sete approach to the study of concour ea Mlarm eretore dene he ies theory that when ste perce fel ov ak there ae spore pce ping pth mera proces ofthe brain and the mental proce ‘Frmelounen. On er proce hveved, namely, the Inatria proven of the bain Mental pron ae simpy one pect of the proces ofthe fnetoning of the bra a the ‘hen of most conplcatedslaons tthe extra wor "hn so Mar wrote that taking i "the ie procem of he thom bri” (Capt, Preface ond eion) Consioeniit a Prout of he Deore of Matter 1a) According to Wealiam, nch phenomena st perceptions edlings and thoughts cald not be produced bythe workings Py ‘fy materia oytem, Melis holds hat the peel quality ‘of cosciounes, which distinguishes mental process, cannot be explained a arking ffom any pombe combination of material condition, but isa quality absolutly incompadible ith all qualities of material systems. Such a quality, ideals Coacuder, can belong only 10 something nomeateral, panel, the mind. ‘ut all the known facts point tothe conclenon that con sciousness product ofthe development of mater, namely, ‘fing bodies with central nervous ystems, and that pte ‘ceptions flings and thoughts ae in fac the highest products cof mater "IE the question is aid: what, then, are thought and ‘conciousness and whence they came," wrote Engels in Ate Dising, Par, chapter, "it Secomes apparent at they are Dreluets of the human bean, and chat man himselt ie a Dredct of mature, which has been developed in and along ‘eis his environment” "The material, sensousy perceptible world to which we belong isthe ony reality", Engels farther wrote in Ladeig ‘Fesrbech chapter. “Our contcousnes and thinking however soprasensuou they may tem, afe the profit of s material boty organ, the brain, Matter i not product of mind, but ‘ind tee merely the highest product of nature.” When animals develop a nervoinayitem and begin actively to relate themselves to their environment by condoned Connection, then the Bervous proces becomes a conscious recs, a proces of sensation ann man of thinking Hence Senations and thoughts ace the pecs products of the enous procas. ‘Seneaion, wrote Lenin jn Mataton and Bxpiris Cicm, chapter 1, "one ofthe properties of matte in totion" "Mater acing on out senteongans proces verantion”, he continued, "SentaGon depende on the bral, nerves, retina, fe, Le, on matter oraned ina definite way.» Sensation, ‘hooght consciousne are the supreme product of matter frpaniced in »pariclar way.” 5Coins it Reflection of the Material World (). Many idealists, who believe thatthe mind ex ia separation from the body and that perceptions and thoughts fannot be product of any material proces ay thi peep fons and thoughts are creations of te ind which cccapy our consciousnes independenly of the exitenee of external, Iateia things ‘But Mars maintains that perceptions and thoughts are nothing bat reflections of materi things. The proseucs of ‘onseousnes are procates reflecting external, material reality, land nothing ean come to bieth in conslounens except at & Feflecton ofthe material word “Mare wrote, inthe Preface tothe and eon of ait hat “he eal ie nothing else than Whe matesal wor retected by he human mind an translated into for of thought. He considered that in the proces of thinking, and in consciousness in general, there ie produced 4 reflection of tliferen pars or aspects fhe material word one pardeslar ‘material proces, namely, the ile proce ofthe balm Ia oat onscioustey diferent parte or azpecte of the material world fare tala into forms of comeiouness—pereeptione and thought They are produced in the ife activity a the br, in forme appropriate to that activ "Thuy for example, the properties of various bodies abotb- Sng an electing ight ate, he sensory activity ofthe bea, epreduced in the form af seston of ealoat. Again, the relations and common features of things are in the thinking Setvity ofthe brain, reproduced in the form of concepts ‘What exacdly do we mean by “rllecton”, when we say that consciousness ia reflection of snatrat reality? There re four features of the procs of reflection to which we ay ‘pecally draw atenton Merial Realy is Prioay au its Mowal Reet i Stcdry ‘Dervaite (6) The proces of relation invalves a eelaionship between ‘yo separate material proces, such chat features of te fist proces are reproduced in correspon features af he second 6 ces. The fist process is primary, and its reflection in the {Scond is eeondary or derivative. For the is proces develops Incompletindepondence ofthe recond, wheres the reprodi tion ofeatures of the first proces by reflection in the second auld not occur unless these features were fst there t0 be produced or reflected "This fundamental feature of any proces of refection is ‘strated by reflection n'a mizror~although, swe salle, the ative reflection of external reality in conslousne Siler Inimportant respects fom the pasive reflection which take nce in miro ties wen coc are reli in wie, then oes which are et before the mirror do not depend on being Fefected ia the mist for ether thar exence or thet ‘harateriia; but, on the other handy the refiction in the ‘tror depends on what i se before the minro, and nothing fected in the mirror which does not reprodice in sone ‘way the characteris of what nae before the miro. Hence Aheobjetis primary, and ts reection secondary or derivative. ‘Similary, the exutenee of material objects docx not Geen on our ing conscious of thems but n the other hand, these |S pothing in our cnscoasnes which doesnot reproduce in other something whichexisin the material wort, je many characteratcs of things which are nt reproduced in our semtions; but we have no azstion whieh ies not correspond, in sme way or oer, to smne dcfile ‘nd common features of things which are pot seprodced in ‘er concept; but we ean form no concep in out minds whieh oes not reproduc, in some way or ater, even iin fantastic ‘ways (as in a dittring iieor), some feature or some ship of things. 3 course, many concepts give an appearance of having no ‘bis in the neflection ef raterial reality, unt because, once formed, concepts ean be fray combined nal se of ntsc swags, For example, everyone Ino that no ral anal {elected ia the concept of mermaid, but that this concept {is formed by combining ideas of real animals namely, of 7fare no diferent from they although in the meantime we Ihave learned to do many things which they did not dor “Thus once biologie! evolution had produced the aman brain and hands, an started @ new Kid of evolution of hit ‘wn. The evluon af man int biological, What man evolves is his social organisation, hi technique, his cultured ie Knowledge, his concious mastery over hime? and external "nce in reason to the brain, what has developed since ‘man fist came into existence isnot his brn but the ue he thas made of ft—his development of the capac costained init Man has developed his material activites, his perecptons and his oughts; and through doing tis has Contneally Fevolutonised his own conditions of fe and intessd hs texpacior and power Brom Prptins ty Hess ‘Thinking arcs only out of wemse-perception and must be preceded by It To think about the warld we mus fst perceive fhe world. We can form no concept that not bused oa ad prompted by perception. And in geneva, 0 ideas at all art formed without the perceptions which ae the aecesary material on which te aetity of thinking to work, "A man goat ffom childhood in a confined space, for instance, ight have ax good a brain at anyone ele, but he ‘would have very He to think about, and his ideas‘and the ‘ange of his ideas would be very limited. Similar, the range (of Mens of pinitve peoples i limited at compared with ‘ulved men, though thee baie are im no way inferior Tt isas ou perceptions inereae with increared acivigy and social contact that our fas develop. “Thinking, then, grows oxt of pereeption, And this develop ‘ment takes pce oly in and through the ttive relationship to the extemal world which men etal for themseves in the couse of ther praceal wcal activity. Perception ioe? isnot just pasive eceving of impresion fom exteral ‘objects. The development of eenstion into peeeption tthe Product of the development of active reaionshipe to the 6 = fern word, And the more varied and complex the ative Flvowstip ofthe organi tot surroundings, the more hile ad compiex wil be the content of the perception of ite surowndings The real itlecual wealth ofthe individual depends nitely onthe wealth of his ea. comtectons,” wrote Mart Il Engels (Th Gems Ilopy, Patt, section 2). Haman pereepion i mich wider in scope than tha of any ahr nil A hs ene a a iden atin ad Intrere, sn in developing thew actvides and interests, tected a comesponding development ot histrts, Tisbecaine tna hs develope bi activites and his pecepone that he Tins been aie to this and to develop his Keas™and this has then reacted back again on the farther development of his ett and of his pereepons. "The eagle tet much fother than aan, but the human tye ses comiderably more in things than dos the eye ofthe thule" wrote Engch "The dog ha far heener sense fae thn man, but dos not dstnguh a hundredth par ofthe flour that for man are dente ntres of diferent thing Ad the sense of tuch, which the ape hardly poses in Cresta er, been developed side by side wat the tlvelopmentof the human haad inl trough the medium ttabour’” (The Party Pld ty Labor in the Trin from ‘Ate Mex, "The bis fr thi heightened perception and widee range of percepion in man was exalted by our early ancestor, svhen they Bat gan ota erect, ook around them and toe thie hands not to swing atong the branches of recs su rab fo, bu to asion tol and plement "At ans activity developed there developed the wealth of his connections wit the world around hi, Nan achieved Teightened perception and wider scope of perceptions, and then speech, hich marks the tsnaition fen conerete sense pereplions to abtact, general sess. The interscon i the fuse af man’s acy oft ideas with his aration led 19 ‘he il greater development of his perception, and 1 again (0 te farther developer of Hes. sr‘The capacity of the human bran to peteive and hen to links elised and developed in human sth, Labor Man lives in socoty, and acts together with his fellow men. Hin whole mode of lifes oil. There just sii in hs social sciviy that he ealerges hin perception, so ifn hs Social activity at, stating from there perceptions, he het to form ideas, to think and to develop ess "The bis of man's socal activity is fabour, Iti in and trough labour tha man fist ofa elarger Bi perceptions fd ft ofall bets tose his rain fo thnk-—ta for Hest Sd to communicate them, t develop though and language, "In labour then, isto be found the soutce and origin shout an angings “Labour i the primary basic codon of al uma ‘pintence wrote Engas in Hs omay on The Part Played by eter sth Troniton from Ape to Moy, "al tis to ach a2 ‘exten that in ser, re have to s8y that labour created ta Bisel ‘nthe evuon of man, Enget pont out, the st deve step was taken when an erect pomore was adopted. Thi tc fre the hand, And when men begun to fon tsa ple ‘ents with thc hands fore in changing enteral objects and producing the means of Ue, that wat the real beginning ct Engels "Thus the Sint fatto be established te the piel organisation ofthese individuals and thei eonsequent velaion {0 the vet of nature" But having etablehed that fact t ecesary to establish what they do—dhee acy, thei mod ‘flit. "Men. begin to dvtinguish themselves fom anal, soon a they beg to produce ther means of rbsistnce, & ‘ep whichis condoned by thee pica organisation. By prviing thir means of subsistence men are indivedy producing thar actual ruateial fe”. (The Gwen Ideas, Pare I, chapter) Wisin producing their means ofzubsitence and inirectiy ovlcing their actual material le that men, condoned by Their physical organiation, begin to act ar men, to develop tal organisation and “make their own history” and fn 90 Hong to form ideas, co hin and to speak, Disinie Feats of Huon Labour ‘What are th disineive fester of human labour, 28 con ted wth the waye i which other animale secre the means tie (1) First, men Guhion tools and implement, changing tntural objects ab ab to ute ther properes to Dring about Usted ends frtrament of abou,” wrote Mare (Capita, Vlume I, ‘upter 7, section 2), "i & tag, or 8 complex of things Which the labourer interpeces between himself nd the subject (this labour, snd which eres a the conductor af i acti He mates we of the mechanieal, physial and chemical opertes frome sebtancesin order to make other substances ‘ibervent wo sai” ‘The animal, on the other hand, collects and rearanges jects t hand, but doesnot tarsform them and use thelr properties and the natural Trees contained in them foe poe Aeing his means oflie and afecing argescalewansformaton fof is ruroundings im accordance sith hi own needs “The tal imple space human act, the tandorming feacton of man on nature, production,” wrote Engel "Animale in the avrower sera alo have tools, bat only a8 limbs of tee bodies the ant, the bes, the beaver- Animale ao. produce, bat thelr productive eft on. surounding ‘nature in reaion to he latter amounts to nosing at all Man alone has suceeded in impresing his tamp on nature, fot only by sing the plant and animal world from one place another, but also By altering the aspect and limate Oth dveling place, and even the plants ad snimale theme Selvey, that the consequences of hi activity ean Sipps only twth the general extinction of the terrestrial globe” (Dilts 1 Nana, Ktzoduction ) »“Animale change external nature by this activities just at san doc, if not to the same extent”, Engel farther wrote " But if animals exert» lasting effect on thei environment, it happens unintentionally, andy at far asthe animals are ‘onctned,its an aceldent The further nen become removed from the animals, however, the more thet effect on nature mathe character oft premeditated, Planned action, ted towards defnite ends known in advance 0 shor the animal ‘merely. war external nasite, and ‘brings about changes init simply by fs presence: man by his change ale serve his ends marr (The Pr led Labo inte Trston from Ape to hon) ‘By his labour, then, mam mastery nature, boning toole and using thems as to make nature serve his ends "Ea the Tabour proces,” wrote Mary, “man’s activity, with the help fof the istmene of labor, elses an alteraen, designed Thom the commencement, in Uhe material worked upon” (Capit, Velue 1, chapter 7, section 1.) And its in thus smattering and changing nature that man changer hina Aevelope ison hurnanattbute. {a} The seco ditincive feature of human labour flow feom the fist, ad ler ine contcoun and cooperative character, Tn making tools and wing them, in compelling natural ‘object and natural fee to serve hs end, man i eonaou ‘ofhis ends, hasan idea ofthe result he intends to bring about ‘And men work co-operasvey, aeonding to a conscious Sesh ‘and plan, to bring abot the ends they intend to achive "While sich sotial creatures as bees fr example, bald laborate structure, they do s0 in an automatic way, By Inanet. Human buiders, om the other hand, work acoming tora conscious plan, “We presuppose labour in form which stamps Fas ‘exclu hurman” wrote Mare. "A rider conduct oper fone that resi then a weaver, ad abe pts tothe many am architect in the construction of he ell, But what Aisinguiher the worst of architects frm the best of eer iz thi, hat the architect alee he structare fa iagination bore . I ret icin seat. At the end of ver Inbour proces we arent that alteady exsed In the imaginaten of the Mhoureratis commencement” (Copa, Value I, chapter, on) aloe, yc nd Tg Tyce auinte Katies of tahowr—tatinbour Iphone Alec snd ingles slo change of ral es Dy brn bes cropenng vals rsa wate Pesala tts Rovner wee? fly ev sn oper tad tog, so at ov ‘without the aids of speech and thought. a The marry ow Sry wc Ego wi the erlp- esieibchard,wthaho wend a’ rhcin ey few advance He ws conalydacnctng sew tert sa eri of rata a Tt Po Pd by nthe wad, Hagel pint out hat kr, ve fhe Pps piso tit Sse etcing end wo ang tid ing imply ake men pce logy is fer erty ik prep eienn boey Pkt svar eh cle prelate thar peep of ere nore popes otal oer dtd ftv bingy cus nays Ses thgh le aacng ane over etre tat ncetag femsttons omen hv cme Ln satan ore of he Propet of sone eet: cnc nage of aes ts cin elarget pp tow Sosrey ide ans On te other hand" Brg enna ine devenpment iristow cnn ape tng ae eb of occ Sic tgc hy tying ea telson {ier actiy, and oy ring ear he advennge of jot Seetyroclh indulged ihe plst werety dsamt ht one ener” Tas vig wth tiny "ha toby Sree coe” contrat ne Rt place te properties of he sie ee Be ue by tan Sa caw be uelovel nd ‘Mere be aimed a by human anopeson Kod le “is prsiely something which can ely be “sai, which can ‘nly be exprested by rade shar and not by allt and tures such ar are employed bythe animal “tne lee that even the mat highly developed animals need to comiimicate to ne another can be communicated ‘ren without te id of arclat speech," Engels pointed ou ‘Animals sgeal to one anor the presence of particlar cobjectt_at in the gestures made by bes, the sled dances Dyonbich they indicate the praence of source of honey ina pevtcuae tection; they aroise one another to partcl Aetions-s inthe call of the leader ofa pack: But that ial If de mode of life were such hat dhey needed 1o commun= fate with one another abou the eiferent properties of things, bout how theme were to be wed, and about the ends they ‘ned to achive by dlleent forms of co-operative activity, then such pestes and calls would no longer avail them, For they would then nee to communicate ot the parcular but the general: Animas have nosuch need, Butea do have such ‘need immediatly they embark upon even the mast dlemen- {ary forma of social Inbour. They thea have someting they ‘hed to a t one another, at Engels pointed out. And 3 they ‘deetop the means to sy i ‘Ste need ed to the cretion of ie organ,” Bagels cone tinuey "The undeveloped larynx of the ape was slowly but furely transformed by teans of gradually increased modular tion, andthe ongane of the mouth gradually Learned. to Drosounce one articulate leer after soother. Comparison ‘ith animale proves that this explanation of the origin of TRnguage fom din the proces of labour i the only correct "Men needed to communicate with one another about the properties of ebjets andthe practieal wae to be made of those Dropertc, And Engels here descibes how they developed the {eof the larynx ad the mouth inorder to atieulate words fd sentences by which to effect this communication. eas Speech mark he advance from sensation to eas, e Language has words for the properties and relations of bjs which we have come to redoytse through ou senses i the course of practical. Andao while we pray only what Actually eonfonting us, aceording to the ipresion ft makes tn cur ease organs, we can stat and thin of the object we Pevsve not merely in ther given relations, wth thet gives Proper, but in diferent eeladon and” with changed Proper Hlence we ean pea: and think of what we ean Ao with objects of aieret kind, and hon we eam change thle oper fr various TE this eeides the power of thought, We can think of what Js e be done with thing of changes which we intend to Tring about, and can work out the ments to achieve thooe ‘arg. In thinking we work out experiments in our head, A itwere—tepresenting what tbe done, what masthappen, In ecder that some changed state of aff shall be rented, ‘Theconclusions of the experiment in thought are hen checked by the results of practes, This ie the very exence of the Docs of thinking ast args ou ofthe proces of labo. ‘We shold here note that ideas are not the sme se ages, ‘The idea or concept of, for example, a colour or shape tot the same asthe image of a colour or ofa shape which ‘we can form in the imagination. The older emptict plloeo- phen (especialy Bereley and Hume) sed to confiund ides ages; but, on the contrary, they shouldbe early di tps Tage ny Cnn af ean ss mark the development of specchy repecenting a bssaction. fom ‘reality and. pemiing the forming of enealsaons.| 1No doubt the higher animale as well ax man can form in ‘an no doubt picture to self the proce of finding, sting, Uiling and eating a rabtit, and hen proceed tour ths {magento reality. Ica, and doe, show comideralecunning And freight in carrying ott pspone. But apn wh we ‘ren the amples intron of production caploys mets ‘whch no odes animal cold clay. To make aed we een Thesmplet instruments of production, he mist not oly have 8women and fhe. Similly, materaistacan consstenly argue that mo real objec corespods to the concept of God as a Unity of perone with infite power and inate knowledge, ‘bu hat he reverl concept of persons, power, knowledge and {nity have al been formed ay election of material realty, ‘When we say, therefore, that material reality i elected in consiossen, we mean that leatutes of metal really fare reproduced in cniciousness, and that material realty 3 fimary and its reproduction im consousnes secondary oF Berivative “Our conslousns i nly an image ofthe external word" wrote Lenin, in Metra and Bris Cte, caper ‘Sind iis obvious that an image cannot exist without the hing {mmaged, and thatthe later exits independently ofthat which sages it” Motos Rely is Refaedin Como in erm Deteied i the dt of be Brain (0) What ens loooe fm in the pray proce i repoe {Raa stir orm inthe esndary process of refecton ‘Wht ext indepen fs ove foe ym open ra Inted into another frm inthe proses of efleton The proces ‘secon sheer a prose of alton or andormae thn fem one form int another And te frm of therein Aependy of courte, om he nate ofthe proce of rection. "Wien we sy, eer, dnt teria rea rele a constgumen ve mers tat ents of tera procs are seprodoced~in another nae! prooan, tame nthe hie ‘roca othe bain-in spool form, namely, the forms EE percepne and though ‘Phes forms are create in he operation of the proces of an bran, Materiel thon mprodcel x refed in ensciourness inform rete by an adapted ote practical Tureen ofivg, onc oganims "Gur uemadon, for example are the rections inthe concious process of ou brain of featores of wate thingy. are te no, however, thetmeles semana Bat reece in cations, anor estos are the fre in 28 hich we are perceptually concious of them and so are able to rent them. ‘Tis when ve 2c colour, for instance, we ate not seing ‘dings which exit only in our minds—ae some philosophers have asered—butare seing things which extindependeatly, ‘utride our minds, the proper ad which are rected in ot Seasatons of clout. Properties which exist in rel thingy a8 properties ofthe absorption and refecton of ight areeRected. {our pereeptal consioumes inthe form of senatons of talons ‘Thus Lenin, in the chapter already quoted, wrote: "If colors a seston only depending on the ena (ar natural ‘lene compels you to ada then fight rays, falling upon the Fetina, produce the sewation of colour. Ths means that out dependently of ws and of cur minds, chee exis a ‘movement of matter.» which, acting upon the retina poz duces in man the senston of a partctlar colour. This i recy how natural scence regard it, It explain the sensa- Hons of valour caloure by the various length of ight raves ‘nig outide the human rena, outside man and indepen nin, produces a more abstract, more general sefleedon of realty than perception. Ia what form i telly “efleced in our thoughts? Teis elected inthe form of propel tions. Though issues in proposition in which, for ample, a ‘jet combined witha predicate. The mater wesld docs ‘tenis inthe form ofa combination ofeabjctsand predicates. ‘This combination x a. product of speech, of the thinking activity of the brain, and though i realy is reflected in thougit This how the material world i “tatalated into forms of thos” ‘Consider, for example any object—a zed pencil say. When we tink shout such ah object we express our conclusions bout icin proposions such as, "This penal i ed. This Dropodtion fr aivide into eubjece and predicate, which are Eombined in te propeition. But the object not ao divided. in concrete realty. Ared pencil doesnot divide into two pars tes, the penll anda prodiente red, Nevertheless 29‘obvious that when we say, "This pene ire” the propaition ‘es reflect the cbjeesve reality of the peel, whieh thas ‘onrecty trated into forms of thought” The Refeton f Motrial Reality in Omscioures Toes Place thangh the Ate Reatotip of he Ling Orgeionand its Su rang (o) Refeton always a product ofthe relationship andiner- {dion ef the proces in which the reflection ectrs and the Drimasy proces which ie reflected. ts source isthe primary Proce “Thus the le process of the brain reproduces or reflects in ie producte—peroepsons and thoughts—the surounding ater realty, which ie the rouree ofall perceptions and {ought And this reflection takes place jo, and i he elt ‘of the interaction of the conscious organism with is environ ‘ents This ntracion regulated by dhe bat, asthe organ ‘Of the moet omplented relations ofthe ial fo its enviton- ‘ent. The brain i continually active inthe proces of reflec tion, continoally producing the reflection of external objects follows, therefore, thatthe way which the material ‘wot is elec in cotacoumen i governed the active ‘Mistonship between the living conscious onanism and it Fervoundings, by the circumstaneesof the asial, by isinternal ate well aby external relations. ‘When we tae this ine acsount I Becomes obvious that {nthe proces of reflection of exter realty in our conscious thes the objects rellected can bocome considerably altered in the reflection, For the reflection snot at all ike a diect -irrorimage of the objec, but isthe product of a complex proces of interaction in which the bran is consiually active. "Thi accounts fr the wel known fact that our pereeptions ‘of objects are very often misleading; they may mirepreent ‘hjects or even (or incerta osione ad kaluar) lead {fo tuppote tat object are present which ace not really there ata ‘Many philosophers have oppored the materials view that » comsciousnen reflects exeraal reality. And one of the angi rent they have advanced for opposing this view i bared ‘Spy on the character of oar perception "rake a peony.” they say. "You believe thatthe materia penny har & efite shape and size, and that this material joe reflected in your perceptions when you Took a it Vey wel, Iyou lok at this penny fom a distance it oo tina, wie f you bold ie clse to your eye i looks bigs sf You bald it one way it lok crelae, wile if you hold it Wrother way i lokselpial Ia fet your pereptons of ‘hang in al sorta ways, while the material objec, of which Sour pereptions are alleged to be the images im your mind, Utes not change at al. How, then, ean perepiont be sat Fefeeextennal realty, since ty change while the Inter does "This queton, which exo conBidenly posed asa unanswer= able anument gaint the theory of reletion can be very Casly answered. The pilesoohers who argue in such a Way fave simply fimgoten that reeaion is an active proces ‘omioned by the actual rations between the organisa and itt vurroundings. "Ths if we fk atthe same thing from diferent distances ‘or ftom diferent angle, then of course it will be diferenly fefected in our pveepions—issire or thape wil differ, Again, {Eve se n thing through ferent mediums of cous wil Tock diferent when a stright sick held inthe water looks ‘bem Agni, the meection will necessarily be altered by the cial sate of ur senor ongans—pres the comer of your eye, Sind you will ee two of everything; make one hand hot sod the ler cold, sd plunge thm both nto a bow water, and the water wl el older fo one Hand than to the other. Last, since perceiving san activity of the rai, is not wsepeig that, ebjects having been once reflected im that activity the brain can epeoduce relletons of dase objects under cet heustance eyen when they are pot there—as in dream, ihione ofall Bide and hallucination. fil moe in the procter of thought can we misrepresent to ourtves the properties of thingy, arb to ther propetics 2‘which they do not poses, end think of ting which do not ‘Sista all. By means of thought we often corrections ‘Securing in peregpion But we als often produce new and ‘renter ssion. The Refi of Rely in Conca i on Aetie Paco in Diratiag the Prac of Chaging Fey (d) The ft that refeedon sm coneoumes isthe product tlie ati, the aetvy a the organi in clan foi Surrounding, means thatthe conscounes ofan, bs Ms ereeptions and bs though, ortnually conditioned By ht Expertnce and hie roa acy. Wat sen prev ond iis ek dinar ya des pee ete por luction of external realy in perception and though Dats bce! by ts eptons, sane of ie a cal “Ths itis well own dha irene in people's experience and manne of i demi dftrenc nha sy pate inhing. The pecepons of a sled engineer examining © ‘imple machin or example arene the ares hoe tan ot fur wih sch nese, alihough ee soe ‘egana maybe fice in preciely sar way The percep: Ew of » farmer looking ats county some are not he ete 4 thowe os sownsoan, ted an ast perceives the tne Sane in tl other waye Sul restr are the difercnces which aie between me's cqnep and gh shouting on he ast ireses In lam, experienc and upbingy tis nas engin nial pope an infaenee beckon perception. The fet that we dot smerclyperciv tinge But fom ides of them nfaencs perception This war exemplify inded, nthe examples jot Sted: Ifa sill engineer perceives mote in a machine han ther men do ths bene he has more des about hat they Again, wile arse may perceive move in thn than Inari peopl dierent arts nt pret hings eenly according to thelr ideas of them. This shown for example, the very diferent aye a wich pant of diferent outlook 7” portray human being "The rection of ur surroundings and of our connections vid our surrounding in our consciousness [sa very active fieor in determining ovr activity of changing our surrode Inge The fat that conscious rellection doesnot enea ‘hat eonsciounes snot an active factor i i, Consciousness isin the ft placea product of ie atvty, in the second place fein product whieh plage a major pari dieting thal very setvity of which it 8 a product. To conseouiness, le has Produce! the means of directing life towards dette ends deed, we can aay that that ix why conulounace was ound tobe produced in the couse ofthe evluton ef Ting organi. Conscious existence iif aetvity governed bythe relletion fexternal conditions in the braia, This relletion i in the frat place, a prodiset ofthe ative relations ofthe contios ‘cganian tos surroundings; and, In tur, it actively cone Aion the futher development of tase ratonships through the practice of man im changing their sortundiigs. Man's constiousnes i product of his practice which plays the part Wf eet his practice Finally, i considering ths active role of enaciouanes we should bear in mind thatthe reflection of te mateial word In consciousness doesnot take the fore enly of perceptions tnd thought In his active, conscious existence ma lv els ‘According to many ideals, emotions well wp ovt of man's inner spiritual being. But fr materia, emotion, too, a6 ‘modes ofthe reflection of material reality inthe comsiousoess of muan. They rect the acive ratontip of man to his fnvironment. Ad being active, beng affected by things is fetivity, and taking a finite attude towards things and posible changer things, man els motions sbowt things and Simpeted in his acuvity by emotions. Tn his conscious exis tence man is nor only aware of things in perception and Uhought, but also fees hi acive relationship. 10 things tmetionally. Emons conciousness, then, a neeiary part of life. A 33‘man relates himtelf to surounding reality by percving it and forming ideas about i, but this relationship needs tobe com pleted by the emotions he fe about it Similarly, emotions heed wo be guided and directed by perceptions and ides Mater ad its Refi ‘To conclude ‘There is Bo consciousness apart fom a living brain, The source of all conscotsnens, of everything that ence into onsiousness, isthe material woeld. Tn conacnvanes there tocar the reletion ofthe material world inthe ie proses ‘ofthe brain, and this feflecdon e what constitutes the content sf consciousne ‘There are not, therefore, two separate ad disinct spheres ‘existence, material and spiritual There are ot two world, the matesal and the spew worlds But here exe only the ‘material world, only material process, “The antithesis matter and mind haa absolute significance ‘only within the bounds ofa very Limited fila,” Lenin wrote in ‘Metalon end Enpiris-Critcim, chapter, “exlsiely within the bounds of the ferdamentl probletn of what to. be regarded as primary and what ar secondary. Beyond these bounds the relative character of he anthesis incubtable” "In the course of material development there arte the reflection of material procs in one. particular material proces the life pores ofthe bra. Ad when we dsingih ater and spiritual, matter and mind, what we ate die {ingushing is mply aleral beng, movement in space and ‘ime, from reflection inthe lie proce of te brain "The proces which giver ire to the reflection and the proces ‘in which th reflection secure are both material process, But the reflection isnot material but mestalthat fo ty not ‘material but a reflection of mater. Chapter Three SOCIAL LABOUR AND SOCIAL THINKING ‘The Haman Brin ond What We Do with It "HE human brain, which alone is eapable of producing general ideas, conceptual conscious, sinking, isthe product ofa long evolution of the fore of ie, I the cue Ininaon ofa proce of evolution inthe size and structure a the brain. In particular, the erebral cone far larger in na than i othe animal, and lage part of the cortex has (ome tobe specially eneerned with eotrling the hands and The ongans of speech Tels tue that we are only at the beginsing of sientiic Anowledge of how the brain works, But enough i known to wert confidently that the Baia i the organ of thought that ‘inking is done by the bein, and thae the evolution of a fertain size and atuctore of the bran ‘was necenaty a2 & fondiion of our being able to think with it "The biclogial evolution af the bra into an orga expable of hiking took place nthe preshuman stage of the eveluton bf man, ia that stage durag which apele animals were volving into men. The decisive sep in man's evlusgn wat Probably kes when an erect portire wae adopted by these imal: For this et fee the an, with whieh the whole of man's profctive activity has been accomplished. With the tse af the hand went the pica development ofthe hand “no the human hand, and with at, the development ofthe Sain which controls the hand nto the human bean. "The fest men already had he tame kinds of bras 88 we nye just asthe had he same Minds ofan, et jes, note, ‘eth stomachs and so a Our organs, including our bras, 1%pictured things to binse but have formed ideas of the [properties afthings which can be put to use in realising the Ende he desire. "Thu we ease im what way thought i higher form of cpr ah sae nrepton Sou peron pe {fico thing as they immediately appear through cha action ‘our tens ogame. When we feat season the other hand, Steam tink oftings in thelr ene ebarcter apt fom Thal partir exience and mode of appearance and so we fan fepraeat to ounces in thought whot trasfrmasons ‘hinge Soderg in diferent cicurstance, how they itech thar various potenti, nterconnecions and laws of Chunge and motion. rE ein, ie, what a ween ap wat made inthe development of consciousness when ideas were formed. ‘This lap te human concioeses war simply the ied! nde tube leap trom the anal tote human moe of ie, made ‘Shen men Boyan to design and ie tok VJ ar man ao longer merely collect, reagranges and wes natural objects, an animals oy Dut tasters nature, ao in hi eas be docs fot merely reper the appearances of thing, avin perception, but aces their interconnections and eae Chapter Four THOUGHT, LANGUAGE AND LOGIC ayuage and Thought Tt power belonging to ideas, of representing things not rmcrly in ther immediate eaitence ar presented tthe ‘ons but of representing properties and relations fn absence lon tom paral things-ths powers a product of pee, ‘The development of thinking and the power of thought are Ineparable fom and dependent on the development and ower af speech, Speech aries, a we have sai, inthe socal activity of mam, fy 3 product and instrament, in the Set place, of sola Inbour: From the very beginning it serves as a tedium of hima toc communication. Speech, therfore, obvistaly fould not develop ae the peronal or private pose of Individuals, each f whom uses it for his own purpoes without felation 0 other individuals On the contrary, it aes Fecae, ftom the begonings of human socal att, men heed to communicate general ideas and conclusions Yo one thother--and ro they eolve the means of doing thi Speech, therefore, arises through the fermion ofa language ommmon ta socal grou, Those people know and understand f Tanguage who can ave it for communicating with one other. Acommon territory a common conamic act and tradidon go with a commen language—and this is why tommon language forms part ofthe very definition of peoples ted nations, ‘Alanguage characterised by vocabulary and syntax—that ih stock of words the constant reference of which hat tecorse fed in the eotnon ute of «social group, and by 5les governing the way the words are combined together for ef conmnantcston, Tis when men begin to use tools for soca production that ‘they soo begin to spesk and to evolve a language, ad thereby to form ideas shout the surounding world. Te was "fora and [nthe proces of labour” that language originated, And this ‘origin explains the enenil elementary features of language ‘Sia instrument for communiation and exchange of though ‘Bat Tanguage which Gs originates in. man’s productive activity serves the whale of the oman social intereource and ‘etry that develope slong with and on the busi of produc. {on Ih everything that people do together they make we af languages sa all the thought, plane and sppeains all thelr eas about the word and about one another, come to ‘irh only because they have language i which to expres ad ‘communicate them Can thr be Tht witht Language? ‘The stidy of the nature—the material bass the fonctions {andthe las of developmental thought sd language lends {othe conchsion that the formation of dese and the exchange of dear are impoabe without language, ad that eas only {ke shape and develop though the means oflanguage ess ate formed ad take shape only through words and the combination of words, Its by means of words and the ‘combinadon of word in sitences that realty is reproduced thoughts. Thoughts only become defnite thoughts in 50 fae as they ar, ae Stalin expres it in his Comer Mars fe Linguists, Mregatered sed fixed in words and ta words ‘omni imo sentences” Ideas. without language are ‘omesistent a pire without bode ‘Doo ths mean that to think he same ding acto utter words and thatthe proces of thinking a proces of talking {0 oneself"? No, For in the fist place, it posible to utter ‘words and sentences without meaning saything by tern. And nthe second place, once one has learned the uses of language ‘many process of thought can be performed without actualy itetag, elther aloud cr “Yo coesell™ all the words and 6 = lentences whore use would be needed for the fll enunciation llth thoughts ioveved. 10's wel known, far example, tat with people who have ten dicusied some subject together a Tew words are enough fir them mutually to undentand some very romplen pint, Which it would take many words for them to explain fo a ‘sider. "This is beeaase they ave been through heir ‘plasstions together earlier, and these fey onde seal ll Nove explanations. Tt is very much the same wih thought proceses in an Jividuat beain. One can come to conciusins without the lineevention of elaborate procases of inner verbalistion. But the sume time, 2 man deceiver himself fhe supose tha Fas ideas f things for whieh ella words or that he has Ahoghte which he unable to expre ia Tangeage. (Of coure, this doe not mean that there wo dsincton Ivewcen anda and some particlar word or prs, ements thatideas oly exist asembodied in particular words or phirses, ‘which are used to expres ideas. leas have no separate Gite (bodied existence apare ftom thelr expression, or ceample, the Engh word "red" andthe French word puge” both expres the same idea «colour, So the Hea ‘eon0t be dented with either word, Bat the idea of eslout more exists apart from words in which ix exprewed than (Glour exis part fom particular ealoured objects What Ina the two words expresive of the sare ideale that they Ihave the ame significance inthe espective languages tht the two wor play similar pare in elaborating through linguage connections between man and the exert world, ‘The thinking activity ofthe bran cont n nothing but sich daboration of connections withthe external wot and this Js done not prior to language, nor apart from language, but rely and only by means of language, el Language a fu oppeenty erbloary or convene scterA particular sound is seed for pariularlone equally well and i, perhaps, wed for that very same urpore in some other Inguage “The dicovery that words are in this way arbitrary of conventional signs was sn important dncovery i scence, ‘bviou at it may stem For it tue often to Be belived ‘tod sme people sl belive today—that a parealar word in'tome mysterio way "the right word” fora particular things by some Jntemal Ge, and not erly by the conventions of language “The ancentconcepion of secret te bewexn werd and things was bound up with magic and religion. Thus i as thought dat each man had a name which was pecs his ‘ownand tat no other name for hin cou ft Bis “ea name” ‘vas then often hept secret, for it was Believed that i his tems knew i hen hey could cure hi name and 30 do fim an injury. Similarty, the names of gods were eleved tobe among the enental properties ofthe fos. And silly with other words, besides proper ames, Thos there wae a i proverb (quoted by GK. Ogden and LA. Richard, in “The henig Seog) which stated, "The Divine in rely so called" te expremed the idea that there war something Declan divine abot the word “divine” Bit ot only ete vocabulary of language conventional fig rules of grammar and eyniny are conventional oo. Fot ‘ittzent languages erploy ferent eles Thus the rules Stake Gate opus Be example, ns entry eeent from thote of any European languages the rles of English tr fren fom thove f tn or Slavonic languages and the rues of what we are pleased oeall "prim are again diferent fom them al Dropations canbe sated in all Gee language, and any ove Ean be teaslated into any other. TRs shows tha not only ‘Soeabutary but grammar haconvenonal feature oflanguages he prc wd wich cote teworh a gee language, and the pareular rules of ts grammar, ae, thea, ‘atwentcoal, They ate conventional in the sen that thee arclar sounds and ries come toe wel hy a parular Deople for strc reason, whereas he sane though could 8 anally wel be expend by diferent sound and diferent fis, such ar are employed by the hori evolved Ianginges ot ether popes. Bat they re not, of eve coe eatin in the ene that they were ever eave upon and Tea by some linge decom othe people conceoed In Aenera igus conventions are formed yan unconcious [ocr n the liver of peoplen Only ata late age ae they Fecorde in dictonare and grammars and do perp beg Soencuny and delivery ee vecrd sod fi the convents Of ts ng Tt whe bth vocabulary and grammar are in the above sexe conventional, nevertee what words = language Josseney inthe wns of the objec denoed byt woeabalay, Iinot conventional, bt ie determined bythe objective ct dione and requirements of eof the people ing the lenge For example, whatever sounds are wel forthe purpote © language mnt ave words forall the ings, property Teatony, et, whic are of practical importance inthe Hit Ofte pops In generay he higher the vgs of development 1 protection the greater otely the bas word stock ot aagaage Simlary the retations and consecions among things and ople which are exprewed by combining word to setence cording tothe rules of grammar and ryntax are not con Sentara citer, but are" detrniacd by what har 12 Be ‘efeccd in setenen For example, winter the grammar of language iy it mat have eomention for expressing the ato of one thing fon anor, the connection between a thing and is dierent changing properes, and on Difkzen languages employ Giterentcemvensons for expreting propositions but thre fonventors must al sa the same requirements tng from what has tobe exprened, which & common tal feces ile ola 2 of both as rears tr word mock and i grammar, thse ventions expres bjcedve requirements common t0 evry oIanguage, and must sbvaye sti those same eequirerent Langage and Logic ‘Whatever thoughts we think, and whatever language they are ‘Spresed in, they tmiet enn the base requirements of the ‘election of tel in thought These reqalveents give rset Ts of thought, to principles of logic For thoughts ate feflectoes of the Fal worl, pdm the proce of efletion, as ‘Mars std the mateal world i taplaed into forms of thought This proces ofrefccton and trandation has owe Taree laws of though, the prinaples of lie "The laws of thong ovale, inthe fst pace, the logical rine ples for constructing signicant propestions "There are, fr example, spe propestions and compound propositions The conection of Simple propositions inveloes Fuck logical operations as afrmation, negation, eaton and fen; and campound propositions ate cnsieucted by com ining simple propesisons through such logical operations 3: reexpees by wordlike “and” "or if. then", andao on. hn Thi ered, "hit not ee, This geting rea, "This redder than that, are all imple propontions And “This sted and hat is green, "Either thst wed or Tam clour ling” and Tf hi ea her i il con be green, fre compound. propians. ‘The constuction of all such Dropostons invelver definite lgiel principles governing the Contricion of significant proportion: “The lawr of thou ively nthe second place, the logical principles for determining which propesitons logically fallow Eom ster proposons sc which are logeally inconsistent ‘wth them These are the pelncipes which we use in argument fd seasoning. "For example, “Ifall Ae B, and all Bs C, them all As "This general logical principle, which telus thatthe third reposition logically follows fom the fa wo. This partealar Principe wae orginally frmolated by Aces, who called i he Bet Bgre of the logis. ‘Soch a principle, of couse, contains no guarantee ato ‘the truth of proposons: itis concerned wth their logical 0 J Ibn with one aot ot with hi th, Than ea IEEE bare nad at hn Ee propio ee eon sve! tert of he hid fr fawn he ot to ut the to pope ren fact wer he, toh the hint prop fle form them, may be tse maybe abe: Logi yl es wing about thet of progestins ch cn be dacoveed sd vr ty by expen neon ‘Rooter example of agit prince i he pine of renrcontnicion which oid’ be beter” led ke pe of conscny’" The aes hat proporon mat tbe combine’ wt ta negton The mops oA 3B BAL sodifyoemy "Ais Band Ate, te two Pure of what yous ancl ath ober out so ta ou ave (ae eee Gach he) In ha ete what you ny Tacit ose pera. Titi mg that rrene th gel princi covet as ated by Ae hase et of ertion in the cao of lege Ths te scolanic Plies friend alow gireting evry inch Peis” tog io “nljecu™ Tis allged ny wid tt she anne rite ane beng ond ot eons he tama ant wasup it aed nelle “he inwotexiaea mile’ wach ald tat an ate mat the tlong noe on oa ect. Th stem then forme hal you cam avy did Sel which {AaB or" uotB™ One mnt he wor a thee e, Bevitinot cif we tot ra Son ec ys temas tat hi sx weet alain fa aw ot SS ee Sie, cng can Ny well tnt sa eave oni eran rope trons and net err —s0 thetyou conn dette dae wtb hao a ot hat ste And is equaly eet tai ching in proce tf etange, tray be impomble eer tay taro 0 ‘ay tat as fone fed carat stMany crude and inaccurate formulations flag principles hye been stem down by philropherr wih a metaphysical father than a dalesiea! approach, Dialects shows how to ‘onrect sweh mitahes Bat dialectic doe not thereby go “int or change the principles of loge, The alm of the ‘lalectieal method ito enable us logeally and consstenly 0 ‘expres the ral interconnections and ipetion of things. For example, ia certain man “bald” or "ot bald"? According tothe schol or metaphysical philosopher, with ‘ein inaccurate formulation of logical principles, = defaite ddechion mut alvays be made. Ye while n some case it may be ponible to dede, ia many other cases no such definite echion is posible, Are we thny in such ease diven to [coop a inconaistency: “He ead and he snot bald"? Not tall Such caer can be consistently deseribed by means of ‘galeation: "Fe i parly bald” or "He pong bal ‘People with a metapiyical approach ty to expres change ing thing in ined eateries try to express he relations of Ahgs categories eulted ny wo considering thing im aeparae on Avs result they ae often landed in consistency. Jus a5 Iw a tntor car splitters we now there something wrong Iwith the engine, so when a person contradicts hima we now there is something wrong wih is ideas, Dialects cables to order git feat 49 at Keep clear of lgial Geraci tn aes olen, Hens dea Sivays respects the logical princple of sou-cotradicton ot ‘onisency, although metaphyioften lead ois violation. ‘Logical principles are laws of thought, not laws of reality they are at the las of material procemca, but the avs ofthe reflection of toterilprocemes. And because they are eux tents of the reflection of telly in thought, asin fom the ey nature of the frm ofthe reflection ast has developed in The course of human practic, the laws of logic require to be Satsfed in the working out and expression of views. If our thoughts violate the laws of og, then they become incoherent nd ulfontradietng “This ccounts for what i somes called the “normative” characier of the aa of logic, and for hele character of s get as opposed to “natura neceniy. Our thoughts ee ot be logical, but wnlem they are they cannot sty the requirements of the election of realy: this why the Tvs of logic constitute a “norm fr thought. And the ts Age are rm the very nature af thought, quite indepen: ten of he partearohjeet of tought: ths hy thew of logic have a teleevident and axiomatic character, as distinct ffm the avs of mare, which have to be dncovered through sn empirical ivengaion of externa eal Sovwtatver the views which arebcing worked outin society, thoy areal suborclnate to the sane Leo though to Ne fame principles of loge, Just a8 the same language i wed to expres diferent views, so do oiferen views employ the sare avs of thought, the same loi New views do not therefore, uve vse t & new loge any Brees than toy given fon ne Language, On the eanicay, the pe of lege ae nen he Nery recon of thoughe sind offs eprenion i language, and sre not altered ‘with ateratins of lew ae Some peopl, of couse, ignore logic in the working out ther views bo much the wore for thir vews: Tis doen hot mean that dey have evolved a iret log, but rather thae they Blt be log ‘No dicussion, no controversy f argument, no development af tought wontove no be pou, te lon of ght angel and were different for diferent people. Anyone who thinks thatthe laws of thought change, tat een epoca hhve n diferent loge, thereby denies the very posbiliy of thought as a reflection of objective realty. Logie aie from thier eee of the recon fey Ih thought, and not om the partials Steet which parte ‘och of thought may tare from ime fo me. Hence for example soil in aguing with a defender of eapitaimn, they both appeal to and ry to be thee ager ‘nent onthe sme princpic of logit they Dh pes frame ange fs tio as” Er i sccountant of « xptalt or of social eaterprie 3 i ‘A''B, then see Ais Bor 9 defender of total or of 3capitalism, Silay, anyone who has read acounts of the {Spurs of Carsan fuonaries mong primitive peoples will ‘elise that both patie tothe argument appeal {othe same Fant of lorie, though se must be confined thatthe primitive people are often more logieal than the missionaries. ‘What is hese ald about loge does nat, however, apply 0 the philowplieal views expounded by the who have writen ‘books about foie: These philrophcal slew, often labelled eto, are, ef cout, the views of particular clases and of paricalar epochs. “Fhe we conclude tha language develops asthe means of cexprening an communicating thoughts by people in society, ‘Sine thom and developed in the coure of ther productive Seiya al their one social activity and thatthe thought ff men, expressed in language, are suberdinate to logic to {claws of thought ae reflection aftmaterial realty, Ache ste tines the soca views which are expresed in language and ‘worked out with the aid of logie develop on the bass of men's Ccomomic relations, of the acvites and interests of social Pon Tue THE DEVELOPMENT OF IDEASChapter Five ABSTRACT IDEAS The Fortin of Abtat Ios WIRE tue ay, the tangy, rg om labout, men likewise develop ther thaking and thee ‘kas in te course ofthe whole of thei socal activity ‘Writing ofthe development of eas of of human conscious ‘ss —fr the peculiarity of hurnanconalousnes that many fenscous of things not only through perceptions but alo trough ideas—Marx and Engrs showed that man's com fcousnes! aries and develope “only fiom the needy the eceity, of intercourse with ether men, . » Consciousness is therece fom the very beginning’ socal product, and emain wo a long as ren ext at sll” (The Grmen Ido, Part chapter 1) eis are not the products of a pute intelectual proces, or are they sere automatie responses to still reaching os fem external objects. They are produced by human braina inthe course of human social sciviy. They elect the come esions of men with one another and with the enirnal ‘weld thereal conditions of mea’ exsteno=e ‘Marx and Bagels weat onto point out that “consciousness 4s at fist merely consiousnes concerning the immediate Serauous environment and contiowmen ofthe lnited cone ‘ecions with ether person nd things, «Ths beginning”, they added, sas animal at social Hi el at this tages Inmere herd conscousnee™ ‘Theft anal most elementary ideas are iden del desived om immediate practical intercourse with oer people ad surrounding objects They are formed by giving names to 3she cammon features of things ecogiablein perception. Fom {he stars ay Afarx has sewed, the production of ie siete material sty and rater ineroure of ‘Soon And out ofthis acy aod mateialintercoure a TRS comentary level alveaty formed a complex of elemes- Gopi ofenteral objec, of the elf anda ther pople— [Pte Kinds and. properen of object and sit various Connect with ao ws for people Tah ar ae oreo es tect elected the alent eats objects and hun active 34 we are nimediatly Sane of then in peeeption, Such ideas conttte the bay ‘Ximentary equiprnen of uma thought and communication Hey tee epee in worde denoting famiiar objects ad ropes an atone of obec and very acti, ‘Weal ponessa ich equipment of ac ideas, Our putesion cot thn prea constcrale social achievement, but we {hae ‘hem quite for granted, se hem all the tine, a every {il ears them at am eary age Such are our ideas ofthe ‘hing about wr wih which our rial ase are concered, Sta men and ores, ale cha, oto em ee ower, dog, ents efy, eof eile properties of ngs Seok fer blue har, so, big, small, and so on; ad of Sens and lations sch a running, walling fling, oe, Tals cc, ct. Ove own exlpment of elementary ideas Couto fr greater than that of primitive man, peecly Achar ee dotmany sere thingy and cance ouees with tacy more objers sod slats Neverthlen the consi ee Yepesentd y uch eemenary Hess rea os Mare hd Tages put i “consoumtessconceraing the fnrediate see Rlmst and comcoune of te hed ‘Shnectons with ther pesos and thing "Te entre of soch elementary ideas is that they bave a com emis ore estou to hem otespand ect recy percept tothe sere. The development of soi {iieetae, however ead othe maton of tess to which to dety percep abject omesponds "Can we frm Leas vo which no rectly people object conespunds? Yeh of eoure we can, and we do, For example, 8 Be snty por es e ceppin t iors ced errr ee eee “See ieeeed eee See eee ec eaaenS PS a ae a a ne eT pec owes be re Soe oe peered vet opiate Noein Sea Eee ple SS reer ee er ee fea er ace Soe aaa ae ee re Sail Se nr Selene ar ae a Rc Boe varie ene ees eee Pak hie custvaemmeeee ee ee eee Bei tite maaan snc tone Pate ace Ser Reseotcgr os ea eae pis al ecToceesnerce creer re pe ea cae rae ie ae tate Br ea Se err eee ee pay Ciapenaiior a cencs Seer eee Sm oon Shh Sasori fa alee cose ore nt oe gia eat Snr aL dopa opel srl a Feel ere eee Boe ie erin ae, oe a ee Sap eee 9crete ih hc Pee emer ted to the refecon of he oe ee gen oe ena gee Stes omar Soo rar nate een ee ra cpr ices fo len sf dps Srna ca ol ew be eer rir dw sno een en Sel cee doe tna esr ened oe stipe ath coil cero SEL Le eee Sea nd en a or etc or rt asics tod sve the devopeet Sere oti iene me arly eee eaten PS EES SE tea 4 omen pple. ane Poe ean nee Bie esate ee ie oh i ae ete send ect aber Gateyes ler ea eee 1 ile fete ee eee ee eee a E conned wit propery ration Foc canpl tn tala ppl hae nen poneon ot th lads tn here med a appa ok fSrcyoding tna and peg Sock es Sneha de rich erp wo est Feat peep he smn Tha tea os Poop my the of aly pr oat fete of omen tat rsa abs His whch ny es” pepie set cavome Sythe pour tt fad tenet pepe rege eat iy fr rape; hgh oe a foie take ponent pret tt pet, Behe ast ew mete ea etn of eng eal and jee te podtion retried oS Shite sage oft cst sal pcon ‘Gir tbat cr fred 6 ecoece ote crapment of met pdcve a i Sie cred ih aman For ep hai te st SSIS cine ads oa a Semel wth eouning andes” cn eat ‘tne pss me ms i nef impr nec inh delpmen mes sear leigmmmcnd hen ote ned th nal acsen ss of he declopent ‘Kinds of mystical and ese ne ee ey ‘asec age cose ep gn ohn aout she undng cus wich ope han ots SR Sy Seem nd en en yaad Set Wsthnd, Tha for camps Pome ee owing or he aime lng aly ae sae fit the ena art promt hae pes They do'not etn ae no to te bing fates hh oper nthe pres oe hw te ok Sima mapate mea of ng eed ey Bs orm he oer oe on i ple Peon twee come oa see fered me ‘Smal td apy ic ey ved sot a re te sem whic nevela fens ed ‘1‘controls all sensible things, Thus certain Red Indian sibes ‘led this power wakans, and one oftheir elder eying to ‘plain the idea to a vising anthropologist, tld him: "No sam has ever en weak" From ths type of absractidea— {Dir iden of unicen powers—develop the abstract ideas of religion and theology Dison of Man fom Matra Lebo ‘Ronac ides sce formed, au we can ste fromm het fe Qin ast consqucncr ofthe proc of socal deveop- Sent Ad Mae and ngels connected the development of ‘wacdea withthe ondamental scl proces of divin ‘thou “The fxmation of all abstract deat—f whatever type and nts the pasar sours of the Hens preuPpos 8 TE ereopment of ers prdscive powers and toil {Snlons It hercfore peppers certain ivan of labour. {ius Sn oflabout began o separate he singe productive Trospor “herd nt dct advan wot merely Great members ofthe spe ut as peron wth dine Sul foncdons and postions, with india. This pve oN the seid, atone and experiences fom which the Teton of abot dean nie And it ewe brings fo Sivand th sage of end?” comcownes, abd permits the {Eadopment of nda hous, With tn formation of abract Hes, a dvsion of mental from material boar pens: marks 2 definite beginning ‘ncaa tet fom ati aos. Ad wth th hee jn to appear wite cy ers and leader of various Nita de specs ene and who expound and develop {Deh Tusopecianation i les develope ts an inspensable feature of oa fe for without ideas, dvion of labour ad {he ussous comequent prodsctive prosenes and focal rela os sanno: be maintained or devoped, And so Marx and POROUS in The Gone Hino “Divison of about ee Sct: rly such frm te moment when ion of testa and teri labo appears" Satter the formation of saat Ses coresponds Yo oe se sine. A he ane tin, he delet Offic cans opi a fl ty = el Sepurmen of he fio chr ed eo Sona ment om ata a ten fae fate Sree “cet abc! ea fed ad ent i word thc the poi aia the mts il eae ‘eer peril nd foe eh pa om Coe a he matali ease erp And hp esr pn eae, ‘ote hanaing fates pedal ives es ates abr IC lath hs pls wit cme of wen overs, pert ng fda The pope nha Spy tide conte at etamteonrb d foe we ne apa fan pnt of frctcine opener ng crap ‘tan And the wich doom prs of gato ‘en th enw at me cabore evin I yt ncn grow up round a sat ide ont see ch a oy pepe we Sera iep at they do ele spate eee {Tp sch an en, tiny wt Se wen wi eid payin eo cae peep Bis nd pctaand acon nto ced tated Bm th oer har oie se toa he ferret rely whch ete oe a uipte {erate howgh they al wth soe ere en orton ee the les bt nde te Peep wogefeapost sate ‘the aperncot ie nado spre hing he king fae cree ena Ppa ats ‘lel dees ae merece ta oo ‘vol Sea nh arb te py that Se fy ny ety away om Wha me rou the ty tha he hat ey ea fame inpsepey and wang, aya 6eee eee aera Seg pees See eee eas ia ae pera eee arable bpett cums nes ee err te ences Pp Seer pera eee oes are ee ee ee See ae eager ES Seneca aries ag cae ee ne ee Tipe gher arene eee Reger ele a oe ee ee ee eee Siam ee ae eee eee ec Leaning Hot Ti “Rcoiion for the development of aatact ideas + the scart of eta mater nbour Ave conti ‘Tinin tue? contadiciory potenti, On the one hand permis the sqqustion of pefounder inowledge ofthe real Menneston of things and ofthe conditions of human existence than b omsined In immediate perceptual corciournes. On theoter hand it ponmats the grower fal Mods of fantasies ‘nd ilons. “Consequently the whole proces of the intelectual develope rocnt of wcetypreeas contradictory aspects. On the ote and, there has Been the undoubted growth of genuine know Tedge, i other words of tree ideas, whose corrempondence 6 ‘vith culty has een verified concerning nature, society and the relations of men with nature. On the other hand, there fia bean the gris and daboration of ilsury eas. Ae Society has developed, so men have deseoped in thelr minds sions about themstves and the world they ina Each ‘pach har added to tne sum otal oFhutman knowledge. And at the same time, each epoch has produced ie characteristic ‘sion, which cireumserbed, penetrated and coloured the ‘ne intellectual production of dat epoch, Tis here, then, that we find the rot ofthe opposition and struggle of materialist and cele tendencies och hat an Tight through the whe development of thought, "The opposion of mntrialst and dealt tendencies is fundamental opposition, arisng fom the very rature of ought Hel once it has devdloped to the level of absract des. Tt arses with the separation of metal from material Inbour, When mental labour fst hepato "emancipate tall ffocn the word” an a theoretical activity, and to “become Sermethng other than existing practice then there immedi- ely are the to alternative patie of theory-—t0 steve t0 understand hinge in their own connections snd to explain Wrst bappens inthe enteral wor! from the material world oe, which s materialism, ort launch out ato the realm of pure thought and represent the material, sensuous world as Aependent on thought and the product of thought, which it “deals, Tn oter words, co regard beings prior to thinking, ‘or thinking as price to being, ‘Undemtsod fm tis light the struggle of the materalit tendeney in thought ages the ideals tendency understood fs suggl,eaeried forward through ages of urna history fiom primitive mes up to the present day and ita the tre, to earn to think tthflly and correctly, laa way that wuthe fully reflects the real conditions of aman existence and helps Noman progres. Ie isthe struggle foe keowledge and enlightenment agsins ignorance and suprsiion 6Chapter Six IDEOLOGY The Formation of Hepes the cous of the devopment of society abstract ideas arc use for the elaboration of more or lat sseratic imeatiy doctrines or views about things General views and ‘waysof thinking, stems of abstract ies, become established 1B characterise of the oulook of a whale sodey, or Of & {eeton of scey “And considerable dieences exit between the views enter- slo in ie nd i irene tages of na ‘development Each poneses te (peal social view of poli, {norally, aw, propety,religon, philomphy—and these views Dencrae social inking on all particular top, and mould nd influence the development of ides ofl invdual "With the development of private property and the sale, fr example ess about legal and poles “righ” ae alway Tormed. Bat indifferent stages ofthe devlopment of propery, the views which are held about righte—ie tees Which Se entrained bout them, te sptemat dovrines about ‘ight-—varycomaderaly. In slave socket saves were thought {or have no rights whatever In feudal sce, every Wat {ought to have right, but th character of his ighs depended ‘on is acta! poston in the feudal order, otha the igh ofa tert were not esl fo thowe ofa led. With the rie of eaptale ie, the theory of human eights” began tobe fermed=—the view that every man, simply asa human beng, ponesce ‘etan “Inlienable human night” which are che ste forall sewand there hasbeen gest deal of argument at che % ‘at definition ofthese sight: and fou what they may be educed. ‘Again, fom the very beginning socal production people fave formed ideas about the causal procemss im mature But In diferent stages of society the views about causally ia have varied considerably. The ost prise theory ie the theory f animism, which thinks of eveything ma theagh IWiwere alive and consious Later on, animism i given tp, and everything is thought to be dreted by it specie frm fr principle hich determine ts natures its place nthe hierarchy of being aad ie peeulia ways of atag on other things and reacting to them. Thi view of eatalty wat ‘daborated in great detail during te Midale Ages ‘Ther again tere has developed the mechanistic view of eausality wiseh vas characterise ofthe beginning of madeen natural cence, According to which the moony ofall bodies are governed bys single set of natural Tass and everything that happens Isetermined by theextersal interactions f bodies aking place in accordance wih thes a, Sec mar fs mint views which ae Bay ex ‘efnte socal groups in dfnte stages of social tlevelopment and which vary acording to thee socal origin, ff called idols, And the development of uch view fe fale deli dept The Metrial Basis of leo! Dept Teslogy is esenally » socal rather than an individual product Tn desing wih the development of declopy, we are eaing with the socal development of ideas. We are not #0 much concerned with how ideas are fred and eaborated nthe ind ofthe individual, a8 with how Beoad currents of Ideas are frined a¢ characterise ef = whole pase of sora ‘evelopment, (Ofcourse, fndividuas contribute as individuals, according o heir capachies and cieumstance, 10 the formation of Hologic. On the otter band, the ldcloges prevading oF hing in society always constate the background and cond ion forthe development ofthe opinions and views of every 6individual in society. Eniviual in thee owa opiions and Mews, are always Inusnced by the idesogies expres them, beets mouthpiers. Inthe coe of il deeopmen hz it change and develop of delogy. One ideology supplant another. A in theta sce, iltrent and vl ideologies interact and Gi hone abe, Bu eon, ao dependent dleveopment. There uno "Bstory of thought’ independent of theldovlopment of the mateaal condor of sol ie An idelogy ls lays the ldeslogy of definite people, ving in dente onditonn, depending for her Te on 8 dente inode of production, with defite socal relations, doing {loi ngs wih definite destes and ims And ther deaigy i ot formed independently of the proces of thee toate ite ive et out rom real, active men,” wrote Mars and Eng “and on he bani of tee reat He process we demonstate Ue vcore of the elites ad ees of th ie cae The panions frned in the Buman brain af ls, Feeesady wblimats of their ale fe proces, which ‘rpucalyveifisbeaod bound tomate premises, Morality, felon, metphyi,all heres of dealogy, and thir ore {ponding forms of concious, thus n6fonger retain the Enilante independence, They have no history, no devlop- thant; butmen, devdoping heir material production and thie trate itercurs ate along with hn het real exitence, {hc thinking andthe produc of ther thinking.” (The Carmo Igy, Par, chapter +) TEs the development of prodton, and the consequent deveapinent of production flora and of the soca nter= oure based on them, which give se we the conditions forthe formion of abstract ideas and to the soil need for the Hesogal development of sch iews. Ideologies develop not Sa comequence ofthe inner working of en's ids gong {n independently of the mate! fee oly but a cone Sequence of the development of the materi ie of society, ‘lich condone the products of ttelectal production, Tn caw-avided soiety, therefore, Wdecloge akon cas 8 ‘aracter. Difcrent views are developed on the basis of the Hierent places cecupied by different clases in socal produc tiny ther diferent relationships to the means of production, Uh diferent roles in th socal organination of labour, thee liferent ways of btaining their share of the social wealth, Wei diferent material interests The diferent ideologies are Us develope inthe service of dierent clas interes The Hdl Rfetion of Resity Tdeslgieal development i, then, governed by the material \levelopmentofsecety “bythe development of production, of the relations of production, and of clases and the clase strug “ence che causes implling ideological development i one tr anatherdierion are always tobe found, in the las analy, ot within the sphere of idecogical development itself but Inthe sphere of te conditions of materia lie To explain, fr ‘ample, why te bourgeois dea of human rights supped the feudal dea of ight tis nceasary wo consider the changes faking pace in the mode of production of material lier Deve Change gave se to 8 cogtratictin batwect the faded Idea of righ and the actul rights the recognition of which war necesary to cary on the boungeos mode of production fd necesitated change inthe idea of righ to eorrespond With reality. Similary, in the sphere of Ideas about nature, ‘ete sme changes in the made Hf production imparted a new Alrecdon to due development of ideas about mature. And in oneal Fel iesiogy was supplanted by bourgeotsHealogy Because, inthe materia fe of ocey, Feudal socal reladons vere being supplanted by bourgeois social relations ‘Butat the se tne, leeogial development, sa develope pent of abstract thinking has is own special characteris, ite own intersl laws. Te aiceson iv determined by the development ofthe material lie of society, and every ideology Indeveloped on the buss of definite material social ration ‘hips and acts in the ave of debite material interest. ut it renaino none the fe true that Hedlogy mutt sways stay eerain Totellectual requirements, and that these %sequrements ae continually pred and met in the eoune of {Gheoial dercpmene dlp ore Cevelope to servedtniteclasinees They az nla instant nlc weap made an fire by definite cawes corresponding othe mate pasion ST quiron of om ches, Bat jt erase ey ae {Mlaectnl ssn nti eepon 9 beerice™ ile they mun ently inet! requirement, They mst hey the rls of working th hes, jst ay for example, rnc inusement and material weapons ust bey the few of working with ny metal om iat te acl regents of idzalogeal development avee? ‘They arte tom the fet that ilentgy is aretton ofthe teal ater wor in the fon ‘faite ens. Brey iesogy it an aetempt made by people Se undestand ua ie an ato ofthe eal word a which thoy tne oof wre pet oft and oftheir ov Ie, 50 that it may be of went to them inthe define condions Inch ive Therefore hey mat alate to develop thee cology ns a cobert spn of Snr wie squares At he fates ar a thy have expetenced and vera them. his pos intl! reqements fo be sis saa, and to sats thers law which fe eonually Stor inencng the development of elo. Toclogis ust be nade to en, ithe Rist ple, the agcneral aitement ofthe seen of ei 8 easy tat Er ey te lve gente so plc, hy mat Sat te partial sermon ofthe reflection of par eae por of realy, that to sy, they most be made fo Sue ith the fac so fr as people hate expeienced ane Serained the, Tena therfore, ae developed on the bai of tegen surctre of soc fo seve the Inert of one of aber fdas aed inti algal development the efor lays feiag made w render the views developed sleonsstent and Tog, and to mabe them cover and give some consistent cout ofthe papal facts which mege nthe experience Focay a Oe gee age of development . This gives ret condo contaicon in the devel tment ofidealges. For onthe one han the views decoys by he representatives of vatous clase prove opel Inconsistent ane incarsitent wih plain face and oe oer hand, ets andthe eguremans af log ead toe chon wih dns scot wih wc tna. fontradictions give ree tm continual proce of the slaboraion of deol, athe slog endEaout to ways and means of resolving them. = feel pene y ue Beaty ath ee oe Sac eete tien con te eet Pater om acs risen cee mae cna einriemr meee cad eae fay aun skeen eek nt oe Bee ree pee ea tee peri a te este ee wk a ee See ee ae ESL, eae ge Se ops daca $26 eres Suaviniet eaaee anions Se ee “na 1 a eee ae pre Renate ee eee Poe erent Bosco ays eee eay ae Sea epee ”system oflae, and then inthe repented bresches made in thie utem by the influence and prerure of further economic devlopment, which involves {tin farher contaditions.” (Cater 'o © Sehnidt, October 27,1850) “The sine process takes plte fn all desloge spheres in philosophy, theology, moral Hess, West about natore, and Tdcoogie are always peeliacly vulnerable and epen to ‘sitcom the sore of tlleontradiedon and of fle to feckon with experienced facts Those who, a4 intllectaat Fepreelaives ef given cam, capoute a general point of ‘win ideology are always Being driven for hi reason 0 tlaborate tei ideology, which leads them tothe creation of (fen very complicated and farfeched ideaogial structures ‘Then again, se Engels oberved, the sructurs become unsit= Able for the rervice ofthe given interest in neve conditions, and the proces begins anew. This show fel! in piloophy, Tor Instance in the mulpicain of "ystems" of pliesophy. I this proce of extci goer on in the development of the ieclbgy of parcalar elas, ie takes a diferent and harper form when on the basis of nev factor ia the material Iie of society, new and sval Views begin to be formed, fxpresing the interets of diferet clases. Sach new view ‘Gornot emerge unel the development of material fe wives that to them. But once they emerge, shen they attack fom the new point of view the soaniold inconsistencies of the ready stabbed views, They make us of loge ae appeal fo fics at powerfl inelecual weapons with which to ‘scree and demolish the old view ‘Historians of teas have most often erred by atempting 19 widertand ideological deveopmnent cxcsvely in terns of the piring and sisfaction of intellectual requirements As ‘Marr and Engels plated out, hat cannot be eon, since one cannot may why new views should are at parila tins, rivhy the viens shold be of one rather then another type, ‘withovs looking forthe resons inthe material ie of sce. Bot iti alo imporble to trae the development of esos ‘without tang the inellectil requirement into account. And n f Mansa certaniy neve sys that we hold atempe to do ‘This ie the oppote cor ino which some schol, of sociaogts have filename, tho who embrace te fee tne of “economic determi, which separ econoose sctvity atthe sle agency detcrinng the whole sf cll development in all is aupece Falling to recognise hatin Naso hr aks ces pct teem th rl ‘wld in e's des they regard ology caclasvly a 2 evelopment of various ideas expresing ad serving varout ‘ate, economic interes. This leads them tone or other {fo coocsions. On the one hand they conclu int sce 2 Here mel pra me tenget Material iret, m0 ideas icing te on et ay oy dlaim corey to select reaiyso that every idedog?, inciding their own, ina doy ax crey other ln repens Gn he other hand, they ae led tornaican exception oes selves and of thet own ides, epreening themselves ‘pel people who, by some itclotual mira have tre. Gendt erry clas pint of view and cat lok Gowen tho Fetofmankind fom anor tower af compete nd abate ‘obey In ther en, te are ley ioeed ine “weer there always and aeays has been a basi crt ef iecones ftom of eon and experience: hat i to say, forthe erica comparien wit tai, Ad {hs conparton has bon caval eared nt nthe cose cf ldeotogieal development ie Te has not heen cated sot 2y people who have managed to detach themselves fom oi Tor sich people donot ee; but hasbeen ere inthe couse ofthe long development of human prnctce—at Prodeton,ofadence and ofthe Cas seugee ‘Tharin the development ofideoogies dre does take place = development ofthe thf and eberent sf fhe a ‘ork In menses: Fo he eons proces of eka i facts and sing fr comsseney dele ll te ie, {al dinonaty, spel pleading, vations lay pis a nconatency whit accompanist a very ge dos ootinuouay yield pose rele And these reals ae com 8tinuously verified, consolidated, ered and cased forward hough the developing practice of mankind. rath nd in in Tepe [Aivitesace'a reflection of objctve material eaiy, which Piece oct saree, But wl a8 we have jst een, here indevclopmentinfdclogy of he truth efiction of ealty Je idcan this aes place smd a development ofall Kinds of Hsin of stored fantastic refleetion of ality. "The opposition and interpenetration of truth and sion sn delogial development express the fact that the reflection ‘Stacy in ides elected in ciezent ways trough diferent proces, by diferent routes, ‘Oa way in which oor ideas about things are formed and cdaborated is a the proves of owe practical interaction with {ings founded on snd tested in practical experience, and thc doweloped by sient nvergation of real proces, GF the real propertes of thing their motions and inter ‘mnectons, nao far asides abou things Gyr tne ides and conduions about them embodied i etlogies are more or less wuthil—that i 095 trem crvecty reflect reality sad corespond witht ‘Butts sme! the oly way in which eas are formed. They ace alg formed n'a more indirect and roundabout wey. And dear formed in a more indirect and roundabout way are Drooundl inflata in the formation of elon. "This roundabout proves whieh enters imo the formation of idelopesinvelver thee malo steps Fiat abutract ideas ‘re formed on the asi of vasious socal elaonships and ‘apenences of People. Second, thove abrract ideas are charted from the atual experiences snd eatonshipn fom. ‘which they were derive, Third, both particular conclusions ey genorl ens about al ind of things are then worked out ‘Sih the aid of thor abstract ideas. Por ample when soiey divides ito clases and a euling clan is formed then, on tht bass of definite social relations Sed socal expeionesr and sete there is formed the don of the Felatoaihip benween ruler and ruled and of the ™ power apd prerogatives ofthe ruler From ta he net top So separate ths asic ea fos the seul expences fod rlanshipe fom which te was cegialy Gene 19 onsets exprening 3 pencral uh about the unhene, St goon frm the des of Ged the ro he wivene ‘hei aap oped ne ing ce stew Ser and vo interpret natu ‘creation of Ged. ey sa z= Whe Meas aout hing. are fared and woke ot his voy, I mean ne we me apprnching tinge with rain toe or let Hae precsnesprs about them lead in oat finch Indeed, such precncepos are fen 3 fet in our ‘incr aa ret ofeluston and hab tat we neve dean Of guetioning them, but ake the a sxono, natural ad Chrous vy of Winhng. Antes we orm eur earl ews thi priser soneitne about ings ne pearly 8 fell of clea vegan and. pence veeaton of conclusions but Indepenent of retin, wcral, wahort invent sig tt ing re ie nh when hey erly cane tobe ruta bese moe os Hythe eft and coven weal a th contrary, they give an incre wry, tae of Gnored pe oe. a swe a vay une in ey, hey ae at pre lavenons ofthe min, bt thy ar we fave Gia for, by a proce of riog idea feos os ous, ene then extrapolating them (ety Sending them teyeod the ‘phere in which they wer orginally aie) ad wing {Kenan preconception aplel im any diferent contexte Tepacing the cle fatnaton ‘and’ Velcon of est {Gough actual peace and experince. vey aio ait soe i ely. Tels define conan of acral iy at fon defi eal elton, Sperone ntsc “hat why many Hons a eset coor inp a qucton Orbe fader ot Teisiana with eet Har teas bt ttn union of (ngiocil selon contin generning cota un, 8an of thse ilusions serving dete material interes stone eke two a foes Tnibe fn pac, here ae Mos abo el hn nbdaepons cf feat proceacs and rlabons fall ia “Rferenes and practice Sch for expe the on dt SESE Melt reasons and onion Ello fom human Sarare, or weve decreed by Reason ‘ar tend lace, uios develop ito seer mythology ant nian tnetaveaion of vagina things, Tha: people set aly eeocevenatre and seit, both of which realy re ts aly fot iden of heaven and eof the ‘Stel lane cnc hve no exstenes hey invent Vins timafonry bey uch ago ies and dei Wt eoeti weshuld note that sion cant Be siege it tron, OF coe, sin i erors bot ita pea df eee. z ioe or exarl hat somtone says that thirteen au 166 Thins sopl ero, an evr i alee ‘uted tne ih answer 165). But suppre, om the other tetany that ier san saky monies, Ti ot Taeam cor in ealealaon, which ean be made by people weet the whole coect ist about number Tt Per an sony namely, the sason tat numbers aze f2Ely or unlucky Sue am ror does not sre simply fom a eens operating wih mab, ut aries from apBing ‘Gitte preconceived sess about nck which though hey Moves dee sore in experince ad pratt wrongly die unerialy applied to ober Say, wopeane says that the Beis Contain was creed inte Paranemt by Olver Crorwel hit # a8 Jee tener aring fom an soslicent sudy of Sich conttuenal tory. But uppowe be sye dat the Bate Comicon i an sxpreton af the unique gen of The AngosSman mace, ar Gos git othe Bish people tenets conc, aren simpy eo Iiiscays They arse fom applying fo vce fs precne tied des about aca gents God Thm ladon conttute'»apecal Kind of ero, aking 6 fen a que deine mode of liconodving ting In terme ‘of preconceived ideas. zs Seif and amy eoy to sy, both the proces forming more oles rtf ews ically trough practical experience and interaction with thing, andthe proces of forming more o em ilory deus 9 prcconceptore app inthe formation of views ener {hud the formation of setalWesoges At the same de, one oF other ofthese process may dominate in the cnstiation Pers icogy > tt thy aroma fcinife ia the one case of predominandy lacey and Uslenife athe othe ese. fee ‘All ideology in clasaivided sociery is developed by the Snel pest of ef las nd repo tothe acta! postion and serves the requirements of dete lames inthe classstrugele This being 1, we can 38 ove fncviably the two proceses interact and inerenetate In (he formadon of da ideologies. ‘On the one band ins far asthe interes of« clam do demand ae apprehension of aly bared oneal aves. tion of some ind, idzalogy dos contain a scenic flement. For example, the las interest ofthe capitalist cas ctl do regue tat conadrae wrk tl be done tn discovering the real aw governing various natal proce fe and ich coverca play thelr par im bourgeot ‘colgy. ‘The sme interes aio rogire that ceain socal Savion shld cared on a op hres gan 1 cerita selene elment doe enter into bourgeois esky ‘Gn the other hand insofar asthe interests oes an the place it occupies in stil production give rie to certain Precincepons and ions which seve the. clay fs i Fraggle, ts desogy iso. And so, fr example, If we Conair bourgeois ieology, there are many element in it stich merely embed the sions ofthe bourgeos cam and the vw pensar to Bourges soe. ‘Bourges iesogy, indeed formed by the development 7ofboth procewe And this gives set contradictions in ie qeeae Rice ince the products ofthe two proce cote tereteeme ines contadon and the reoaton of sich ‘Enalictons has tobe sought the developmen of eclogy Sere een tra of the iecoges of ther clas Tihagh the alone clement fa stronger in bourgent Hea ts thatthe contaditions have become sharper TR fe the devdopment of bourgeois phlowphy, fr cxanpls thre has been + continual ere (0 reconcile SEAR alcoverce wih bougeess preconceptions. The most ‘Slovan whch condo has ere en GRgea pilorphy ir iv the contradiction between the incline” pietre ofthe world afforded by selene BEA the religous views whieh form aa, seta aeeraf tie dclogeal preconceptions. Piosoprs have eon- ay coughe ways and nar a reslng ths conradietion; Tene ttetving ic to thrown sutsfacton, and a oes 25 Bey reve ops up agai, Yeti in Gouget sen, ucoveis are always being ined wi the elp of pilnophes—in tern of the arr ceonecpons, We ex ac is happening today, Tor hamles inthe development of physi where the de Ce Seer gunntum phys are iterpreted as meaning that Sots oe Gapredicabe and their reat nature unknowable SHS Nopiyres applica in physi seieee of bourgea estos! preconceptions generated by the general criss of (Shall. On the oer hand, certain preconceptions at est {efacir od foray hace had to be given up aad replaced by ine because oftheir contadiedon with advancing know: Tagetantue: This as happened, for example, with religious ter cen wich have olen been mudified inthe cours of TEN to secon tg with senee—as when the ae eee aly ditched both Adam and Eve aco enon fot theory evan Seadcing nach examen we can se that the opposion and micron of wieniic and Hwory element Tcslogy cant be enceved 0 simpy, a eas about one weep Oct wend we ear about ome eter thing Were 8 Ataoy. The fact rather hat siete ad sory elements pach aidinespncenen hens sot he and the same ting ‘Ths boureas idesigy, for example, a conta coupe’ oi any nen, the ee jay pevsting nd antag theres, It might bea {bar tescentibe cement anger Ie bougets oes boot nar proseny, while the liary seen a aronger inthe Bourges views sboutsocil proces Bat both clemests Cover ina pars and al ldo ourgetdelory. andthe cory clement ther charecterisitetare ete idslgy Wat amp bear esas ax ost Dorel these ny be id f edhe ea ofthe pa, At the same time, we may conniteny claim nd do can, at Scalistor Marxist cology primarily slentbeieslogy, Adin ti respect tinge fl eh very other cl swith exception. Tis beause te srgal w end epi Tin and, wih ial explain of man By man, which this ‘eaogy sven doa deztond above al re apron of ‘aly teppei ea heal tees bed on(Chapter Seven IDEOLOGICAL ILLUSIONS ie fection ef Profan Relations FRG chp we snl emir te evelopment of de Teese pretncepion cr fuse nd wl hen tant the aes tre Cpu othe development of aden hes “Ter reve ai carve nurr ofthe devon sen of algal oes in aside soy, whieh ire wace meer esogy pt and nud Durges 8) Bh fe fen of col ons i that choy anjouthc nto of pray bry conta ‘aiibwfpreducion.Thetscwcessteposieon line he development of elo i i int development of deol siony seems a staat Mean earl one wer eng apu ou people’ seesedccoped and eomttcg, to all penance, amply Pyle ming pts Yer how ache come epics tees? What tir source? Uniem we ae (tea ease firmed spontaneity wees ee non aed couippe wih ionate at then oii nppe ta turers steve reality oie he Minden founder alow essing ne tab Tn itsorya tuce sn wich they ate deed and of Hl hy av he ecto, "Const ts never anyhig but a reflection of material css Fi the b mi eve ba, a they SSodariy tee i conioune, the reflection of mater ‘Feelnd fans anersoucer cst oy, fom wehdeasean Be cae Brey cn, evry mento sly, deed 0 Irora and reflects some objective reality, some teal aspect of| the material word ‘ ” "The source of de sions in ideology i always the cea comomic structure of society Ax men live, 20 do they think Corresponding tothe relations they exter nto in producing the means of if they proce socal des ad svial theories, “Ths for example, itis the veal relations of landowers and sex establihed in the feudal model of production that are feflected in the feudal ideas of landowncahiy and in feudal ideology in general. Sinularly ii the capitals atone Which are velleced in eaptatis ideology. And fe was the far Simpler relationships within te ibe, the saliarty ofthe ‘ida with the ube, which were selected inthe primitive” Ideology of primitive commis. “Thus asseiety develops, the Mess which reflect the property relation of scary Income elaborate inthe form of systema nd theories eoneeming poles, socal rights and obligations, Jay, and soon, All sch ideology as is source ia ee socal relation of production, and constat, in the Ist analyse, fothing but an ideological rection of thre elation ‘The tame is tru of mora des. Ife have ideas of abate standards of good and bad, right nd wrong, virtue and vice, these fess ae reletions not of any objective property of persons or action but of the soa relasons ito which people fhve entered and within which thelr pesonal activity takes place. No wonder, therefore, that moral judgements change ‘wth fundamental changes in soil relations; and that there {only oe abjecve standard fr ssying that one morality Higher than another, namely, that ie reflec sind serves her socal system, ‘And the sme is rue ofthe decogy of the supernatural of religious ideology. The supernatral world which sen conjure Up for themacves in thelr Klas br never, in the last tas, anything other than a eeflection of the real world of society, of the social relation within which men live thle earthly es. ‘The world of the supernatural always serves a the guardian, of the base fabric of sity. The tal sligion sant gud ‘over the tbe and protect tribal relation, jst ay the hensof Chuistanity today have been so adapted tht heaven scems fostand guard ove the bowrgels ode of ciety. The supe aural orld which ards and juny the socal order ‘ested in the fmage ofthat soil order. “These ave examples ofthe way i which vaion frms of. feaogial Wgsone ate developed in term of abstract Heat tose ur sine devon cl en, more fey ofthe relations of proven. The objective realty hich ceted in such des never anything be ha the Teng complex of tol reatons which spring fora the Sroctin of the enteral means a ie The Sontarens Character of Tiel Mion (G) The seond fate of iological ition is that though ar ouce vin the comple of eal oc relations, they at ler comely deed fom ha wee nae they put forward au an anal of exiting oc elatons, he idea which people employ may rect thei socal relatony but thr edogial lions are not erated by That ois reflecting om their own social lation and ‘working out fr themselves, in ascetic manner, an accurate [Bndeytiematc account fhe soil suture which they Bd "The teas of pital economy, for example, asst forth such boak as Man's Gf, are derived fom «concious, TPetnodical investigation of actsly exiting raion of pro ‘Gavin, For that feston they ate not ilsory but cet Sharacter.eclogia on, on the other hand, res 8 Scontdouy ‘uriendedreiccon of an caning. soil ocr expresed in general eas about the word. Te hat fn uncoscnuy spontaneous characte, That is why, if we front to diover the mont exeial features of some illusory cology, we tall ot dncoer them in the easoned forms i which have presented er ideas, but rather in the reasoned sarptons he preconceptions which they tke er granted, wie underly tei reasoning. "or crample in the Heology of the medieval Catholic ‘rds the wl word nven an crc, was regarded te ‘hierarchy in which the lower members were necessity faboroate to the higher Tn the provton of thi ology there was no ineion of giving an account of te eda order, {he conscious intention was to ive an account the neces der ofthe whole word, and this was consis worked oot sa logieal sem, But ye the delogy was fat a releetion ‘ofthe ening Fea vol elton, which were hus sep: Aduced in men's ideas by a pontancon, unintended, neon: ‘cious proves, The general iss snplyed wee » relecin of acta! serial relations, but they were not cnueiouly Broduced ap such 8 reflection, but acme unconscious ‘Spontaneously in men's minds Thee ideas then became fed 2 preconceptions which were wed forthe purpote oie cing and workout the teary of evryihing which people ‘werliteretedi, whether in natureorsocey othe imanary realm of heaven “The spontaneous, unconscious character ofthe ideological ‘election of rations of production deo the Spotancon, Taconcious character ‘of thee’ elatons of” production themelves ‘Men's lations of production, wrote Mar are “ndspene fhe and dependent of ew Ts fe ey ower Banding the nature of the itworyIdelogeal rection of howe tlatins in sbsteact ideas ablot the wold dnd soy. ‘The sven relations of production are nt deliterstly in tabu thy a fest he gen ae focal development, indispensable. And beens ope never Alecded to intate them but a the ame tine canna get on without themy they are ot conscious of them a trbiory {ol reins with hve bon ined a dee, in definite cicumstanecy to ater definite butony tempo Naorial needs of vce, Rater do they appear as pat the noeeary onde of tings The chariot fetes of ‘en's vocal latins and elationshpe with nature, which are in fat the historically determined ret ofa dete mode of Production, are rected fa abstract seas inthe frm of Dreconceptions and ilsiont about the nature of man and rocky, ides about God and divine providence, about 8sce chars: right and jig, abut the eternal and seer chara ils of al beng the ulate nature of realy, and x0 ne a on aie i een teal eto ice ree re ec Sara toe oo Faure tre a rare Hokie dla geen gate oa arco beeen ee oe seh la emi cee Seer aueeineet paenie tn aacetrad ibis cay Ser ce cb Seer ee fo eens + Mara Fgh fe ee ers eon”. ety sata len repre = MesogialIersin (@) The fourth tearure of ideological ilsions is that a roces of iverson takes place in them, by which real socal elation are reprscated a the eliation of satact dens. 1 the proces of idecogia! Huson, products of abntact thought are treated as though they wet independent ofthe ‘material socal relations which they fn fact reece And sot follows that reality is turned upride down inthis proves: The source of abetract idea is taken to be the mindralher then ‘he material reality of socal relaions. And tthe timate ground for the existence of thote elation, themselves i ‘conceived as being the abstractions ofthe mind. ‘According to this inverted way ef looking at things, men excate thn scial relationship in obedence to thei sbtract dea, and not the other way round “Take for example, abrirat conceptions of right and junc, hich consttte an important pare ofall slogy. Abatrak right and justice are represented a independent of actual ‘ecial relationship, and thre relationships ee represented at reflecting and realiing—perhaps imperferj--an absiract right and juste, Acoeding wo th topsyturyy way of ooking at tings, the abavact dene of ight and fonice seem ‘determing the real relationships of sem, whcteas in fact tt {he real relationships of men that deter dcr dens fright and josce. And silly, the socal sytem seem tobe sited by how far i coreaponds to abana Kes of ight fd justice, whereas in fact ideas of right and Jusice sre used hy how fr they seve the material progres of eccy “Ezonomic, pltcal and other refectlons are jut tke those in the human eye" wrote Engels "They pas ough 8 condessing lent and therefre appear upside dawn, standing ‘on their heats, Only the nervous sytem which woul put {hem on thee feet again for represattin is lacking ‘This inversion. forms what we ell ideological eoncepon-” ater Schmid, October 37,1890) ‘And Marx and Engels further ote "IC in all ideology men and their rcusstances appear ‘pside down asin a camera obra, this phenomenon ariet 8sSee eee ae ase a ea ore ete are ee ee pee see laa acer eee ea a ee es a oe Rati omeec ert re Be ease eg Pape ees ne ape ree she ees mania rie See Sh ae Laer oe Som ee a a ee : a eet ego acters a ee eet eee sop EST i ihc ie paces ag ee Sa er aes Senin sae eae eee ee ee Eres eee pe ees ed 5 ind which are mee done af el oda ot Sees coe ene i melon he ‘alc owns nth wy anced war Mot (ilcd ie iene tego of eigen te tat word te pec en ea ar ieee! wi el oe ra Sith hone sot ane aa ne ap ‘Volume I, chapter 1, section 4.) bs ‘ote vie en gi thr whole cia fe and Inns be ed on td aed ty es aa Beth sane eh ig cores pa tae ed fovea fics syperory an nde a us ma {net hil nen fel tenses ot ek idiom ty Geer aod wheal ey ck tinh ens [iets wee Manx in Gil (Vote 1, sean ere yng tthe den ot thee weet” 8 seg Fn ne nie aio men reat pen nt ceo mara they me bed ge ge in nd wed dome den ha the ent lean aerpeion Se ‘cin ins me Ni cas Me sea hl power and ioc monies ste oe Clin sfc he yr ago ae spice mail fc Airs peta ee Sesh cy, dae tino hee ‘earl epoca af can as ost an not ae whl prope te spe ne aae btstaed natal cera srl eae sa intr pana te ie nace of at Sok ‘Eat tndofman wih ane erected Senne Thee emeen, mp Pvc he dren nd une floss hat teppei and vec the deve one a “The primitive religious notions which in the main are common to each group of Lindred people” wrote Engels, 87“develop, afr the separation of the group, in a manner poco to each peop scoring to the ting condoms Filng to tele (Ladeig Perc, chapier 3) ‘A sth al ology rion noted ew in each ew pase of woial evelopment. On the contrary, vee} ‘Res ni developrest sue adalat trie thts over om previous ienlogy, and incorporates TB lua materia borrowed from other elope Tes the teow in eigen; md sy be ects, we ean ll recogne tre he lo tines racic rsa isanty tay ements which ve. erm cated ovet fom peti bal magle ova and waned a they tony be wth new meanings ; Feat, once formed” Engels continue, “always on: tonal ate, jut foal Hes domsina i tcc fo: Bt he sation which tis mitral undergocs spring from cls relator Uatistosny ont of he econo slats f the penons who cute thse raafrmatons™ “Ts characte a al delogical aon tha, becuse itis ocupatin wth thoughts wih ndpendent enn, Continalydovelope idea out ofthe ater of ther ses ‘Seely gusts the fet that every ideology, snd very Sleent of idly, is but = secon of tara socal tens ae pen nh ere ely St jurpore to bey an independent mare of dens ‘Tie nature ofology ie mver vous on the ste, but cerves to igh only avs eu of Mans profound sentie Giivey, dha the se of production of materiale onions the soca, poles and intellectual HE procen in ral” (Or of ial Exon, Price) OE Toe ar eave aot he men of ir ov scl organisation, 0 lng ave thet rel seca ation reflected inielogica!inverdone whi arom rendering thin red ‘ein ie my ho cnn he al ‘arate, tegeter wih the veal springs a laws of human Social acon, bend el of elie plc, lege rie Sn plowopbieal hao 8 ly ond Css nt {G) The 6 featre of ieclogical aon is that, fn society Alvided into clases, they comiute a cas-matasted ne, ef deception, a mode of disguising the rea cal slats theinterens ofa dente das hain aways reflects the eal socal relations in sucha way a to igus them, For example, the rious ieslogy of the Mile Ages, wth ie conception of a heavenly Rerarchy which teed the Badal order meant thatthe explotaton ef the ae the ford war diguised as «subordination ofthe soft ‘ata superins under the tle of God, And singe the naked fact that the feudal lon sppropeatd the prods ot the ser labour wae dlipised bythe absret feudal ews of ‘naerahip, den rights td sbligaone ‘Once agin the naked fc that the capitalist appropriate, the value priced by the worker’ ipa about edged by the batt captain dew of nme cnn td {ally of sighs This disgute is completed by satel forms of retglon. ‘That i why, though borgeis elegy es often then nomeligious or aniligiou orm, has leaves a lophole for eligi and continually coer bake 4 ule in eros of ea when the mses sey rulangeted, teigiosidelogy i always brought tote fre fd take he ofenres eY "ee roe “or a society aed pon the production f commode" wrote Mars, “ia which he probicers in gencal ener iio soda relations with ene another by weating tee producto ‘commodities and vatus whereby they ree thi nds sate labour othe standard of hamoencos ae eae —for such a scity, Crna, with Ws cule of nhsooee ‘man, moe especially in its bourgeois developments, Dros ante, Desm, icy i the mot hing fre af selege™ (pital, Volume chapter 1, ceton ¢} ‘The whale of Bourgeois ideology, om it religion 10 it pelical economy, gues the eh of capa eaplies ‘The guise nd deception inherent in all ideological %eae seen ae Sea ate anata peers cen es pment aor ae eee eee ee eater fie nando heatyemaeiens eer descr pe eecire aiae e ‘When society splits foto antagonistic lane, and when, Be eee paietes oe ere pote nce a een gees aoe iuntens eee ooiens eee eee ee oe ea ae Ricmect as eae ee a eee vent edness te eas pape eee eee See bee eerie a Speco eerie ie cont aasorman sere Sera ee ai eb Pee eee eee Soe ene Seber ie eee Pence cae eet eee ° what Marx an Engels alld “fake consciousnen”. For they ‘oppose that the clas whow interests are terved bythe ideology oust of the Bat of is exe Seon av ioe te pic inne ee shen prion of Man Pa on ec fsa, lames ad gies of a See conta cagge conto an! ng tes do fern Bat blade at of debates te Sip ame tn, an paws eth eaple of an wn pata repramnuve ofexteme ideal macs toes Groce fn hype be noe fat ee ee sere le hi pcg at eee Pee i hcgh ey tne Fa tee a at ‘reclaim that rulers and ruled were men of two dlerect hed, Sonic bing “ple” men nde eve iran ad i At hea cases SC wtercy wate bytes cnc aed Sep en mean ana al Seay hee be onde ere na eee on Gita, an cmt icy bafta Pe the pt of ew fe sine meee whi Pato cponded aed cen Nie eh argu in oer th pop haan me (cami bec hes wi al ling lan lg ie fe ques bene ie ie ston wo dine he fy come en haya fey atin ingle The hen ca irae scien wh al en chee Rote td sl The we have ee a yt ‘itn commas be cance yc ead ‘to be believed. _ "Pe lawmotted charter of ptr elope has long been recognised, When new dau fing ior omogy agin that o the and consent posing new icloy a io ln igen rege hat te od gy taproot He poll opponent Kt atace Sel tts, em bcos otra Bp dae iat Te adranea iow ieaogy on te oles Iie as sytem of truth, correrpanding to the profonder rei be whale ces. tach new ne wach pts df a the place of he one rolng beore ig wrote Mare and Engel is compel, ‘sorter heh ita, eprint common incre all heme nc Sale ont ie nies efor of wives, wacent than he yeaah vena} val on The ‘Sestak revlon appear fom the very sia merely eke is pee to ssa aa chm, butas the repee ‘ear Sebel of wae) (Te Come Toby, Pat Shaper) Rul med ly cr, emery war wih watoud impale to deepen se nivel system Ue opening up mw hove, cespnding Yo dcp toca ay creado he ere a es tans ipa ofa we pope In he cour of ine, Eiherer as ibe new ruling a0° exploting das becomes Nemesia “nfs om coneicton, i iceoley aes is SqeTMenay dln and becomes consereatves 1 bei 1 Senay and tegrates unl finaly stands revealed nS eov’ap'a steno clasemotvatedlexpton, while is ‘Sones degenerate fo ginal thinkers rt mee ied propaga he rl cls Chapter ight SCIENCE The eas of the Potton Pres LONG with the developmest of the tusory, inert fection n eomiioanen of tlations of froduction ‘oes the development of men's tre iden ef the material ‘bjects which exviron them and with whic they av concerned Jn the proces af production, of the production proces eal and a their own Setivite ad socal aos Yor the development of prediction, and fhe seal inter- course which are from production semans und ives sac {0 the working out of tur tens about ngs and th nee ‘ennedtins and motions, and abot various utan acvises fd relations, Unies people do eilve such tue ides, they ‘annot sucessfully ary on production or manage thei soca alfa, And the more vsiom and powertul thir forces of Production, and the mote various and complex their socal ti the more da they nerd to nd ct rbot nats and Shout thcnaeives in order to bring ther various projets ot cre conan Tate development of delay, a Marx and Engl pointed ‘ont, “conscionnes can really ter itelf hat something ‘ther than consiounes of exiting practice”, Bat at these Lie as onstousis tins abate tel om exiting pac, the concurrent of exiting practice alto deveiops sy practice develops That very development of production of eitaion of labour, and of ration of production, which leads to sory fights of verted ideology, aso leads Yo.» growth of mens true ideas about their rel Sonthions of Such tat ese do not sre of thomas, They Lave (© belaboriously formed, worked ov and teste in practice They 3eae nee, ei ere eee mera ae eel aa ‘We have already een that ii characterise ofthe socal eeseeer ron een at ere ne ee ae eee aor emg ae reducing, men are abo neces forming thei ideas ofthe ee ae piesa ee ore ree ed rete eeke eles ee papeeneap ee eres eee areal ed eee erarecen coe ee ge eee Raa ener ces ee ee ee aera nce teeearyae nicrrcaee ae eee ae Reena eee cater Bee ee pee ere Sepriper pcan dad ee ee cee ee ee ees poten eer aeete Be fie ge pene Maras yr ee pee eee ead easter eae eee ee Fee epee eet ee rem reed see ee cee 9 Al hs is the fui of thousands of eas of human endeavour nd; in parca, ef the mighty advances i, pofon Sthovedia te cape oar es “Thos if men's sons have thee ulimate source ia he realons of production, men so continually make dover thie ans in the last analy fom the product proce Tiel In these ducoverca there nn developmen of acca Hen which reflect various turer and properties thnge nd aiihc pedi poes wit Hg prsieo, Sich lew of atre and of techolgi procses consi tute in fac, an. important aspect ofthe produce fores theme. ‘The fea of promctn inelae people wih their production experient ad sil People poacton spines and hil eon, geseralied an fcnated Inther ides: end quipped wil ce deus, the a the instruments of production and sao improve them Pusher the growh of knowledge of the production proven os sxbjecs and iret, of the peep of chao nn ‘ature general ot only a canta conon Er he Continuance of prediction at given level under ite encitions i enrbutes to new advances of production, and say become oe of he factors making crema nce=sty evolutionary changes inthe rears of phuton ting them into earespondnce with new eco paedon The Rie of Natl Scie ‘The rata sciences pring rom thew, or he haswlede, sccumalated nthe pred proce =a “From the very beginning Ege, wrote in Ditto Nor, “he crgn and development ofthe stones has bese determined by production ‘Throughout aniity, he observed scene nveigaion proper remained, rested (9 troy, mathemati and ethic Fo ancoomy sion acto he ‘ezons was aboltely inp fr patra an atic trl peoples Astronomy cam only develop wit the id af Imateratic, Hence thai had to be tacled. Fares a's %certain sage of aiuto and incerta regions (ing of ‘fuer or brig n Egy) nd especialy wh the ohn "7G, bi bulding gpersons sad the development. of Rhouaietmechanics Phew 008 ended ab te aye elon sd war Moree ropes te ad of mathematics SP roma the laters development” Later, withthe tac nk development of th ace ef production wich le ean then tok ace within de capa syste, ow Secs arene ter the herp cei the wisgieat seen eno. theacenes suddenly arose thew with undreamedsot force, developing a miraculous fate ence again we owe this mace to production ie developmen of he cen etermined by produce dom ts sb Seon for the wneten rate ahs the tekaspeene of the scence and for the fle ened SSGaker at hat development. The varying charter of son anda hens placed on feet production feces scouts fr fT ery, fr exe es Pet tar dereaped uni snodem tine Sg seca Jeera por fhe Boge wlencet hd comer ‘evelopment Asn, the agrcltural scenes are relatively ee nde modery monopaly cpt, wie ll he SSitce connected wth war profscton ave eoegeically Teer in Spied Unni isin om Predation ee Sealy tpeclndundenalogy, with tir See tl Mad eos Toe te ct Son ne on fare et ag ae tees, ln fs pede ech Sa ee ein ctun&pelebr ten sean tion fein oe oir eneaiene : A a ped ome oc i ee Serene reer is cot annr ote pon 6 ‘various mac, o of the suceson ofthe seatons. Sach Inowledge is raised 10 the level of scence only when these things are made the subjects of special investigation distinct fiom actual. production™in the fst place fom hunting, raking tons, gurdening and the likey and’ when cone: ten, what Bacon abut then i geeraaed and Systemaied sa special boy of know. ‘We may disingush three outstanding characteris of seinen, which propresivey distinguish sdeninetheary fom the knowledge of natural objects a proces Inherent i the Production proce il and conaltsting the producer’ own cious of thee wor, fs nubjects and atrument (G) Scenes engage in et deripto ea asain of natural objects and proceen Such, for example, the hating of the heavenly bodies and ther apparent move: tment undertaken by the pioneer of stonomidt iene, ike the ancient Egypis; othe “naar bstres compe by ‘rly sudenia of living nature lite Arsol,whovesologica works comprised a systematedexpion ah caifeston of hx owe 0 wal mona) Kn nina wit ‘tempus formulating laws conelating the various properties diferent anima = oe {@) Basing deceives on such description and casein of macural objects and ther motion, seences proceed, by traction to formulate the printlr ond lar oad {nd governing the observed properties and motions of nat ‘objec By sich abstraction, for example, are deed nich concep at ms, momentim, ele, i mechanic on te corer panera geomet it mshi a) Utising much concept, the sciences proceed by the formulation of kythrer, Such hypotheses seck to ele the hnerved propets, interconnections and mosonsof he thing. inva and to the farther property, intr connections and rotons; they sek to provide a syelematie theory ofthe phenomena, and tenable en fo vadertand and tae eof ther ‘Coneequenty, wil scence hats oot in production, and 's applied in production, tthe ame tine ts developed asa orspeciale activity distinc from production. Te ilows that tc he devdop it ae fequeny unaware of and may even deny, connection with production, Soft thrown consciousness f ther acts eoncermed they ‘ay be carrying ont her investigations fear hcely fori akc ot knowlege, om ove ofan ad the dere {© enlighten people, becnze they enjoy Ht Because they are Bd doit, tec they wis 0 Bente foun or Beane {hey wish to do opponents a bad tur by proving them wrong. Diky etfonct apeaiecnatetad eal Le gue siete work, and ofcourse, thee motives may and do Fnfaence the characer and outcome ofthe work Farther, once sence pt on he tack oferta discover. ie thee ten lead of themselves to oer and the proces of folseng up concusions and generalising ad ssemating the resulingdess procends with logteaits ow, independent ‘of particular practical proens connected with profucten or this reason important selenibe problems are often luciated in advance of pratal needs ahd even fog before ‘ny practical application b posible. For example, axenic Sendo at se extn feesomagare wes ete ‘each well advance of any pratalapplcntion in a fechniquea, Atomic fision wap dieovered many years before sty preccal application ofthe rele of atomic energy Wat Attempted. Thus sientfe advance tends to aquire a omer {um of fa own independent of pete! spplcaton. Wit tore, even when tht application becomes tee pole, Tt cflen delayed on account of poltcal and. anomie ‘Scncra, a5 the theory of production are thus from the ‘outset dtinet from the practee of production, bo i thei ‘rzaninacon and inthe penooal acuity and consciousness of their prectioners At he same time, the character ofthe sciences and thei evel do aay depend on those of produc: tion, thee protien av fa the at ana fram production, and their fnols ae ed back ito production. The develop: ‘ent of sciences always dependent of the development ef production, and in turn sustains and putes forward prod 8 tion, The distinction of science froma production is not a ‘Saconnecton, but a very cote connection. And in the eves {hat this underlying connection ever becomes severed the sciences themselves always begin to stagnate and then to ‘ecay. To general, the Ses when a new impetus given to Selene aretmes when new techniques of prodicton ate being developed. Those who then planer the new pat in scence re ustally closely associated in their practical interes with {he new productive proces. Then follows a process of the ‘cient elaboration and development of the new ideas and Alscoveris, But his proces cannot be long sustained it le to achieve technical applestion and Jacke the staulue of problems arising fom tat appletin, Since and Clase ‘hac as bean sald shows tha hese of renee isa product of civison of Inbour. Sciences sre developed as 4 product of ‘mental ar dance from pha! Inbour—se a special eld of theoretial activity separated fom the Ibour of production. Te falows fom this that the development of the sciences x lealy bound up with that of lacs Nt iferent nes difier: ent clases have taken and inthe development ofthe sciences ‘and have in consequence nlaenced tht development to suit their elas requirement, and imposed on the scenes certain features oftheir clas eslogy rom the divsion of labour score private property and exploiting clases, and sche division between te mase of producer, wholly engaged in prodtve tol, andthe pri feged and Tesured minority who took over the general management and direction of society. The development of Science, asa branch of mena labour, was dependent upon the exitence ofsuch a minority, fed fom the physi labour Df production and able to undertake such meatal labour ‘Thus the class which, in any particular period, has taken yer the general management and ietion of mice, and therefore ofthe state, religion and soon lo takes charge of the sciences and exercises » controling influence over ther Heveopmene 0Sciences develop evenly as part ofthe means which are required forthe geo dra and management of ial {iin ewe spar nerakingy, Hees he cenes ‘velop sv ines or ntroments ise hands af vatous lost evi te Feqlrmants in the way of (9) carn Sno’ expaning produton, nd () managing and como egret fang fen aay rae and oer the deropment of nce fn fro the nore reqalre {Dac they Bnd things ota Sins fom merely retaining inlgnortnee or inventing ise theories ‘Thur the expansion of science and al the Kt wo hat expan, ae governed by the tere ang fom he cone ‘ons of xitence of particular anes fom ine to Gime. Tn dave sniety abd in Teaal eit, for exstple, the sonton of existence ofthe ling ase whieh were bound Sp ith te entnce of ceanparvely ow lee of develop sent of both agiclre sod nds, dated ony 0 mest Edie th deropent of Sect once te bugs sm ts nto Gctanded an corm exten Sener wien wort, connected primarily withthe develop. tentacle ut ny cons tits yveaonsry sage with anand Bil rations Soin eens he ton fhe gee, oe of te owt typical products of bonrgeossorlty, the means for Ahdentaning and contrling the prose of rate snd teciety eeated under the conditions of the development of capital tas oy ia See ‘The fact that n petal clas tke the leading part in the fencal development of since sl places dete conditions Ind limit upon the development ofthe ideas of sence. ‘nthe ao he atalino cen of « ‘cs prcencepsions ested which determine the eharke fer ee dan idsogy. These presoneeptona sre wed and pple n one way or another, by the inllctual epresenar SNe of the clan every phere f thir ideolgieal etey ‘And. they are used and applic in cen work, pentrate into and impore themselves upon the theory ofthe tence, sd in that way influence and clout the ene development ‘fhe scenes each pareaar period In dave society, fr example, the Kea was developed, and ‘twas more fly worked out in eda society, that eer ing which existed consisted a hierarchy, sething down font God, through the grades of inferior Sprtual beings tthe sradcs of mea, animals, plants and mincas, Eeerything sned fora puro, corponding to pace in the syste Sand this was what determined ese propertis a well itsmovement and changes This ype of conception dominated the sioce, Every theory eonceing onan nature hed ‘ue formulated intra of and made o Btn with or example, twas considered that the heaven beyond the circle ofthe moon were of superior nature, belonged to fuperior grade of being, to the earth beneath, Hence the heavenly moverients (which were mppotcd to be nsesarly irealar, bese uch movements were apposed to be the ‘nowt peefect) were considered tobe sorement Site tum Hom eat ven Bary be nese tended to fll towards he centre, which accounted for grvite- tion as observed on the earth; but ths id ot apply the heavens. Such lens were expressed in te Pernt conens tion ofthe base earth atthe centre ofthe univer, with sun and star citing beyond it. Copericu, puta te sun tthe centre and making the eth one of the planets efeted ‘a devsve break with ths typeof conception, and paved the ‘tay forthe Newtonian conception of univeal gravitation and the laws af modon, which ssbwuned the movements ofl the Dodisin the univere under one univer scheme of mechaeh ca exalt Bourges ideology in general and bourgeois science in Datcular attacked and inthe end lagey gle of theo tration conceptions. This atack sre from and developed hth buss ofthe growth of the hourgeis socal tla, What took the pace of the old conceptions were new ad Iypcallyourgecs concrptionsconception of the” bale Avaltativ ientty ofall sateral belngy, and of mechasdecnurlity, At the same ime, apart from ite most radical ‘epresenatves, the boutgekle Uy no means thew ove the ‘cnceptions of God and of spirit. Bu in place of the single iraded hierarchy of being, fromthe basest sor of material {being a the Bottom to the highest sort of spiritual being (or God) at the top, there was introduced the division of the ‘univers into tro totally diferent sperer—material being bjct to feed, determinate lava on ie ane hand, and God fd the spiritual world onthe other hand, "none way or another mck bourgeis conceptions have entered ato the whole theoreti fbn of modern scence ax Slave and feudal conceptions did ito that of ancient and ‘medieval scence, But there i hi iferenee—that whereas the old conceptions were eat to the exploration of nature by experimental methods the new conceptions were favo able tot and demanded Diver and Prcnetion Beene of his cla eologialnfuence in acetic theory @ Assen is lays arising inthe development of the sciences between the dacoreris which aience makes und the precone ceptions which science takes over and ses "A discovery i made when, a2 result of investigations, something becomes known about the kinds of things which ‘unt, thar properties interconnections and awe But ite ‘overes must always be exprewed in propeions formulated with the aid of definite concepts, and sich propeitions are aheays mace to form part of 2 general theory. Considering, therefore, the sum total of the ideas and. theories of the Sclences at any time, we find tha, in one aspect, they consist (ofthe formulation of actual discoveries, and in another aspect, they const of the general preconceptions In terms of which the dicoveries are formulated and knitted together into 8 ener theory. "This ditncdon between dicovery and preconception, which alway presen in sience, often gives set a contrae ‘icton.bewween ducovery and. preconeeplen. And this contradiction is continually at work in the development of oe “Thos contradiction isin mene contradiction between centet and form in scencea contiadeton beeen the fetal conten ofthe cover of cence andthe thceretial ter in which they ae expred ad generated Tecan wot oat in either of two ways pave way oF gave tay, Posey, new deve help to shard precmcepe tems and to eed tow ways of nderunding hinge Negutvey, the retention of presoncepins hinders te vance 10 new discoveries For exnmpi, atthe davn of moder natural sence the ‘il preconceptions were hindeng the advance to ew ‘corres an when the notion that heavenly moons were ‘rpletely diferent fom earthly ones hindered the teanee astronomy and mechanic. Abd then the new dncvena Inastonomy and mechanics blpod to shatter the old concep ton sp olen the way tm new ota "Agi, in modern bourged mater ence a contadction tus eaen between the Gacovric of Scene nad the ade Sonal, Bourges metianstesmetaphyseal meted of ier eng ther “Thus Engels pict out that the eumlaive ef icovere of modern sata wien sto show let reaort ator work alee and not metaphyscally. ‘But the naturale who have leasoed think daeteally ais few and fr between, amd this confi of he rl of covery with poconelved modes of thinking expats We tales cofiain no eign hese marl tence (Ssition, pin nd Saou chopuce g) ‘On the one handy thi costco leads to “endem enfin” in iene which hol ap te advance of lence In biology, for example, extreme rgd techni ieas Alou eng procene wer npr and, when these ceed Aicales,resore war had to myst idea about ile fees resin in «ti contoveny bebreen “mechs” fami lta’, Agen, when oder dncveis in physen pet the wadtonl scheme of recta cay, ese thimed that the whole iden of envy ad brakes down 03and tha “no pictre™ could be given of fundamental physical Droste. On the ther hand, the accusation of dacoveriet Este to new ways of hiking to the supplanting of kourgent ideology by Wales! material, ‘Thue Lenin concluded mis clamination of new developments in phys oder pyses in in caval svg burs to dleeveal materia.” (Meteiliw and Rap Criiim, chapter, ‘ection 8) Soci Sti So ewe ve diced oly the nara ees, Bat hee eager iy iol ercas ef meen eee fer ee Fee grat efor aed aneDetpieel Hicrotenn hat ukieaidy len dened by produc THis aftocil scene on teeter han, wicca ot Invest in he properties nw ohn phenome a een ey Cine eee ee Iced erie eperer of paar dees peed Ee sae trae Scves vey tat Bem sm oad. 2 thet nai the tes of procon wh cl Cts str asi ge orgie ei cot bea of tee seg prdecton Ty rs he nwt of pepe alceeraiecere ett tree reat ec cee Ra rctatnn eri Pee ge seal teredl fete oa Taree Reese Saeed rel Th imeignon of cal phenomens has had conete aegis tea ioal eal esauioceeae orn ee ae eee ane Poa eecnree a Re paspeea beret val preeeteatio "Nec nwn bie any government nt ake cgiance ot a wel seth mvenlgtone of Rn wine Stable ihe egneee of pubic events inthe Htry Det oe ergot often weg com the 10g Investigations have been caried out by representatives of fxploting casos “And 1 i has been primavly the leone fad conclusions about man and society drawn by the expat: ing aves which have been incorporated Into social erence. ‘This has given socal science a eharacer profoundly dierent fiom natural science. At developed by repreentatves of exploiting classes, socal sciencewhieh dealt with en's {lations and interactions with one anothers been cor pletely separated from natural scienoe—which, dels with fxteal nature and man's action on nator. And it has proved Smpenable to etalih the bate of trustworthy scence of Society in the way that the sume clases have been able to do {nthe ewe of external nature, ‘There are four principal features of social science whieh have fundamentally ditnguihed t fom natural eeieace. (i) Claes interest inhibi certain inventions and die ‘overes im social scence, in a way they do ot io natural Sienee. The fact that social science has been deveoped hy ‘xpliing clases av an id to thei cle trl sen fmpar- ‘ale limit om the polis of lovery by socal scence So long a8 emai in the hans of hove clas Tels tus, of coun, that varous disoveries about mature have been reited for ame by representatives ofthe ruling clases, for ee owe ideologiealresone. And in thi respect the path ofthe natural sciences has somedees been anything Dhuttonsoth Sac was the eee for example, with Gallen of tore recendy Darwin, or mare rocenly sil Michutin, Bat Invariably inthe end, the facts themselves compel recogiton, the discoveries are animated and ed, and the idelogies ‘Adapt hermelves tothe new dacveren. But inthe sci fel, fn the other hand, resitance in mach stoager: An exploiting ‘ass ll not recognise fact and laws about society is ‘would fatally prejudice is easier. Tt ll not recogni fits which would expose the real nature a is own ystems of ‘exploitation, and lswe which would make eles the inetable ‘ofall ofthat ete {a} While eapliing clases have developed the natural sciences as intruments of men's cllesive mastery over 105,ature, they havent developed seal scence correspondingly selma of me's Clive mastry ver the own ‘ecial ergantation. ‘The expotiog clanes have devloped {octal seltees only at am instrament to help them secure tn maintain their own claw rule Many inesgatons about rociy ave been undertakes fom which theorteal aed Drctcalconeliions have been drawn, But in contax tothe [nvestigons and conclusions of the natural scene, these have sever eaabled people to secure such cond over the rel of thie actions that they could diet ad plan thle ‘Sopeatve elt to the realisdon of eit nd "Bipinde nv ben nero developing ite ‘meats of production which have Been the mest for peoples ‘abinhing ad increasing ther mastery over ature. At 0, Sider the pateonage of these cae, the natural sence have tore and more helped to raise man's mastery over nature, Buca the sume time, the development of privat property and xpoltation has made people sje to effets Of Cer ow ‘otal relation wiih ie beyond their conscious wocal contol ‘Rnd ths mun be 20 fora long a expaiaton conte fxn. Hence the very same trial proces which eteater forthe exploting clans the posi of developing» natural feience which helps to eave man's masery over Mature, ‘witha fom them the posibilty of deveoping social Peience which helps to realise man's mastery over his own focal erganiation “g) Woe cxpeiing canes have been able to devop further and farther the scent investigation not only of te terncsplenorneesofcntrs but fe Sdaying ee od inv of thee phenomena ter social sence ever able pencrate to the bale chucs and laws of the movement of Pet. bce nd a fhe movement oxy He in the sphere ofthe production relation the propery ‘as Flaons, But fis mponbe to carey though to the end {sents iavetgation in issphere without nly expeing the truh about the bath of the privilege positon of the ‘ohing came and the conendiory and wnesny nature 18 of the system of exploitation, whic thee clases are vitally foncerned to hide and dingise Hence even when, daving © Dprogresive phase, the soil senor of pn exputing. class begins to make a tore profound analysis ofthe etonomie base of society (as withthe Bath bourgeie in the nial phase cinatal capitalism), the els on fas back rom i wn ‘achievement, and it social investigations revert to 8 super” Feil desripive level, replete with misleading ens, ‘he ‘ociologiss of explating eau can in the en never ighly tla, analyse and explain the phenotensinvetigateds and fonstamly intwoduceilasory mativer an fabs explanations Into thie account of society. (3) In dhe hands of the exploiting clases, seca cence has emained far more profoundly under the induecce of clase ideology than the natural sciences. In the natal scence las ideological precosertions have often hindered bat i {he end not prevented the scenes Fem dicovering many of te objective lave and estental interconnections of the Phenomena they were iaverdgating. In soca science, on the fiber hand, the general theory of soeiety has been pital etermined by ease desogiesl preconception ‘Because cas Interests profit cermin investigations and lacoverics; because the Class in charge of soil sence fannot develop its means towards mas mastery over his ‘wn social organisation and 20 submit its conclusions to the fest of vcal practice; because socal sclerce draw back fom, investigating the basic eaures an laws of the movement of society follows that the general conceptions of sotesy ployed in social science ae not derived fom scent Investigation but have the character of fle cnsciounes, of ha idelogical sion, Consequesily the invesigetions ed Gonclusions of social science have tended, in the hands of ‘epresentaives of expleting cases, to develop pritariy ss ‘nner elaboration ef cas ideolagis! preconceptiont-—a+ Clsitying and interpreting of toca fc in such a way a to fenforcea given ela’ sions bout society, and to provide Inguments to support is plcal pls. For all thee reaons, therefore, socal scence In the hands 07representatives of exploding clames as not tinned, and fever could attain, the same scenic status ab the navaral ences And it hat costal tended to degenerate nto mire ‘uling as apologei, ‘The Soil Patino Sime ‘We shall sum up this chapeer with tome concavons about the natuee of sience apd the part it plays in social He in economic and cultural development. Then in the next chapter Wee shal enaider some ofthe general features of the histo evelopment of slence, and the parti i destined to playin the ature, n the contraction of socialist society. "The ditnetion between scenic and ilusry modes of ‘constousnesis dependent on the diferent method a fori ideas about thing-—on the one hand, forming ideas on the Tas of petal ineraction with things, developing them by. Practices on the other hand, proceding fom idelogcal Thee two todo consioume are not mutllyextan ives They are oppoites, but they interpenctrate. Phy are apposite tendencies a work ia the total development of oral onaiousnes, whi interpenetrae at every stage ad which together determine the actual frmatéon of the ideas entre fined about nature and wily, and sbost particular aspects Ctnatre and society. An thsi ttm give seo conta ontradictions in such iden, As we have seen, the siete ‘ode of conscious has gradually become the predominant nonce in the formation of ideas abut nator, while the Iusory mode of conaciounes has remained the predominant Inuence tn the formation of ideas about wc. ‘Sentfe investigation and Ghcovery bound up with cal prctce, wit the practice of production and with te practice ‘tthe clave struggle In the at analy, always aie from tis governed by the requrements of pracce And meeting the requirements o practic, I makes at excralcontbaton to practice Scenic investigation and discovery plays an indipensabe 108 att inthe development ofthe forces of production; and the Tigher the development ofthe forces of production te greater And the more necessary isthe part played by science in hee {evelopment For example, science played 0 pat n the foros ‘of predueton inthe Stone Age It begs to play apa inthe evelopment of agreutare, metalworking, public work It plays major pat in the modern forces sf proton, dace Imodern technslogy ‘would be impossible without wince; ‘more than that play leading part since sent ena Pioneers the way of technological development and leads Sirecly wo great revolution in technology, Contributing ths to the development of forces of produce tion, science becomes a rvolutionising force in roi. Fo Iva principal factor in tho advances ofthe fresof prose tion which being them into confit with existing telatons of production and thus render necesary a change inthe whole fconomic structure of sotiety. This la evident tnday in the evelopment of pysial science, for example, Tus atomic fnergy production is one of the factors which make the feplacement of capitalism by soeaiom urgently nezesry, ‘order that auch production may be ull developed inthe service af weit. [A the same tine, sclence play a pati clas sragle, Tae natural sienes ply sich a pat indelly and ae secondary Fintion, social science dieetiy unas primary function, "The primary socal function of matural sence 10 ast prodstion. From this follow it secondary function ia the hss struggle. Defisite advances in scence an technology serve the interests of definite clases, either n thee struggle fo power or in the consoldation af the rexine when they are In power. Thus, for example, the eariy advance of madera science ad technology served the ring bourgense in fo ‘ways-frt, by enabling them t increaue ther wealth and so strengthen thei soial position; reson, ideally by help ing thelr strugule againe the feudal Sdeology. And when the LDourgeaie was extablihed in owes cence and technalogy were powerful sds fm conslvating the capitals regime ‘Today they sl serve the régime of toonopoiy capitalist At 109the same ime they ae lo pes into the servic of dhe ‘working clam and the cause of socal snd devioped in That setcevin the counties where soit i being built, 13 inpring in soci consrton; and everyte 8 Dart ofthe enenal exuipment of orl delay. ‘Vatious kinds of soil investigation, on the ether hand, serve the els strugse diet, ad the requirement of eas roel provide the peincpelmesiraton of sich neta: NP Aol tat cat of elplelding ems, th x ors teen, accounts or the at that cla eslgia ios play 1 at gretr pact nsocal than in natral scence The com parse sd of diferent fos of sce and of gavernment, {he deseripson and cleifcaton of various forms of socal acvty, the investigation of the best way of carrying at ‘arloe forms of economic acivity—theve have been ena ‘ecuptions ofthe arousing and eplting cae whieh ive sered them in panning and dieting tha see bath in guining power and contlldating and in developing ths clam hewn the Wella sre with oie clases Te the daw srugge of the wonking cy in che struggle or {ocalen soil alee fr the fest ve developed an tenet mean or Sdn out how to transform soety; and inthis efor the fist time begin to attain sient stats cuivalent to that ofthe natal scence STi ch and went esl metal Beton of ehnce i, she be find in the pr pas he deve toca practic, By eareyng on scenic ivenigntions to find things out and 1 reach general concatons on the bas of that they have found ot, people are able to cxpand sad te soil ater ie, corresponding to {he level of tee productive fres anc the conequent chara. ter of their production relatos. ‘Thus the development of scence fan esental mean othe peféction of human ti, Serving to loerese men's mastery over natire, ther socal wealth, te scope and power of thi atv, tee ay to TBanage ther allie and say cel equrements "The bears en the quenioa, fcsiy tac among Marios, whether science develops a partof the lat ideology ‘conditioned bythe economic relation of soley. I corre to contrast “bourgeois science” and “socialist selace a Fval Sdeologes serving vival cates and socal systems? ‘On the one hand, since clas ieslgiel preconceptions do enter into scence, ticlenr that in ctl practic tne theories ‘trent in pareular elds of sence do nti views which Size and develop as part c' clas ideclogy. Such preeoncep. {ons arse precly sr products of give base of property tnd das relations serve the eonsclidaion and devcoptient (6f tiore relations, and disappear when that economic bas Sappears We eannot understand the history of cence, or lis specie characer and contadictons at any partclar stage without taking into account the fact the it developed by defite clases, whose cass preconceptions play an seve pot in is development, and vthore economic interests may Further is development in one direction sod inhibit it in Another Tn ths sna te quitecoret to eontrat "bourgeois Seience™ and "wocalist scence”, ince the development of ftientlc work i difrenly condoned im Bourges snd focilin soe, (On the other hand, the cnt ofthe dcoverie of rience fs not determined by clas interests or an economic bad Tove discoveries are directly connected with the needs of production and ofsocial intercourse consequent on produetin, Teilectcbjective fact and laws, serve sacety genealy and Feain valid for any economic has A dacower ira discovery, ever makes ie ‘To take »conerete example, chat of quantum pyscs a it hasbeen developed in bourgeois sokty today The dscoveres femcering the Taws of motion of matter on the rob-tomie evel refet those laws of motion, embody dhe result of experiments and vo are im no way determined by the deo logical preconceptions of pareuae elses conditioned by fonomle relations and. economic. interes. This i why elentts rom capitalist and socialist countries can mect I & ‘tient conference on common ground, compare thee res Ind asst ane another in furthering the advance of science40 far, at least, the security regulation fein goverment low. But the theory that evens happen without cause, Which hasbeen built around these dacoverien and which m0 ‘Experiment can coninn ia characterise produet of bourgeois ology. Hence in is erential discoveries quantum pss has not developed a5 clas iedlogy, but certain temporary features of is Beneral theory ave been inuenced by las esl, So, dots scence develop a a clas ideology? The economic and das relation of sotety do condition the development of ‘lence, and the idelogial preconception of definite clases fo enter into sence and Influence its development. They lnftrnce it development either postivly of negatively, Ssslng scenic ccovery or hindering it—junt na, 3 tener, the economic basi of property and clas relations ‘hay be fvourable or unfavourable tothe further develope ‘ent ofscence. But the discoveries ofsience andthe advance of scientific theory do not rellet the preconceptions and Inter of any clases but diet rfc the proces ofthe bjectve world—and thse secured by the progresive apple ‘ation of sentiic methods, which age fact Gnding metods Sd not metsods for spinning out there ut the interes ofeny particular people, Moreover, it it evident that science itelf plays a very limpertnt part in the Mdenlogical development o soit Scientneally formed concept, siontse dsoverag enter into ideologies and science strong and growing infuence Jn the formation of ideologies which this in some of thet feature, become scene rather than ler. The higher the development of scence the greater the par it must play in general idelegieal development For example, the conception of the evotion of species trough natural selection, the conception of the call & the Unit drough hich ie develope, the conception of the atom, {he conception of the earth at part of the solar stem within {he land ‘onivere of the milky way ate all centealy formed conceptions which hase booome part of the sceepted view of ature in bourgeis society, and so pat ofthe curent Bourges clog, In, gener bmurgec Asogy not only penetrates science by imposing preconceptions en it bat A itself penetrated by adence atthe same dine often seking toi ard expan ty seni coe Dt above all scence plays apart asa wespon of rts in the development of ideology: New concepts nad discoveries of science confict with existing ideology, and shake de pre: ‘onceptons and the conclsions derived fom them, So when, few clases are sing to challenge the sway of te od rling flaws, and new ides are being oppored to the ald iene ‘iene invenigaton ad the conclusions derived from it thcome a revelutonsry wespon of erties, ‘Above all, therefore, scence plays a progresive and lies ating part in social development. Te discoveries enhance et ‘allective power to satity dir requirement and serve a4 ‘means of enlightenment, diplling the clouds of error and ‘persion, and furnishing men with knowledge of nature fd of themsctve, Particular cases, and partelar ations led by parcular clases have made thee contibutons tothe development of the scienes, temporaely stamping upon dein ther own peculiar characteristics and limitation, and fen, having ‘vanced so far in scenic dacovery, drawing bark, confsing {he theory of sence with ther own illsions and ervering js wes. Bat whatever th lnitaions and setbacks, what hag been achieved by one clas or nation i take verso eased fen by another. Hence in the hitory of rience, there has ‘eyclope, and i developing, a ertage of human knowledge ‘nd power. This the common heritage of tanking, destined {o be wed forthe emancipation ofall the people.Chapter Nine SCIENCE AND SOCIALISM. Abdiwenens of Boesis Size RIOR to modern captli: snes, the scenes developed ‘ain atthe most elementary, descriptive and cassia tory level The discoveries ofscenee considerable a they were in eertain els, were piecemeal in characte, bring concerned with dhe propetes of parcular objects and with particular laws an conceptions, not yet penetrating to the more general sn fundamental laws or llrding any relishle general picture (Of he interconnections in nature. Since scentibe work was ‘mainly confined to desertion and clasifestion the stra (Goes sod generalisations Bf the scenes, which Songttate the {wo other major eect of scentie work, were of necenty rainy speeuatons and gener And the general theory of ‘ature yas developed asa puro philosophy a theology, and Cnbedied all the philasophical and thealgial lon ofthe Tras a Satute of sence inthis stage that it made ute of some” extemely” primitive conceptions about nature. The Alchemists fr intance, secured a coniderable stone Enowledge about chemical substances aad thee combination, bt theirchemal theory warentemey primitive inthe teal sense that tad ie of dea taken over fom piniive dines Such, for example, was this idea that chemealasbstances ‘were living beings made up of matter and spit, and. slo Dosesing tex atsibutes. Again, there wt coniderable ‘evelopment of sstronomical cbervation in slave and fea tociety, but the cosmelogcal theotes about dhe layout of the Shiver remained under the ialluence of primitive iss. 4 Engels, in leur to C. Schmid, October 2, 18go, pointed fut that ‘there has exied "a preistore sock of wat we Should today all bone, which has been drawn on (ts fometimes drawn gn, by the way) fr the purpose of men's feneral conception of nature, ‘These various fae concepsons of nature he wrote, Ihave forthe mast part nly a negative economic bau: the owe ‘economic development ofthe prehistoric period ie supplemene tedand parslly condoned and even case bythe fase con xplons of nature. And even though economic neceity Was the main diving force ofthe progeeing knowledge of mere land becomes ever more, itwould suey be pedantic ry {0 fel economic cies for all thie primitive nonsense, The Hitry of aence ithe hatry of the gradual clearing aay ofthis nonsense o ofits replacement by fresh Dut alveay est beard nonsense” "The postion wat, therfore, chat the ideology of the rang lnses imposed a certain pllesophieal and. dhealogieal ‘haracter upon the general theory ofthe sienes, And atthe ‘ame tie, the relatively low’ level of economic development brought t abou that many prmlve and wonsersleal concep ‘one found their place inthe chores about particular tinge ‘Those iets could not bat Kinder the development of the sciences, They acted ss powerful negative factor which had bbervept away before the moder development of wlenee td of preducton, could become pole ‘Modem natural selence ace fn the period when the power of the feudal nobility was being broken and the medern European bourgeois nations were being formed, “Nati science developed in the midst ofthe general evolution and ‘was elf thoroughly revolutionary", wrote Engels in Diss 1 Nate. And the tame clam forces which were carrying {rough the revolution carved thraugh the devclopsnent of Aciences. Science appeared as a gteat force of enlightenment, BE yay tee io ane Tenged the old authries with knowledge sed on ebmervas tion and experiment. The men ho Ink the foundations of ‘modern natural scence were ofa very eifeent ype from the ngclerks and monkish scholar of dhe feudal order. They were Intencly iterated inthe deveiopmentofindusty aad trace, Sn new tecniqus in wavel and discovery In thelr hands the scoveris of science became lsteunents for improving the fondo of human i “The rise of new sciences was consequent upon & new development of induty. “Bollowing the erusdes,indust'y developed enormeoualy and brought to ight a quanty of new mechanical (weaving, ‘ockmaking,miling), cena (4yelng, metallrgy alot), And physical (lenses) fats, and this ot only gave enormous Imateil for observation, but slo ie provided quite other ‘ans for experimenting than previous} exsted, and allowed {he eomtrtion of new instrament ican be sid that realy ‘sjtematie experimental scence hae now become posible for the fit time.” (Engels, Dials af Nate.) Ta the modern development of natural scence which was th niated, the sbuteacions and hypotheses ofthe ences ‘crated tobe tere speculations and queues, and beg to Be ‘Stablsed a verified scent truths Selene teary began to replace the former coupling of primitive bunk with por ‘aphical and theologies specslaon. And what made this posible fr those now engaged ia scleatie work wa the new Exuipment which they powewed for accurate scat snd ‘contolld experiment, and the fect that sent hecries began to be tested nor only by aeentise abservations and ‘experiments but inthe practve of social production, The new Siceeses of nateral sionoe were dependent, therefore, ot fadsancing technology in socal production and the soil ‘tion of wence ea fore of production, "From ths staring poimt, modern bourgeos natural sence dna gone on to sare peat achievement (1) There has been achieved the suceesive development of separate bmaneher of natal teiente—the eveluton of the diferent sciences ope fom another, apd thee deren ion fone ffom another. Ta this proces, the suecenes sored in one Feld have created the posi of beginning the selentise Investigation of ue Rel The whole proces ha nde out 165 of the development of the productive free of capitalist teciey whic atone andthe sae de have pevented new problem for aienes o telle and provided Deter mean fr tciing them, (a) Im al the ruse flds of sence there ave been ilo achievements of analyte analy tx phenomena tf nature into ie para or dementy the demonstration at the proper, interonnecins ands of motion of the Party ail ofthe laws of mation of te whales And tthe fre ie is naa ante hasbeen cari ou thre Ir ben eared outa proce of generates demonstrating ow the met cere properties nd motions tings are ll Ahceomequences ofthe operation of very general uvealy pple laws 'Q) A thed moe achievement of oder satura since fas bem the cones of the lw of change and development a the ial period of modern natural xen the view prevailed that, Scpte comel changes and interacSony, {nein mun fates awn semed sac eae "The planes aod their salt once et oon y the rystetous “ist impule, cele on and on in tit pes Aine elie fr al erniy. +. The war remained or ter fred and immovable the placen «The ath bad Pete without aleraton "The fre continent ofthe Present day had always exe». The speci of pant and imal ad ben ashe on andor al when thy cane {ato exitnce- All hangs al development in nature was eich" (ngs, Duttar of Neen, Inodocon) Bet Che secs ne of een ny Se ‘rogon in phy, in chery, i geology and in the Ho Iopealilenershnteed th wha pte of the fy of ature. tas demonstrate that naar all a fn evelope. And is conchlonexeged ota ge ‘peclnton nach an had eer pot beware tae in re plsopy—ut ea rele dtated iene ton of he aaa of the vations proceso naar and oe Alnsvery of th evs and ntecosnestons 7(4) Mealy, om tn dcoveres ofthe natal sence thee tua prdualf emerged x ariel of ster er a oe redal and doeied- genera a the ere at entra {Sean proces wich ke place inti and ther ner connections; and dened ithe see that i eobraces furoclar and ttreatnerons of hing, And snow: [Eigewoanincrening egress nae the scenes to ge scoot of etal poscns cally ued on ad te a {Beliwenigation of thane proce, ems. “rc have alved athe pin, wrote Engel where we cance nl oti eS roceusin nature nonlin paculr spheres but so tn Ex toceremueton of thw pisces and torcan prncit in a approiatcly stoma fn com: echerle view othe teonestion in ature by rene of {hefactsprvied by empire natural scence aol” (adel Parte capes 2} ‘Ararat scentitekowedgeof ature grodually splat plilephic specaiason about nature. The aceoust wich Gres bt of pacar eecanes sed of tr genera! inte ‘Eicon stated on and tenet ele nvetignons and bor rrved at by plllouphicl dchucon or inmglaive 'Formeny, a Engeh obvervods a “comprehensive view" of ature oul be arrived at “only by puting in place ofthe real ‘btasye unknown interconnections ideal and imaginary oe Fling ou he sning nt hy frente he ad and belging the actual gape merdy fo imagiaton’. Bat once Seni invetigates have supe the ining ft ch 8 procedure becomes “not only wpervouy, but sep backe aris” (ladeig Purbeck, chapter) ‘Of cous, any yape renaing and though they beep on ‘being filed gape al always remain, Indeed, the Sling ia fone gap ofen revels new and hihero uosapeted obs et even bythe later part of the lst cary scence had Alacovered enough to discredit she old type of plilosphicl- theologleal account of nature I has become lear that ming lnowisdge mrt always be soplled by pushing on with 18 scientific invertigaton and not by any other means inition of Bourges Sie ‘The edences, by assisting in the development of industry and wade, have played an indispensable partinaling posible the esshlshment and development ofthe eapitaltthade of production. Hut the eablshment of the capitalist mode of rocton hate imi upon the farther development the slencen, ‘The gent achievement of capitals eto have transformed smallseale individual production inte langeseale sci pro ‘uction, wich sable w harass natural frees and make eof ‘modern mechanical instruments of production. ‘The growth of Seclal prodution™above all in industry, since aculture ‘esnaned relatively backward-—brought about, and wsanited by, an unprecedented growth of the science. In Bld aor scoveries were made, new tciences were established nd developed rapidly, nature gave up her steretsfo men and the Pncples were exablished for correctly understanding the Tews and interconnection of natural process. Butocal production was directed to definite capital ends. 1c was capital which exercised the contoling and resting fuaneion in sodal production. The co-peraton ia labour, Which is the esendal feature of social prodiction, was not Drought about by the labourers chemseves but by the ea hich employed and expleted them. Te was "not thet own Act but the act of the eaptal which beinge and Keep them Together. = The diresng motive, the end and aim of ‘capitalist production sto extract the greater posible amount ‘trp value, and consequently to expat labour-power to the greatest posable extent” (Marx, Capital Value 1, chapter 13). ‘Mare regarded science asa distinct but neeesary part of the production proces in modern sncety, Sora labour, he ‘observed (Capital, Volume I, chapter ction 5) ncades bout of fv Kc, First there the sate sid, involving ents mastery of materials and process, nulng it ventions and discoveries which improve the exiting isi 119ments of production and create new ones This he termed Toniveral’ labour” And secondly, there i cooperative labour if, the co-operation of worker in stising the Aetrument € production To captalist production these two Kinds of labour are separated) and both compelled to serve capital Co-operative Tnbouri the source of surplus value, and te labourer sinply 's hand” to wotk under the direction ofthe eaitalis, oF his managers forthe profit of the expltalise Advancet in ‘producion techsque nfe made abd applied not becaue they Tighten lbour or help to sats human needs but beease and {2 fr only a they yield an inreaved proBt. And therefore ttience, the theory of production, doer not develop +3 an ‘ajunct and instrument sf vocal labour but ae an ajnct and Instrument of esptal which exploits labourpower and directs Production towards capitalist prof "The labourer is brought fe to face with the intellectual potencies ofthe material proce of production, asthe property St nother, and as a roling power", wiote Mars. "Modern Indurtry «males sence a productive fore diet Irn labour and prenesit into the serve of capital” (Coa, Volume chapter 14, eeion 5) ‘At ft scence could vance with ant strides within the Hint of the capitalist relations. For capt needed to pene uate the secrets of the natural process which it wed Init {ive for prof, and, realising the wal importance o scence, twa le wiling to enesurage research along ine for which no Tnoediate praca! application was in sight, Scientist fel Ahemtelves free and unfettered ie seemed fo them that they ‘were conducting ther research for the sabe of humanity, oF for knowledge for Ir vn sake, and that society was rend to honoue and revard them fr dee docoveres sto pt thelr dacoveren, where eecunstances permitted, to practical we. Nevertheless, the reality of this bourgeois fieedom of Feience war that scence wat working all the time for capital, ‘which ried on ts deoveies inventions and theories weet {hose improvements in production which would swell capital prot With the devdopment of capital to es modern, mon stage, however, the det and open sbjegaion of cence to Inopely capital has gradually come aot, This has been Sided bythe very advance of iene tel which has ete a teat incre ih cons and 0 rendered the sence almost Eompletely dependent on fnsning by the monopoles, ireely ‘or through the sae, Not only the researches, inventions st nections which we expres fom dime tome, are subjectively Conditioned, With the development af production and of social elation and socal sci, the coneptin of exalt has tben modified and changed~animism, final cause, mechani ‘alinteracion and inkestial interaction being many ages In the development ofthe idea of casa. ua But wile ourideas abou causaiy rit from our expeionce snd depend upon the character af tat expeioney tne exe tence of caualty in nature © an objective fc, logehce Independent of ounives and our experence ts berate we st rabjcta, experience our wn ower to cause Changes i ‘sternal object and. similarly experience the compeling Powe of tore objects upon ourselven that went arrive at he ‘ea of eausty and Gat ideas laboratd and developed in ‘elation tothe development of ial i. But the realty which Certesponds to this tes, and ‘which is seprodoced ith treater or lewer degree of adoquaey in our eas of cawal cmnctions an oljerive relly, independent of ours, Independent of any raionhip between sje! and objet ‘alien sree only the tubjecive side of the idea of ‘away lea plilomophers have maintained tat eawalisy ‘yas invented simply to bring s ratlonal order into out Spence and hat then eon aut othe xteral world independent of experience Bat in oppenden to iealinm, “the recognition of objective law in nature and the fecogiton tha hs ait efleted with spprosiate fel inthe mind of man is roateraion™ (Lenny Matrsiom and Enprincrican chapter 3) Tis the sume with out conceptions of space and time. Staring with our perception of the pasage of time and of She sail charac and ela feet ad wih Ae discovery af methods of expressing he spas and temporal properties and rlaons of things by means of meanurenen, fur general conceptions of space and ine have bee gradual developed an elaborate. ‘The conception of space tnd ne is always relative to human expergney but spmcz end ine do not depend on human experence, On the Gntary, “Oe Inc forms of all being are space and time™ (Engel, Ants: Dibrng, Pat, chapter 5), and human coneptons of pace fn the ae alsays spproximate efletions of real spate and temporal elation “Recognising the existence of objective realy, te, matter in motion independently of our mind, mateiaom ss invtably ecogive the objective realy of space ad tine, uswrote Lenin, «The muablsy of human conceptions of {noe and ine so move sete he certs realy of pace TEf'une than the muablty of iene oowlege of he SKructure and forme of mater in soton refutes the objective Fel ofthe eval wal Te tone hg hy wit the bp of vaio anucorgng, man pores spay how in the course of long historcal development, abtact idea espace ae deve om thse perepona fe & an nary Acen thing wheter there tan jective vay dependent of mankied which coreapondh to tae prep soma spittin ve perc tnt reeplen adapt tries more ad more to bern spect Ed Winey and select them ver more” comely "aed proton" (Marion ond Empre tiom chapes 3) The Pg of Tra Foy 26's a homan mind capable of ating wo and ‘ting at ample fl sults ue whe rath and oti tate ea aut ong woeeting we can net Sin Da ic wovettng were wih are alee Sreretnn ie advan owas, comprcemiv ah enbraiog poten parla tbat eid nomen mee afore efparicspoviiona an appcsinaté Tbe The a ich ean be aed by ia, ry manda any partons oe, alway approximate Reopen oto rec. tals ear ftea tach ole bah om each ster acherement and fom each oth minaic, and he mone applic tothe Paes peretentcferiay Tanker tn penckto fw, polly, provicel ard apyrocnan ie alee {poring eer tut over eng he gulf cope Src fal and alte rth “The wold sch eprint ideas and atemerts rely cht Tory ae Ween grooves shy comand {Sithedropadacedtrecy. Weton isaac SS'mni Tie coves fe never snmp ac at absolute, Bt it continually approaches ye always infil ‘tant Rom that absolute Toe ay th and snowed fontinally advance, ten pei thee instruments ot ‘duction and thet nas of sequin knowledge “Tus Eng wrote (dat-Diog, Par hap): “The peteepion that all the’ phenomena a tre ‘stemavly intrconected driver scence o to prove dis ‘stem inereonnectonshroughot, both in genral end a ‘eta But an adoqune esha, enti stterent oth Inmeromneeton, the fortuna Uaght ofan exc plete the worst in eich we lives apesile oe ts nd il alway remain ipl “Safa any tine inthe evolution of mankind such a fa now about trem, we obtain many significant observations, Teang ss to consis about th proper, relations, notin laws of motion, eatees and flee, compton, snd Having acquted, through both pasive and active observe son an ation no jens eran by of Knowledge expesed i judgment, we ean then make isknowlge inorder fo obtain more krowiedge Fri wil ‘suggest new lds of exploration ahd methods or etablishing ev elton with things, Kaowledge already bul sp Alle Tor the dvcton of more sedvity and the obtaining 167cout oft of sare observations, By this means, the knowledge flteady built up i farther tested and corrected, and the whale bulld-up of hnowledge i eontinued "Phe prvese of pang fm obyervaton to judgment, and then fem more ative and comprebesiv obeeration to Pore ‘omprehenive judgment, brags about, in the fist pes, © ‘onmcion of ituediate coneisone based on insaleicnt ‘Steervaton, ‘Ordinary experience alteady teaches us shat there is a erence between the ft appearance of tings in sensee perception and thee realty. Port flen happens that things fir ont tobe diferent fom what they at fst appear to be, land this shown in practice by the nos-realaton of expecta: ton based on fet appesraces. Tn the proceso buliing up Inowledge we are rapt pasiog Kom conclusions whic ‘expres only the apparent properties, raone and motors of {hinge to conchons which approximate tore fall to things se they really ar or example, wen we perctve the sun lotsa relatively eval bedyand for long time peopl conluded that 3 ws in fact quite smal, But we have come to oe thatthe sun ‘sink very Big. gin, the sm looks a i goes round the farth-and for along fine people concluded that ie did in {act go round the earth. But we have come to know that tt the earth which rally goes round the sn, Tn the second place, f the proces of farming more compre- hetsve judgments about things we pas fom fragmentary Knowledge of particlar things, with their particular propere tie, relations and motion, to more coanetted knowledge of Pe ae reece eee “The fnt kro which based on the frst observations ‘of things knowledge of rimber of fats about thee thing, tht not ofthe Ini oftheir exitence and the Interconnections ‘Between them which manifest themselves fn and determine thows facts At the tae tins, therefre, ar we correct the ‘cuchsions bated on the ft appearace of things and frmn Judgments sbout dee val properties, relations and mations ‘Which ive tte tothe appearances, we azo form judgments 68 out dhe general Iwe and interconnections which are mani- fened in the pardcular properties, motone and relations of thing ist event to abservaon- For example, having established the main facts about the soisrsystem—tat the planes, of which the earth i one, go found the univ alo eeablsh the laws which are mari- sed i the system and by the operation of which i exis set remains in being “Atain, koowing ftom common experience that water tens ine iee when grows cold etoughy we goon 1 establish fen renlt of the synthe of and inferences drawn fom, ‘many special observations-the reasons for tis plenorenon, hamelyr that it de to a rearrangement ofthe molerals ‘ned by changes In tit motion when the temperate lowered, "Ths in the proces of passing fom observation to judgment ‘ye also sucee! in psng from superficial to more profound Jougmente—fom judgments which ply state what we have ‘Shere to judgmens which go further, and draw condasions ‘bout the componGon and intemal organisation of things About thle eaties and elect, interactions interconnections ft motions, ad laws of interconnection and motion, "Dhis ea ualtave change inthe conten of judgments a passing fom jurgment of sepia eantent to judgments of ‘tnoe profound content; fom judgments in terms of elemen- fury Mens fo wich correspond objec directly pereepble to the snus, to Jers in terms of abetract den, which ate the caus remons, explanations, effects and iw of the {hinge we beer, From Soper o Dept Kraledge ‘Wereattconciuethat knowledge in general i reaicd only ‘by pasting from perception to judgment, and that then the protes of developing the knowladge expressed in judgments BPeatending and deepening i, pase throws two quate: Siely dines rages ft, the superficial and fragmentary Knowledge of things directly derived from pereptons ofthe And send, knowledge of ther exental properties, inter 165‘connections and laws, Tn the fst stage, our judgments expres merely what Mao ‘Teeeang called "the separate spect of thingy, the external relations between such thingy" Inthe second stage, we ative at judgments which, as he expresed it “no longer represent {he appearances of things, hei separate aspect, or Wl ex. tera eas, eras te eet, i ay an thelr internal elton” "The passage rom the Birt stage tothe second sage iaveloes, {nthe Bt place, acive cbnervation. Without nce otter thon, the data on which to found more prolund ad ermpee= Ihensve judgments wl be Lacking nd any judgment wich say be mad can only be speralatve or lsory. Tn the second place, however, 1 iaolves a procs of ‘ovightsesing fm observation a proces of the fing and ‘omparun af bservadans of geneaization an formation of shetact idea, of restoning and drawing conch em such {Eenraization and abstnction, Having reached colony, they mint be agen checked with ative sbeervation, in onder to ensare shat they accord with it atd thot the abstract fgeneraradons reached by thought do expres the conerete facts given in perepton. The pauage fom the Ft stage to the second stage therfore involves a pasage fom judgeents ‘which direcy expres the dat of perception, to jdements ‘ich are derived trom the data Of perception through & proce of atracton and generalist, "The passage from te jacgment thatthe sn je ot othe Judgment tha i surace temperature bout 600 degree ‘Centigrade represen, for example, such passage of Eoow= Teige fom the este the second sage. The judgment that the sun is hot ditelly expreses one way in which the san afects our senses. But the judgment about is temperature Involves, fit hat we have formed the abstract ides. of temper, and ec at wih the ide th eh we ave reached eoncsone abot the ss teapestuce by an laborate proce ofacuve alueration nd resoning base on Ji Ava ret we ps from a judgment which merely expres certain obsenations about the sun, tone whic express ie 170 Internal sate. ‘Agus suppose that we aze considering the state onganisne tion aa given eountry, of Great Beal, le us say. Te fist ‘bservatim which may be made concer parseular fact— Such as that the capital i London, that laws are made by people sting in two Howes of Patiament, that thse lav resigned by the Queen and enforeed by policemen, and 0 tne Many inguiis into the character of Beish pavisnentary ‘democraty never get further than formulating the judgments mmarisng such oboevatons whieh meane at hey go no further than the fist sage of Knowledge 16 hosrever inguiry fs cated further, i the state considred nfs histrieal ‘evelopment on the basis ef the whole development ofthe ‘economic structure of society, andi reasoned eoncusons are ‘even fon thi inquiry, chen we wil rive a the judgment thot the Brith partamentary Hate the organ of ele ofthe ‘Brithh capil lar. This & to advance Rnowledge ofthe fae thesecond stage, which embraces not merely amurer tf observed fats about it but is esental nature Tn is work on the theory of knowledge (On Pra), Mao “Teertung wrote that nthe fst stage knowledge it conned to ‘Nie seperate aspects of thingy, the appearancs, the external relations of things, herent the second sage fe “kes 8 big side forward t embrace the wholenes the etence and Internal relations of things diclowes the internal contraix tions of the nurounding wordy and i therfore capable of igesping the development of the surrourdng. world in i Teale, in the interna relations between all arpec ‘Many phiowaphers {howe belonging, to the so-called “emplngist” and. "postvise™ sehool) have denied. that Ipowledge develop thraugh two such stage. According to them, Ant we obtain varios "seme data and then we ‘omnpate and relate thee data in fdertoforelate judgments ‘or propotons sammarising the observations. And for them, that ithe whole proces of knowledge. Hence, for them, Knowledge in enily confined tothe separate aspects of things, the appearance, the external relation of things, and [Hisailion osoppote that dere canbe any more profound mInowledge of things—of their reality at opposed to their sppearance tou, of thelr ential property, nterconnestions sn la "In opposition to this empivcist or posts typeof phir ‘ply, Mariam traces the growth of Kaowedge fons lower {oa higher sage. Fin ofal, in obtaining information through the serses we puss fom seaations to judgments and then, the development of our knowledge expressed in ideas sad Judgments, we pas fom suerfcial knowledge ofthe appear lances and external relations of things to deeper knowledge of their ental characteristics and internal rations, Aeron et Realty Tin pasing fro elementary to abstract ideas, om supeciat to more profd jdgments, the pessage bade fom the Appearance of things to thelr realy. In conniering Brow. {ede dtncton must always be made betwees appearance and reality~beoreen the pariclar phenomena which are immediatly evident to cbstvation snd the hidden proce interconnections and in which are matted in the appear fnces and under the ebverved fact The task of towing hing is aways to advance from appearance to reality toa to get to hoon more about the rel movement and inter: ‘onnccans of things mieten their particular existence and rode of appearance "Thus Mare seed that the tsk of scence is always to proceed from the immediate knowlege of appearances tothe Shcovery af the realty, the ternal connections and ls tunderiying the appara, adv ally to reach compe: Ihemive underanbing of the sppentance aan Tay, he wrote “hes to appropiate the material in Ale, to analy ts diferent form of development, fo trace fut Une inner connections Only after this work done can he actusl movement be adeuately described. If tii done suecently the ie ofthe sheet mater ideally reflected ‘bin a miroe™ (Cate, Prelace to second edition) ‘So Marx stemed that knowledge ofthe fea character and lays of any subjectmater mist always be derive fromm 8 ™ Aeciled analy of all the relevant facts, and mut in torn veto explain thom—to demonstrate her ner connections {ind actual movemene ‘is own workin the socal siences provider examples of this pint. Thus in Capitol Mare pointed oat that whereas the "ulgar economist” dealt only with che surface appearances cof capitalise economy, scleniie politcal economy es (0 Uncover the tea! relations ‘of production underlying. the Sppearances, and om that bas explain the appearances. IC the underjing proves had oon evident on the sures (0 fupercal shachation, there would have Bren no eed for farther profound inquiry. But the reality is never eedent on the surace, and can be dicovered daly by painstaking sete sali “Sthe way of thinking of the velgar economiss", wrote ‘Mare, "derives fom the fet chat Is lays only the imme ‘ate foun in whieh relationships appeat which B rected in {he bei and not thei omer connections I he later were ‘he case, moreover, what would be the need for a seience at fll?" And explaining hit own method of scentSe analy of ‘aptaliae economy, he posted out that t the end of i “we Ihave arrived atthe forms uf appearance which serv asthe SMaring pont for he vulgar’ grownd rent coming fom the ‘sh, profit (intrest) from exptal, and wages fom labour. But fom our point of view dhe thing Is now seen diferent. ‘The appaceat sevemeat is explained” (Letter to Engels, Jane 291867, and Apri 3, 1858) Tis lear from thi, sacdentlly, thatthe pstvst pilose phy, which confine! knowlege entirely to dealing with fefice appearances, was completely im aceaed with the pro- ‘dates ofthe "vulgar economias” whom Mars crise, and heir procedures were completly im accord with [e."This Dhleebpliy, Indeed isthe most stale plosphy for the pologats of epitalism, whose whole oulock depends on their ever loking Below the surface of social "Atv expe ofthe porate oid ing oe ‘rom superical appearances bat fon the point of wew their inner readorships and connections, we could take the "3case of wages. If we judge only from extemal appearances, then ‘rage are simply payment for work. A man works 20 tary as pid mach pot ye ‘ould pereive no diferenceetwees wages I, sayy cpa Society ain socialist sory. Whether he works in capitalit (Fa dodalistfaetory, » mam works #0 may hours ad ges aid so rch, What ithe diftrence? The diference that the eternal form of wages express diferent well relsons In capitalist society, wages ae the price of the workers Iabour-power, which be Bas slit the capitalist Tn soca society, wage ae no longer the peice of lbourpower nce the civics bring to the working people, who donot sll {heir labourpower to themes: Wages now expen the allocation tothe worker ofa define sare ofthe values he has produced according to the work be hs contributed, So wile in capitals society the worker can maintain or ase their wage ony by Bighng the capitalist cae and thretening to sei, in socialist scety they condoaly rise thet are dards by inereaing production. In other words, the laws ‘which deternine wage are tally differnt Yn totais fom aplalistsocey. But why they ave diferent can only be Utlesood when we go bend the appearances of thing and Seek to dicawer the inner relationship and connceons wich Aetermine te appearances Restor They ont Revlincy Praca ‘Topas from superficial to profound judgment about thingy, ia ens eA apace acon Goes eae te pase rom one tage of owing thing te anothers Sach ‘utltve change in kowedge alos ales feline Ay change: Tes nevlatontry beens i bing about & ‘evolonary change in what we ca do. ‘When practice ir guided only by what we have fared concerning the exeral appearance of things then i lads the power of knowingly bringing sbout pref changes in thowe things or of utning then exteniely fr freaking purpose On the contrary hen we know ogy only by tee [ppearances we generally Rave In peace 10 at on what Ea uppens, to adapt oases to things—often bay nd fe Inybuple st badssnd msortatesrather hn set, tem and sapng them to pores of ue ow. et when we begin to pope aly which determin cheappearances ten we at del with binge more, Sli ioe peloend Gangs fe them at wn hae Torcutmpl, up to moder tine people had only peti Anowiedge of chee proces, and so tere cold e le ‘Fecvely planned eof tex prcenes in production, Bat Soler chem eoablex nto brea subrances down and bing then int bing spain om their cnatiuen 2 at ‘ny mater ean bev made By ayaee method with properde to sult ou own regurenet, We ean mit atoms Erato one elon ito others and wine the energy produced ia the proce, and ver crate ew man-made ‘Eines, sch a phtonae “hasty the utopian socaits and the old working las ronment could fot efively change socety. But Marxist {Rca which penetrates to the rt of cal proces, ht tabled the workngelenoveent throught esr {Sek Insound to begin old tcl. ‘Winer we comer knowlege of nate orf society, whenever kowdedge hasbeen rte to knowledge of teal Ti poc only ofapearanc; tents bar been a revoionsry ‘cydopmeat a evlution a wat peopl en do Sock preload ulvances in Bnonledgewheter they have ‘been consciously inked with prctce or no by thre who Payed the major thesia” part in efecting tert—are Sips ia the law soaps the prodoct af revalitonary Shs in scl prac Ici whos peopl set do omer {Ting ew vast nese thir powers and prow thee endo, that Sey espeiene the nee eepening their kuouledge. There ean be to revolutionary practice ‘Wihout inowdge or witout know lca dcton canon ata gal leap forward in owed 4 nud for the ralstion ft Feveuton in practi “And ic posible tore the level of tld apart 18fiom or in advance of the corresponding practice just at practice gropes inthe dark without the necesary knowledge ‘Kpart tiem the appropriate practice no genuine knowlege ‘paste, bot only gueswotk and speculadon. All genuine Knowledge aries out of practice, and in trn is tested in Yractce=-dhough thie does not mean that the theoretical Eetetios ftom a dlacoery may not advance beyond the faring int effect ofall te pote practical consequences. ‘There ino other way to dacover the laws ofthe real word than the way of entering into practical eatons with real ‘hjects ad procenes, sving to master and change them arming concepts om the bao of the experiences gained and then tening the theorecal conclaiony once more in ving practice “Things in Thoms It follows from this analyse of the groveth of knowledge that, fall sages, i ir the growth of the faith reflection in Taman consumes ofthe objective world "Many phiouophers have maintained that our knowledge fy limited to the appearances of things im ur own mind and that "things in hereto, ehinge a they really ae “in themselves and independenly of how they appear 10 ‘ust be unknowable. According to such philesopler there is {impassable gulf between the dat of sense given in ur ‘onsclousess of the one hand and the things existing inde Dencenly of our conciousness thing i themselves, on the Bier hand. And sany not ony dey that we can know things in hemeles bt alo that such eigs exist at all. ‘And yet already in jusgrents dee based on perception woare gaining knowledge of things in themesives—nat in the Fist place compete or profound knowledge but knowledge at Jest of vaous separate sapects and external relations of thing. We gain this knowledge peeecly by means ofthe data seme, And when by further investigations and reasoning we ‘rach conlisions about the relations of thing, ther properties, {he procewes into which they enter and the laws of motion, then we are pining deeper Knohedge ofthe verysame things, 16 citing independently of out consciousness of them, which Tere we knew ony superialy. “There i thea, 20 gull etecen things in themselves and tic sppetrances or “phenomena”, We knew things precy by mente oftheir appearances tow, and the mote we tad the appearances the ore we ean Bd out aboat the things [Now's there say gulf between the appearances of thing and tele reality, singe the appearance ss manifestation of the reali, and we do not know the seality separately from the ppenrance but ony trough "Tf yu know al dhe qualities ofa thing, you know the thing Stel, wrote Pages im the Titodueton to Saal Upon ond Simi, We Know about {he real properties and relations of things by practice and study, BY nding vt what we can do wh things, and by ‘hudying the varios appearances oftheir various aspects under ‘any conditions, we gain mare and more knowledge ofthe ts theeel Hence all our knowledge is knowledge of real things which certainly exist independently of tee appearances tous. “The Staterialt alia the exstonce and knowabity of things in ‘hemsatves wrote Lenia in Matlin ad Brpiti-Chisio, ‘chapter 2 Firt we know things superficially though pereep™ tine and then more deeply and comprehensively by thought tperating with the data of perception. Tere iy ant can bey se liference between the things knows to us and things in Tromseves The only diference between whats known and ‘nt not yet kaon, aad between what ie known only apelin eriain oft agpects nd what Snown more thoroughly. neaming the Linits of Keslege ‘Are thet, the, liso human knowledge? "At any particular sage in the development of humanity Anowiedgecomes up apt te et bythe necessary nied ‘harace of the experience available and ofthe exiting means ‘of obtining knowledge ‘Bat iomaaigy advances by overcoming such limits, New cexpuience thre down the tits of old experience; new 7techniques, new means of obtaining knowledge throw down the limit of old techniques and ld. meant of obtaining knowledge "New limit then once again appear But there fs no more resson to suppose these new Lins absolute and final than ‘here was fo Suppose the old ones absolute and Mal. At every age there are people who thine that he limit ae been Fesched and who lok no farther. Bt there are slays sooner rater, other people who teow dawn those inte and boldly stance beyond them t0 new i “Theeiee knowledge saya Rated and advances by overcoming existing limits Yor example, i as sposible for people in fxd! society to know anything about socialist sodety and its lawn 10 férmulate the truth about socialism and the tranon fom ‘ecalsm to communist, This became pssibe oly with the ‘development af expt society; nly then aid the means Yecome availble Tor forming’ a scenic conception of secalsm. Similarly itis imposible for us today to know how fully communist socey, after it etashed, wil forther evelop; but in dve coure people wil be able to asertain the trth about thi forser development and i La “Aga, it was imposible to gain knowledge ofthe som and fis structure before the invention of modern techniques of ‘dectonice, Tela with there teciniqner we have passed what ‘were once thought to be the linia of all posible physical Jerowledge. These techies themeles ivalve, However, their own limits to physical knowledge—so that now ome Dphinicat asert the Imposiility af ever knowing anything {ore about sub-tomie proceises than [allowed for is ‘contemporary quantum theory. But it would be oth doge ‘matic and thertaghted to amert that thre limit are any ‘Bore abeolte tha were the once insurmountable limite of ‘ther techniques in the past “While yesterday the profunity ofthis knowledge not go beyond the atom, and today ‘doe ot go beyond the electron” wrote Lenin, ales tial materialism ies on the temporary, relative, approx- sate character of all thee milter inthe Jnowiege of "8 nature gained bythe progressing tienes of rian, The ecto inas nacht athe stor, nature site». (Mata lim and Bmpr Grito, chapter 5) "AU every stage and” all crcumstances knowledge is incomplete and provisional, conditioned and Linuted by the Fistrea cireumtancer wader whic (was acquired, indude ing the eneans atc methods wed for gxining it and the Hstorcally condoned sumptions and categories wed in the formulation of ides and coocaions But this development of knowledge, evry wage of which tha such a condoned character i development of koow- ledge of the rel material word the discovery of atereonnce- tions and nw of motion of rel material process, including Iman society and’ human consciovsnes. Tis 8 progressive Aovelopient, In sich the bounds of knowledge ate rage By ‘stoge ealarge, in which the agreement of deat and theories with objective reality i stage by tage inerased, and in which ‘age by stage what was provisional and hypothetical gives place to what is mse and vere, “The progres of kaowedge always comes up against arters which ante fom the nitions of exsing Knowledge and ‘ating practice. But while the progres of knowledge aways fers tortion to further advance, kaowledge progeese by fing how to get over thers,(Chapter Thirteen NECESSITY AND FREEDOM ety ond sect THIEN Knowledge advances to the stage of knowledge of the laws of motion and interconnection which determine the appearances of things then we begin to under. Sand the aspect of mecniy which belong to phenomena of both nature and society. ‘We all that necesy which from the nature of the case ‘ould not be othernise. When the rel processes which deter: Inine the mode of existence uf a thing ae uch that bd to manift certain characertice and not fer, and to Sevelop fn a certain way and notin another, then those ‘Guracternies and Wat’ development are understood a eessary. "Ts geera,n pfar as we gain knowledge ofthe nner cone rections and laws of development of things, we are able to fate not merely what the fac ate but to explain Wem, 10 tundentand the rewonr for them, to comprehend. Get Tn the Bld of natural science, for example, the acoveien of Newton concerning the prinipee of mechanics revealed the neceuity of many pletomens of natwre. Thor among fother things Newon's principles demonstated the neoeity ‘of certain features of the solar system of which the earth isa part. Ie fet, fr instance, thatthe planets move round the ‘Een in ellptical bit This ct wat etabliched by Kepler, Bat the necesity of Kepler’s law of planetary moton wat demonstrated by Newton, whore analy ofthe mechaaie ‘Dewar eaten showed tat bom the ery nature ofthe forces 0 ating in such a yt the planets were bound to move retpta rt, and notin cesor any other indo rie "Td genrl Character ofthe sla sem rot aed wiih atnocerary comequence of the nate of uch Spe, ofits ame connector and laws of developmen. “Agi to abe an cxampl ra scl ifs fat atin Balti the police alway intrvene in india dates on theside of te enpoyert, From the pnt of ew of soperical Secretion, inh merely afc, Bet yt is not aeedenta For cnce we have graped he natre ofthe contemporary ish Site ara capt, then we can understand at 3 he pace help the cplye hn ecient Tt 8 econly comequence of ie capitals eine. TE however, oe come to undentad the necesity of certain spec of gy and oferta types of event ths dot not ‘ebsn that eveyinng i undensoed ne ner, that these Bo place lt in he word fr ade. On the coay, fondcuarevensalvayshnvea chance or aciental arate ‘Fi tccngion of tecanty in thing foveparable fom the recognition at teste ime of aecient ar campl, te pace in capitate nee serve te capital sas Bat they donot necsearly ye be {nina Oh ontey, ey could serve the tai jut {well in unos of some other slo; and wo the fet that diets pole wear bine unierme ram acident—i is doe to eden reuters Stary, whe ew nsenary feat ofthe solar yt thatthe ech moves round the rom in eli ot, Sot senaryfature thatthe earth the enact ei reactive de fo asidentlceunaanes : "From the pst iew ofp otervaton everything appr secdcnul, We we serpy contented with aseved EE exeralcnnctns teen them. At have nt gimp tbe laws of change nn Interconnection Whi over eel nana themscvesin the things we ae observing, ry fact we ebcrve be aprchended simply asa et whieh old qui well have been sterwae "Every fat ena be he cas or nt be the ey and crying ele main the orsame (L Wittgenstein, Treats Laie Phiophin, +21) ‘ch ithe concason ofa supercial way f viewing ting, ‘But prfounder investigation reveals that where on the surface’ accident holds sway, there actually it is aay ‘governed by inner, hidden laws and itis only a mater of ‘Ssaoverng thee laws". (Engel, Laduig Frerbth, chapter 4) ‘Their dicovery does not, however, eliminate the conception of the aecidental. Rather docs it foveal that the necusnry Features of things manifest theracves through a series of accidents and thatthe scedentl, cn the other adi alays governed by the necasay. “Thus ita hist! nocenity that in the development of society capitalism shouldbe supencded by socialism. Exacly ‘when and how this revlon takes place lavas erie of ecient reumstanee, bt the development ofthese crue Hanoas bin ture, governed by historical neces. ‘Similar in vate, the development of ratte heceaacly flows 3 certain path, thowgh exactly when sd how in & particular material sytem the diferent stage of develop: ‘ment are tealsed, of whether in particular cates thoy are reales l, depend So, dealing withthe ‘ature, Engels wo ‘na natural way by wansfrmations of motion whi ate by ‘alate inherent in moting matter, ane the conditions of whieh therefore abo must be reproduced by matter, even i only fer milions and milion of yeas and mere or lex by ‘hance but with the necessity that is alo inherent in chance ‘And he understood the emergence of consciousness, athe highest form of mation of mater in dae same way "tt the nature of matter to advance to the evolution of taking beings; hence, on thie aay neces cocine wherever the conditions for it ot necessarily idential at all places and fms) are present.” (Dali of Nae.) "Engels therefore concluded that “what is maintained to be receary i comporel of sheer acidens, and the socalled {ecidena i the form behind which neceaity hides sea the necessary is that which from the nate ofthe ease a could not be otherwise, the accidental is tat which could be ‘there. Hoth aspect ae aloays pret in everything. Ta ‘generat certain overall characterises of event snd the ‘eral character of thir outcome, which are necessary. On. the other hand the det the parila features ‘rents sad the consequent dealed, particular features of elt futeome are not nec=eary but sceaert that what is necessary fe of acc reel in the acidental details tht he inberent nif iva and, acidetal in themselves they ate at the “ime imeshapel and governed by what isnetesary Nec, Acids nd Casalty "The daeovery of necessity 2 mature and sacety & hound up with the dovery of causes and of the laws govering the ‘elationhipafcauses and effets, Whatis necesary isnecesary These ofthe operation of estae. I there were tings which care int being without any cause iUnete were even whi {ook place abslutey ae random and without regulation by ‘nual Tavs then there could be no meee dacoverable fx ch thing and events ‘So a certain charters ea neceary character of certsin events and fa certain ret their neceary ostome, this is consequent upon Whe nature of the casal proces ‘which operate in thee events To get to understand the ‘neces inherent evens t reach a profound knowledge (ofthe chal procemes operating In them or example, capitan wll neces be vupeseed by social, thir in been the causes of the tanston from ‘opts to socal are generated within the caplet System. Ifwe profoundly know the nature of eapitalism, chen ‘we know that such causes are present and cannot but be ‘recent and continue to operate iru aston "At the seme ime, the knowledge of cases alto enables ws torundertand the ceiental fetes of hing "The enuter of soralinn, for example, come into being and ‘operate within capialism, and» te outcome of scala 183now toe necestey. But the particule features of these ‘nus are acedental- Thee no necety about thet, Ths Wisnecenry tha the working ela sould increase in mers fan organsstion as capitalism develops; thi is bound to happens and is ove ofthe causes why capitalism wil give sae to rocalae, But while dhe continued development of eapital- ‘sm necesrly imple that there wil be mere workers and that they will onganise and eventually overthrow the stem i dacs ot neceraiy mpl that, say, Mi Jones and Me. Smith wil Jinan orgniation and playa prominent pata leaders fhe Tmovement. There are loud to be leaders, but whether s prtcular child of partedar parents ill become leader Scpends on many adcidenal ctor, Such aeidental ctor, Dpowever are in the aggregate and in the long run, Boat to Ihave the ei ths leaders wl aie |_ Ths the operation of causality brings He about that there fs both nouity and eident in the wordy abd that the ‘cena marifousul though the aiden ttre ater seu es cages peg at Soph weer oe eee Be ee Sei ear eed tat ok ts ay Semanal oc noes Siodinsirn narwacln ils wn aan Se eriaetererolce treat a ae toe ican often tencaing cc soak Spee Open tala oe Wefan oat pal cate Tec pe ree ee es re eee SESHG Vinigaie uct aac ance ee ee Se lit te ne tla Ra eit! eels el ieeel tea ae Sod eee coariaes 2% eyed Freon in Hema Pre We'ibeeconidered the irriion of necesity, and Moai ow both as om the sera operation of vesaity in naure and wey” Now we snl eter be ‘ein otthae nnn on paca i thu cry out pace nevi, do we pac any iran twin ve areoing ral nce determined FSG four wilt ete que we mat nove TEAS Ana eo tmeines gh thet Recast ad TONES Ainge optics sesh ht where the one Mereear coher be ten the ae thing ne {bRighcatmuconcenty and feed Tr thought et vere eet erst thre ean be no eodom and hat on the Ter itat Wwe de nt ey then we mt somehow have espe tem ney TP en wee correct thn human fom would be an sna’ Aca cobs te eveyng ee inthe word, Teepe gnemed by cal laws The operon of uly ge suet merry characters of event ai ants ncery once ahd tie 2 mck ‘etc aw at tying cy so tat on can never tenses independent of scent im nator se Rak. ‘Bo ia wren to ope fedom and rent 0 Mecpatlas On he otra mceay gv tie eedom ele receaies "i opin fara and ci i and the nesntes comequnst an bis ee inet of oul an ost SSRSESTS tne winter we ony thnk o dere or SESS Maar a tne decrines necro wi Akita nur gent an of owe tre par Be teg Gory caring ot an in hei ome ‘fence othe dite econ. ‘fans n'a prt ofpatre and “ihe neat ofatare ‘load man wl and mind vecondary, The ater ery and italy adap theme te Tite fei, Hatton od Eph, chap 3. pata “Mice Phares human pres, ower, and die 185,‘inguishes it from animal behaviour, that mien in the oiee oftheir social practic gan knowledge oferty, inthe St place of secenty im natore, and #0 learn to act on that Irnowledge and use it preduce intended sim 0 realise thee own purpors ‘This begins with the production proces ily in which ‘man "sets in motion the natral forces of hs body in order to appropriate nature's productions in Form adapted to hi ‘ven wante™ and 19 "rales purpone ois ow” (Marm, apt, Volume I, chapter 7, sesion +) ‘Consequently men are pty ke the animals, cmstrained to {ollow a predetrminedpaters of behaviour They do no ike the animal simply adapt themacve to ther environments bot als by del ow soliton adapt thls envionment to thet Selves They mate tester fret sec and realise ends which they themselves have conceived and willed. An! ins doing they alo change themselves, change thei on nature. ‘Bot the mautery over nate which disnguises tan fom the animal, doer not imply the least independence of man From natural law and natural necenity. On te contrary, hat ‘depends on a not the abrogation of atu sws ad naira neceity but keowladge and eomscous nelson of them. ‘Similarly, hen men Kern abo to comtral ad plan thee ‘owe soil fe n onder to satay their material ant eatural quirements, ths agai dacs at spy that they havescheved independence of te objective laws f sore, of eal neces Sy. On the contrary, what it depends oni ot the abrogation ‘fobjectivesocial law: but knowedge and consis tiation of thee lawe—not the ending of neceity in society but i Fecogaiion, and the direction of sci seit in acsodance with that ccogiton of eecesaiy ‘Men are therefore never, in any tepect in any of tele sctivitis independent of natural o social fas and of thle fecesary eomequrncrs [ellos hatin a0 fata they lak Enowledge of dase laws snd of thee comenvences, they are onstrsined and unre. ‘These law with tte nectsay coe Sequences then auere themselves as an alien powehy with Unexpected or detructive effect, rutating Inman purpores, 16 ‘But nso frat men gain knowledge of thee laws and know Tedge oftheir necessary coment, they ea Tear (0 ie them for thir own pups rend dos ot cont cating laa from the peratons of couaty but in undertanding tem. Tt does nt depend id of cet but on geting krowlege of i teen the exience of neceaity and of human fesiom. On the contrary, 8 We fave satel, necenity give Hie to feedom, namely, when Inn fin hnowidge testy and so can resound take thle deco inthe ight of eal understanding of what they are ding, “What i mere, 8 we have also stated, 10 fr from beng in ‘oppeaton to human fet, the exstence of necesy its son, Prat would happen if here were no causal lain nature and oily, if thew ware no obeetve nese roglting the one of events? Ta that ease anthing ould happen, We ould not decide upon or cary out even the simple sions, fir we could never ow what to Join order to secure the els we intend. We would not poo even the feedom tomate cup of tex, for example for we woul never ot tthether the wnter woud Boil or, when we poured into the Teapot what the rrling brew would tars out like. Sul ss fond we cary aut any more complex sal acti, for Srerything would bein chaos, Ta fact we could note a al Tis only become gs ar taject to law. beese codjectivenelenty das eit a nator and soit, that we are Stle to decde upon definite aedons and to cary them ont ‘This the condition for human feodom. And tt freedom inealed in poprn wwe exe gar tne an, consequently, out ability to ake decors on the bus of ‘nowitdge ando to arty them int effect. Further, when we do knw the lava governing things, then wwe can cary out teva elation to hen wich we culd Tovenry out woot such knowledge. For example, people ‘en dreamed shout iyig, but unt rezalyconadered that the laws of nature prevented them fom beng able to Ay 8Wen tower, we dhe ie lave greet Sg age aren era iS fe ote a Wi ine ee Sarai teva & our ncn cata wi paces © snacend these limitations. fe rly the Mineo Honoe Fed iar to gen enn deemed by wo cas tear hey nt thre met wan very necony ‘How, then, can we be free? : ‘i zt Tes tne that we ourves are the products of definite cdlins wou have een cient bad Uwe eotars Been ferent and at according wo the nee four own rumatanr and ur wn nate, But thi does notin the leit cotati he posit fous Benge gents "Woateer we do, there ws some at feat dang IF thease was an eternal reso sme in ating oe buch way arto make undo sncting without te nteventon St any at af wil on oot part then crtaly tn sachs exe tem conaaned and na fe. Por amply ifn in {rowed pues mensch way al posse cy ten ints cae Is not foe agen. The quaion of ecdom ‘ony eomes in wen we do thingy fou tn votoniat tomy, when the cae of what we do ur own eta wi But hw our own oil determined? Itt determined by tevioun extern ee operang on end melding ous wil to ast elect purpns wich at ‘not cor oyy hen well inc tectom: dn a can we may have the Halon of tng freay, buts nly anon Ba in or wl te ‘incl by our krowieige afte chewmetance Bf our acon fd o wha ment be dane ofa 4 purpove which we hare ‘aderow hnin tat eee ot ny eet ey fic uly of ee operation ot arent in he wil ston Tu coming inte bag end te extent ofa development Elo i om om dein oun whch come into operant saa ie “Asa elt ofthe operation ofthe laws fo own dvelop- vee ment, a a reqult ofthe neces of our own nature, we gain nowledge of external things and of our own nature and. eqitement ad then we at on the bass of such knowledge. In'proporton ae thi takes place what we do fllows from ‘our owt conscious decisions based on knowlege of ou ova, quirements and of how to reise them. And 0 we are {hex What other sort of feedom do we expect or can We esre? "Ths, incidentally, ia point which was, in its eset, made ‘dear long ago by the great materialist philwophee Spinocs, when he pointed ont that human actions ike all. thier thingy, are determined by poe causes; and that men rece mot when ther action take place without causes but ‘when tele atone are detained by ther knowledge of thee ‘wm requirements of howto realise them. “Srrecdom dos aot const in the eam of independence of natural le wrote Engel, “but in the knowiedge of ‘hese late, and in the posi his ves of sytematially Imating them mor towards defiite ends This hl good in {elation both tothe law of external nature and 10 those whi ffover Ge bodily and mental life of men themedves two Eu of laws which we can separate fom eachother a most nly in thought and notin realy. Freedom ofthe will here fore means nothing bu the capacity to make decons wth real lRnowledge of the suject. «+» Freedom therfore coms of the contol over ourselves and over external nature which founded on the Knowledge of natural neceaiy.” (Aa ‘Duhrng, Pat chapter 11) “Hamas knowledge, then, isan esata means to human, freatom, Mf knowlege depends on practice, the grow of Enowledge has alo a tansorming effect on practice. Practice based on knowledge is anther thing from practice not based fon Enowedge, For ins fr as we know the properties and laws ‘Stein, we can in practice mare thern—amake hem subject ous, nvend ef cur being subject to them. The growth of Itnowiedge, a produc of man’s striving to master natore and. to erganse Hin own social ify contributes step by step to the Feallcton ofthat inatery and othe bullding of higher forms 189‘of social organisation, to the realisation of the posibility of a fall and fe life fora. = Pron nd Act We have already considered the kage fn ature ad soc ‘fnecenity and acident and have seen that necesuty rales Itt hough a sere of scents ‘To at eay on the bss tne further mean then, that we, a conc sgenty ‘ust exrouepratealconiel twee these nce so arto tlimiate the accidental or chance elemet inthe dersnas tion af the rele of out acy and make theses fly enfirm with ovr own intentions, In other word the exec ‘our eon of son mesna tat, caring out sts Arete fo a definite end, wey onthe bass Of our ksowledge af els ofthe ube of our Sting, exer uch conta ver the subject that the operntions of hance sre eliminated ine determination ofthe rel ‘Thus while the realntion of endo of human action does no in any sense seam geting id of cea, doc, n'a erin semi, mean geting dof accident, Ge lininatiog Sane Tn earying ot an endertking we should not st exer ce kno lee to chance ayy which afc esac ofthe undertaking Ir we do, then the sveces of he under> taking jeopardised. Ft ceed that de tock nd not to judgment crcumstanss have brought abou ices fi twas not we who by our ow delberat ction achieved eam for euncves But circumstances canna genealy be ‘led ont be so voor ih pig et matings ule sieves forget to arrange for anyone to bring the platform al ‘They leave ft einer, and so ocssonally Bnd themes without a plaorm, Sometimes they snay even be witout 8 {peak fr the sme reson. Raturly enough, sayone who Crees a ee a kil alec dcteg the succes of he undertaking Ino stfount and leaving non often chances ~ Theclementay character of 190 sian, namely, now: ledge of neceity and elimination of chance, are exemplified in fhe labour proce, the fundamental proces of human Th the labour pres man by his work, wing the instr ‘ments of labour, operates on the subject of the werk to effect ‘cignedaltetion nit To do tise has to bow and reckon srt the necenary characte ofthe siject of wo, and Tohas sho to liinate the eles of chance on the abject of work “The more large-scale and ambitious grow the undertakings cffhuman labo, the more doc man succeed in eliminating the'acor of chance inhib undertaking. ; “This avery important eosieration in ay engeerng works To bud a brie for istance, the enginezs base tet Finns en their knowledge ofthe esental nature ofthe focation nd ofthe materials employed, and on ateconing withthe ‘arourehance actor fo which iestuctre may bebjete. Tereample tae son ih cane was are a many yeu ago, by the tea defeneer on the east coat o England. Those who were response for tre deters had tte io reckon with the chance that an exceptional high Ade might cxincide with an exceptionally strong east vid ‘When this chance eoinidence took pace, thesea burst rough Uhe defences Buti ea defences, or any oer engnering trols are propel planned, then suc chance are Feckoned With td shel fects inated ha Een of Cncions Cont : ad conidering such examples we can draw some fart Socio albu the intersslaion of ccna, aceient and fruman feedom. “Posy that endo ena the elimination of chances does rot meat f cou, tht by the exer of rem we some: Frw conve to do away wih the linkage of accident and Zech parson af acide or chan, and ts ae wth nec, ran objective fat, a universal eatoreof evens Tabet nature and soe, whl we have to fecon with and to which we have to adapt our acon. 1 exis independently 191of ourselves and we can by no means do away with or alter {i What we have to do to reais freedom faction i ough knowledge of neces, to bring & whole proces, Including the chances inherent Init, under our onto) and so det {cto an end deided by ourelves So liminating chance meats ‘ontollng it 0 8 to direct fe operation and to render the fetcome no longer acidental.‘Pis ts done by means of (peesinga res cnr over hans factor nl ex cing foresight and taking precustions to cope wth them nso faras they remain oud srs control. This why socialist ‘economic plan, far example, mrt alvaye include the balding Sp of reeves ‘One aspect of foresight i relation t chance expeeed in the snying, "Heads I win, tall yos lone. Haich aston can be brought into being, then T have ested that I win. Ifthe ‘outcome depends on the acident ofthe spin of cin then Itisderded independently of rans volition snd not by mart volition. Bot if arranged that whatever chances, tome Suitable precaution han been consved to being sont the Ales outcome, then it man's volition that decides the foutcome, If people ate making bet this called cheating, ‘at we do oot consider ie heating inflaton fo nature ‘Another agpect of eliminating chance is Musated by aponing cin which we bave be crf noo a We have son that nec relies el troagh a sis ofecides and aos sedetl sets geome by th inet Scsasy: When hs pens grapedit apace sean, and when we ae cgepped with tnowldge of telat She eer ofr sbi nye net's ton So ‘elon wb ard cout he nein fsa! in ‘ij tat we scl Set den fo tae Ou Soe Sots wit innate “Ts arc requ Ene shold eo oly snowed ofthe neiable uta of te probate tna Soe ta en proc nt, elt Know ony tat et wniveraly aliws ft what ees at Bringing the cause into being wecan ene the corresponding 92 fect; but we must alo know the probabiles of various {utes coming into operation and of various eft fllowing. "This enable ust judge how to actin order to conta the ‘whole proves, incing i accidental atures ‘Judgments ‘of probability expres oar expectation of the ccturrence of accidents Acoorung to ome theories, proba- Diy is purely subjective, in the sense at a Judgment of ‘probability i an expresion of nothing but our ox aubjctve Uoertainty or lack of knowledge: Baton the contrary, the idea (of probability reflects an objective realityor rather, one [epee of objeciverealsynamey, the operation of acldentl ‘causes in 2 hele requence of events or in an aggregate of Instances. ‘This Is jst as much an objective realty the ‘operation ofa snge caune on ingle occasion, wiih ie nota subject of probably Th proportion as wwe know the probabiies inherent ia ‘events and can aeve at comer judgments of probab See able the beter t reckon with al the fsetors operating {he coun ofa whole procs, Induding the aeldenal ctr, and 0 to direct the whole proces towards a definite en. IG woe rondo i contol over ourselves and over extemal nature ‘which i ounded on knowledge of necesty. Such knowledge ‘to reqie tht we know wt chase anor enter nto the proces with which we are concerned, and the probabli Characterising their operation, ab that we ean (0) contol the foperstion of chance and (F) take precasions to meet ie peration in wo far a we donot contol aa rel of which ‘he whole proces directed toa desired end “Caance sony the one poe os relation whote other pole is called “neces, wrote Bagels». The more a social ctvity, a aris of socal process, becomes too powerfal for ‘en's cnscows contol aad grows above their Reads and the tore It appears a matter of pure chanee, then all the more surely within this chance the laws peculat tt and inherent Init Atert thames asi by natural neces." (The Orga ‘fle Foil, ee chapter 9) ‘When eveat in which ove are concerned hur tke place 193‘without our consious control over them, then the ostcome it ‘etertined by a natural necetyeelioed through a series of fecidents But in proportion as we do achieve a conscious Contol over event tik we ourselves who consis deter fine their course, by acting on out knowledge of the Laws of ‘uch events and of the factory nBuencing the outcome. | (Chapter Fourteen ‘THE REALISATION OF FREEDOM The Wing of Fron Maat site tere catia on no when thinking ofthe problem of fredor rer from thinking that frendtn isan inate quality 0 the will Bot feedor ‘not an innate quality of the wil, nor iit any srt of git ‘endowment whsch God or nature has bestowed upon mane Tt [S something whichis woman whichis won gretaly, bt by bit created and realised In the course of ges of an veel acti. “Jo. Rovsteaa began his book on The Suit Gira with ‘he fanows words, “Mn is bor fee™. Bat man not born lee. On the contary, mam is bora wih no fredom watever, but is born as a create determined by eheunstances independent of his will. But dhs to his socal ile and the Taw ofits development, he gradually develop in cial practice the capita which make him ham fee. This he does in struggle with extemal nate, in tol and ane sHrugpley and ab in individual srg. He reac fo halt tnd is fo hinslf mach fons ms he postmen 90 he can never poses mote dhan he hs eeated aad won for nwa Tree is not an innate quality, sori it a “al or none” afr. Metapysicans argue that either we ae free or elke we fre not fee. This i to forget that we may be fee in some fespects but aot in other and that we toay be mote or lew fe, Tn the argument between volunarin, which sys thatthe wile ot determined, and eterno, which ays that the 195,will is determined, Maraam hes the determin se, since ‘rery act of wll har cate, But the Smportent question fe ot that of whether our actions are determined ance there no doubt Wat they ate deteriined™but of how and by what they are determineé—by external causes or by our own Enowledge of ovr nends and of how to saety ther. When fhe question is put Hike ts then ita evident dha feeedom iba tater of degree. We make ourselves fe only insofar we bring ft about that our wn eonscous deckion bed fn Knowledge eth thing which determines what we do and Schieve But ach frst can seldom if ever be abrolite ‘The moe is our own deelsion based on knowledge which Aeterines our actions and ther outome, and the lt they fare decided for us by other factors, the gat is Uh dee 1 from of ation which we have achieved Frac fh Tea and Prd in Sie Freedom i something which realised Dy the Sndivideal. Te 1b not manklnd in general, or society, that is fee, but individals who ar ree ‘Bat inthe ft place, dhe indiekualveaises ledom only hugh society. The means to fecdom is knowledge, and tht fe roca. The freedom of the individual depends on the Soquiremeau of the selety to which he belong, on the facation and asistance which society has afforded him, a ‘Soon the extent o whic, in welt, he ean co-operate with ‘there and get cern to co-operate with him. Tn the second ple, therfore, the individual attains to that Alegre of eeedom which hasbeen stained by snd permitted to hm by the soclty to which he belongs. The scope of bis freedom s dependent on the acquirements of his society, but ‘isa dependent on hw fr soiety al pormit hz to share and make we of thore aogulremens. The petental scope ‘this reedon i egret asthe exiting cal Enowege and (he teare datovere to ul it At re oeme tng in actaal tnjoyment of this potential fieaiom may be denied to hi Dy limitations place by soiery on his own acquirements and 1 own actions 196 ‘The freedom ofindividuals then, depends upon the pastive facquirement of society and the opportunities society fords to Individuals to utlise these acqurement. This beings, Saividualt struggle together—both with one another and ‘against one snother—fora higher degree of reedem, And they thereby raise the degree of eedom posed by all nail id realized by them in society ‘Te fllows, then, that an indvidval develops at tee agent in the course of his lie, eanesponding to the education, Incentive and opportunites alfred him by socety. And sSmnialy, men in tocety have developed human fred in the courte of social evolution, Mankind gradvally advances on ‘he road of greater freedom of ation. Ths freedom of action 1s indeed, measure or eterio of social progres. ‘The Stal fr Prados In primitive sncein, people's Readom is rsteeted mainly by thelr ack of mastery over nature: They are very much at fhe mercy of external nate, andthe savage’ existence toa ‘ery grt extent determined for hm by external conditions the cave with animale ‘AS chiation has develope, 4 has people's mastery over nature developed. Hence thei freedom in thie respect has ‘become les and less estreted, more and more enlarged But pew retriedon has come int operation. Tn cvlied soceties Tier, people's feedomy has been restited by soil cite tcmstances, and in particular by the oppreson of one class bby another Hence asthe becdora anocnted with the mastery cover nature Bas increased, 30 has it been offet by clas ‘ppresion. This means that people have Been exploited and ‘hurd, ad atthe sane Une have been denied the oppor {unity of using for their own interests the knowedge and poster which exist i society. Tr people are to be free, then acither ia thé economic activities nor in any other of their actives should they be ‘Comtrained to work orto act oft thik contrary fo thelr we. Interest, to the detriment af ce wn essential requirements, by extemal presture and forthe benefit of others. And they ‘91should not be denied the opportunity of wising al society fon for the sanction of tir requirements. Sach cond tlw are negation of people's freedom. The prevalence ‘thet hs been de foe Sivon of sey into exploing tol eploted donee ‘Nips pionophers have carly separated the quton of the walled er of Une wl om the quesion Peconomie sad plea Hesdoe, and thie separation has aed tem to bead poopie about both Bat in at thse trcoticparate ques but bro specs f the one quran ‘Tine’ stra Tor feed. Ina sty in whic one a ‘ists ante, the main part ofthe srgge for feet Re sua throw of the exiting fer of explosion nd eppreton. And isin thistle hat mena ely, take Gocrelver tee and cnlage the Ponte of oman [esd A panive slave amply save, but a stave in revolt is acting sen lve man even hough el wear is chain Sock people are pnces of human edo Te Bows than cae sce endom and the winning ef Teedom ba vays sia background tA he come Sept ot eedom as Therefore cls stnfiance In the ft fice, the wom which hs boon wom and vealed, at any Fre! and ab the nck o eco, always the edo ot Inch of eed of defite can’ Inthe tcond place, the fendor or ak of eed ofone cls fern inconerete ways ffom the feedom ov lack of feedom af another ly nd neque dicate so have ferent des of wat ‘Sra eedom. "Human recom hs been conta advanced by the cast struggle, td vrtoot clase sing toate teow sa Suits mule themiver fee to. purwe thse alt, have ‘Mhanced the feodom of people generally from one sage Suter Eachetagetrcalaed ssa eral of twgue again the eicloneoa son placed bya Gefrit sre fel ral Tin turn proces ios roreeon on feo. “Thuy for esa fda ale sd sero were ended ak 2 result ofthe sro ed by the bungee ait feudal isons ‘Thib war 8 ep foward in men's Hetom. Te 498 ————————— ought with it new forms of exploitation and opprenion, bat Fao brought new advances, the winning of broader poliscal gh and lberies, new and. more powerfal organiation, ‘Advances in knowledge and eature. At the sume Une, that rant in practice diferent things for the two ain eases of ‘aptalit sot The eaptast eas is concerned to roainain {true and inreste ie pro ‘The working clas, om the ‘ther hand, it cnfFonted with the tak of geting id of splint rule and capitalist exploitation, and of wing the Eieedom which Te has already won in order to advance to & higher order of freedom. ‘Similarly, ratrictons of freedom ae experienced diferently by the diferent class, Every sem of exploitation imposes ‘finite forms of coercion sid oppression on the explted; Aad the working clas ay, for example experiences this. At ‘the same ne, each ruling clas, which seams to isalf to have ‘eal ts own freedom by exploiting other, sds in practice that its freedom ir largely Huscey. The bourgeosie, foe fcample, fd theses erdaved by the laws of their own ‘Sater and mist go om accumulating eaptal orapeting with ‘he slother and ghting with one another tothe ea "To a por fy today, debating whether to exercie thelr {hee wllin paying the ren or buying some food, iota ems tha a richvexptali is fr freer than they are: They do bot ‘alae the extent to which the unfortunate man isthe lave of Is own busines, auflering high blood presure and perpetial swoury and frtratiom, If they dy imple humanity ight Dt them to set ee from these cares, and do theme ive bit of good to, by taking over bis btnes fom hin ‘Sd allowing him the feedom of honest work. Members of ‘ariousexpleitig canes have often bellved that niches and power would give them complet redom. But even thei own Diloophers Have sly but ely pointed out to them that Fiches and power exslave thir possess atthe same ine as they are eveaged in elaving oxher. rom Lack of Prin to Freon “The sruge for freedom means in ence people's struggle 199to be ale tomy thi own rece stra ond Str foc which need knowledge of thote requirements Sas how to say ther, andthe power to fest tat station ‘When tn socialitsclety people, having already gresty ccpandad thee mastery over nar, ring thei or el Srpmuntion under thc own como ental by vrs of eect omenhip of te mean of produc, then a ‘isiive ep forward iene in aman feed. Inet techy when thors explain efman by ena and when ‘Seman of profucton are commen propery and are aed fon the purpore of tating the roqerments of every ede ‘ial, peope begin let to sug for redo then xy [Wan ast howto go forward exer othe fall. And sen in communi oiety people finaly do avay wih all Tene ofthe rbondinaton of people to thir owm meats of redaction and product, then people wl have tained tothe Eiger dearer of feedom we cr eoriage Then, ax Bogut ‘et ior the fat time ran, im eran sens, finaly Tank off om the ret of the anal Kingdom and emerges ffom mere sonal coutiton of xetes ote rally Bano tig. eis the icent of an fom the kingdom of cceity {0's kingdom of eedom™ (Selim, Ubon ed Sef, oh "ct yea peopl arte of fom mee ail cone ion af een but began to ene condone of eka sthen thy Bt nga scllprodcton dat to ay, when they began to we ols and implements wo change thingy im secheisace with the oe eof eatery meth eos Bt este th om equizements Teproducing, pops have entered into relations of pod tin, tnd inthe couse of ages of ugg toatl thelr on tvenqroing requirement they have continually advanced {ee Tnowlaige snd consequently thei eon! oer tex on SB eed or creel cre Ths sgl Les ces throu nacre fang in cach wich people hae changed {Bor Flos of production wo coespord withthe develop toent of ther Sots of production, und In each of which ‘iferent lasses have enlarged hee own phere of fee setivity ‘only atthe cor of new forms of domination of oe clam ver Soother and of new forms of subjection to te objective laws ‘oftheir own socal orgeniaon. At length the lee strugsle has tesched hat stage in which the stage of the exploted clas for Ss own emancipation will rally emancipate sdiety ‘lage om all expleitation and oppresin, and s ill bring bout conditions hich men's nm soil organization comer Sander thee own conscouy soll contal and becomes the Feoul oftheir own fee ation. Then, to, the labour proces by which men bogan their journey to fsedom bat which became 8 proces afeaslaveent, will become the concious ‘means by which they achieve the satisfaction ofall heir needs; fd by limiting the hous af labor each wil be able fly 10 Alevelop and enjoy the exercise a al his capaci, Tn this way, By a procese which ie entirely Ine governed, whieh i determined at every point bythe operason of objec: Ue laws, people gradually emerge fom a condition of amplete lack of fieadom, when what they do and achieve Aetermined not by their own convious decison but by the Sreurstances, and gradually win feedom,_altaning. at length a condition in which individually and collectively they ‘an conaconly decide heir own fate on the bass of ow ledge tthe own neds sid of conscious contra over the conditions for thee etnation, Mersity ‘The stages of the evolution of fredom are cloey connected. ‘elh the elation of tora, or ethics, The detCopenent of morals is In fice, one side or aspect of the development of {Feedom, andthe various stager of the devdopment of moral das are 0 many stages of the evluton of human fcedar. ‘Many moral philosophers have observed chat morality sa cexpresion of freedom and that the moral He hat mei ‘nly ima fr as people ae acting feely. And ofcourse all. ‘our actions were merely the determined consequences of ‘external cates then there would be no sense nealing thera ‘ght or wrong, or in saying chat we had a duty to do one‘hing rather than anober, singe in that cate we could not hep tlt we did, Ta thin thre poaopers were evidently ight. ‘What they did not observe that reedom i something which develops todally on the basis of the acivides of definite ‘auey and that the same true of moral ‘Human morality nt am expresion of wme eternal moral lave decreed hy heaven and somehow revealed to mankind; nor Sse a9 Kent imagined, the expresion of a “eategorial Imperative” inherent nthe hur veil bute natural [product of mes socal organisation, Since men live in sckty, They necesly evolve @ moral code eo regulate their mutual {lations ancl activites i society. Tit asm im lation to Inclvdils the appearance of an externally’ imposed. and ‘morally binding force, because of its character of a socal ‘eslator of condict Ie aenimes the peculiar character of ‘Spor force! we do not have to act Highly, but we ought” eee ‘Morty consists of ertin standards and principles of condi, and says that certain thing ought to be done aed ther thingy ought not to be done ierepetive of whether Ilviduae want odo them or ot oe actualy do them o not ‘The whole yee of moral tems, ike "good "bad, "ough", And wo on, contained in the asetion of standards which do hot depend on the particular desis, impulses and actions of Individuals, And such standards come to be conceived, ed rnccesarily ome to be conceived, predely because ofthe {ocal nectaity of regulating individual conduct, ‘Of courte i i one thing to conceive and recognize such tondards and another thing to operate ther. Cenealy speaking, evry society evolves various forms of sanctions 10 teach and persuade people to do what they ought ranging fom mild praise oF blame to systems of reward and punish rent the latter, however, belag mostly reserved for actions {irecly involving security of ie or property. Bu im soceties ‘containing cla antagonioms, and where people profit ‘other expense and compete with one another, alge part of thority variably aeunes the form of something which Se Dresched to others but which one ce to evade oneself ‘Morality i inseparable frm hypocrisy. Finally, when moral andards are not merely often evade bat are placed in oust. fad ignored altogether, and when te various ral sanctions ‘act and weaken, that sone sgn that te socal system. ‘oncorme breaking pad changing "The whole of scial intercourse i conditioned by an based fon the production relations of society. And s0 morality, s a ‘egulator ef social ntereoure, sn every socey the prot fedefiteprodueton rations Te rellocts them anid charges ‘wth them, snd each casein tcietyevlves itso nal dens ‘Correponding toe penline cls poston "Men consol) or uconsiously derive ther moral ideas inthe last resort fom the practical relaions on which thelr class postion is based” wrote Engch, “ior the economic elation in which chey carry on production ad exchange. All foreer moral theories are the product, i the lat analysis, ff the economic Hage which miety lad ached at the Particular epochs" (datiDilrig, Part I, chapter) “This beings, is natural that moral ides should in many sways dif as between diferent social gpteme ond ifeent eis Ale ue ty we ld ep on om do fin, that there i always something, and olen a great de ‘commen Between hem, For the etre socal rte and fdases represent “ferent stages of the same isurical ‘evelopment and have therefore a comtnan historical back (ground, and for that reason alone they necnarily have much reommon, Even more. Tn sinilar ot approximately saa sages of econcmic development moval theories, mst of fecrsty be more oles in agreement” or example, irom fe moment when. private property in movable object “Sevloped, nal societies whic thi property exited there faust be this moral law in common: Thou stat not seal (Bagels, Ani-Dilring, Pare ehaper 9) ‘The eihies of any socal group ithe expreton of the ‘concrete mature of their fredons nd ther apeations for {rendoms—hich hae basin the place they ocepy in soil ‘production snd their relations to the means of production {ins fas such a group may renain under the Inuence ad 205,sway of sme othe group, they may acep the mora ear of {Bal Sher groupe to throw detent and tothe sdvastge ofthe ether since i terver to Hep them nm jection tins fra they come concious of and begin {ostrgle fr e owe as, begin playa active and not seri pani pat inthe proces of toca change beri 0 oer thelr own fee hey dal tet own tory in the pecs. “hy, does endo ex mors? Tas beso ron in acon is the wry epponte of acing on pul or brasae of SNisnal compotion: Insofar an people tte pale oF Beaute of eterna compalion they tre the very revere of fie but are contatned by chance or external exes, People Ast ely when they those, dlseraely ad keowiegy, Geirmine ther oune ef acon Hence in relling 808 fercing thie eedom people crete their maxims or Drincple of ston, which ona hee mora ides. Thee oat then comand tothe condone and aia of thee ‘Revel dette onthe ba ofthe seal conione ‘Tamla if Atte some ie they create nations a0 chal scons wilh, in i pec, ve a the external ‘Sibodimeot and defere of tes Dor sa fd dood dpe of eclom of aeon wiih ty have ataned or are sang or “The modern working as, for example, has create and is ercatig ion moray, wih reeves partir expression Satan a te ade sion movement sed the Gosnmunit Party-amorlsy of mld and of mated Schtnce, eed cf putlog the common stugpe before the cla nd sheer inert the inl. Bourg Eialiy dfs fom tis in many waye If any working Prople Fema andr the iaucnce of bougeis moray Miu ir ofen coms otoday, borg Ick of moral Thatsimply means tat they sai elaively pave saves of aaliyah they may themele thnk ne I tre by ther employers that they are behaving eth ent erent of nd aod depen ‘Phow ifs worker wage 10 take part in his trade won 204 struggle replies dat he wil nt do so beeaute everyone should Took ater himself hat simply means that he hs fmbibed the inividualisicelementsof bourgeois morality, which have been [pumped ito him by capitalist propaganda, Te also means that Fhe does notin fact know how to Took after imal ince the dear evalved by the capitalias for looking ater thee ow affhirs are not suited to te entirely opposite purpase of asis- fg the workers Tn clasaivided society, morality i alway and necauarlly ass morality. Te expreses preciely the Fequltement, the Social conscouines and the measure and kind of freedom (Of the various atc. And when a clas i going down, ie Imoralisy goes down with i) and gives way to a diferent ‘moraliy. We can say that that morality higher which eves to advance society 4 step farther om the road of matesil progress ad redo. These to things ae inseparable since fn srugaing for moe feedom people reals ther material progres snd in sragling for material progres they reali fore freedom, "To lve tee filly the geal ofall Boe aad Active He and this alone provides the objective ertean for Jiudging what morality sigh, "AL present, no morality higher than that which i the ‘oxpresion of the clase struggle of the working elas. IF those two bemoan the decline of morals in eaptalist society want {o find examples of moral principe this where they should look. They do not do so beeauve they are bots shamed and fightened “Our morality is entirely subordinated co the inverts of the elas srugle of the proletariat. Our morality i derived fom the interes ofthe clas sree of the poole Lenin,“ Morality in what serves to destoy the old cexpleling Sotety and’ so unite all the toler around the proletariat, which i building up a new, commune society. ‘Gommusis morality is the mealcy which serves his struggle, whic unites he eles." (The Task of th au Lange) ‘When cass antagonisins ate abolished in scat and com smaniat woeiety, then morality does besome human and not ‘as morality,“Aasosstyhahithero moved in clas antagonism, morality was always clas monty" wrote Engele "It has ether Jusfed the domination and the interests of the ruling ela, ‘of, aston a he opprened clas has become powerful enough, ‘thas represented tho revolt against this domination and the ature interests of the epprened. That in thie proces there has on the whole been progres in morality... cannot be outed. But we have not yet pasted beyond clas morality. A feally human morality which eranacende cas aatagonisns and their legac im thought Becomes posible only ata stage of “let wich has not only overcome eat contradictions but haus even forgotten them in. praceal Me" (di-Dabing, Pare I chaptes 9) "Suck morality express the principles and maxims of fee ction in "an stocntion ie which the fee development of tachi the coniton for te fee development of al." (Marx SSbd Engels Mnifetoof te Communi Port, chapter 2.) Tes ‘Seduced fom nothing ee than knowledge Pharma require: tents and of how to zy het And in conditions where people have delivers, comeiour cntol over the means of [Biiving tice requirement, it ie the expression of their Freedom and the principle guiding ther fe acivities. The fthics of the feeom struggle of the working clas which oes not reject bt incorporate al thats posi ad durable {the whsle moral evluton of mankind, prepares the way sd lays the bass, “Although buman morality dow not yet ext, wecan perhaps guess at sone of ie characterises I ir not dogmatic, but Slenle and sclfcritical Te does aot encourage sel Figiteouness andl mora spiterng apd fing, but calm fandrenonabl, Forty inunoral behavior simply aoc behaviour due to weakest and nck of edoraton, and I alm Fenottoponih butt reform and educate. Tso al respects nd ad humane, and values above everything ese the fee evelopment and happines of the human fadeidual "We ean conclude tint i we should oppose the philesophy Which tye that morals are deteed by heaven, we should also ‘pine the pilosphy, no less common today ia bourgeo, 208 Cirle, which says that judgments of god and bac ae simply ‘xpresions of emotional anituder at can have no bait {ally I socials ae asked, why do you conser ths good ‘and that bad, they need neler pres sermons noe lu their shoulders. Socialist moralty founded on appreinion of the real conditions snd real requirements of the aetial freedom struggle of mankind, 27READING LIST ‘The flowing are the pencipal sources in the writing of ‘Maes, Engels and Lenin dealing with problems ofthe theory Of kowledge which have been consulted and quoted in tis olume: Sad itigarof Pata! Bcowmy, Preface ‘The Poy of Pio Reseanie Phibsphcl Mens 1 Geman Hey Ginepmaice ‘dat Deeg “nig Peuerback ‘Seclim, Vion ond Smif, Introduction Dials of Nowe "Matoialion nd Beir Criiom Kart Mare ‘ask of the Youth Legs Philowphica Nowbooks