INTRODUCTION TO

HAZARDS
By,
USMAN ILYAS
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department
University of Management and Technology, Lahore
1
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the concepts of hazards and
secondary hazards
To discuss the different hazard’s origin
and causes
Explain parameters of severity such as
magnitude, frequency, intensity and rate of
onset and their importance
To discuss the mechanism of destruction

2
 Hazard definition
A Hazard is a threat. A future source of danger.

It has the potential to cause harm to

• People Death, injury, disease and stress

• Human activity Economic, educational etc.
• Property Damage, economic loss
• Environment Loss of fauna and flora, pollution
3
•Exercise
Identify (as many as you can) the types of hazards
that your country often faces.
• Find out the possible hazards under each
type;
1.Hydro Meteorological Hazards
2.Geological Hazards
3.Biological/Environmental Hazards
4.Technological Hazards
5.Complex Hazards
You have 10 minutes for this exercise 4
Types of Hazards

5
 TYPES OF HAZARD
Hydro Meteorological Hazard

• Tropical Cyclones
• Floods
• Storm Surges
• Drought
• Tornado
• Extreme Temperature
• Lightening
• Avalanches
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 TYPES OF HAZARD
Geological Hazard

• Earthquake
• Volcano
• Tsunami
• Landslide
• Ground subsidence
• Glacial lake outburst???
7
 TYPES OF HAZARD
Biological/Environmental Hazards

• Pandemic/Epidemic in humans
• Pandemic/Epidemic in plants
• Pandemic/Epidemic in animals

• Pollution
• Pest Infestation (Locusts)
• Wildfire 8
 TYPES OF HAZARD
Technological Hazards

• Transport accidents
• Industrial explosions and fires
• Accidental release of toxic chemicals
• Nuclear accidents

10
 TYPES OF HAZARD
Complex Hazards
• Terrorism
• Civil unrest
• Violation

10
What is an Earthquake??

25
Earthquakes
“Earthquakes systematically bring
out the mistakes made in design
and construction - even the most
minute mistakes; it is this aspect
of earthquake engineering that
makes it an educational value far
beyond its immediate objectives.”

-Newmark and Rosenbluth

 Earthquake Engineering

The earthquake is the most important

external load that must be considered
when designing civil engineering
structures, because of the potential
disastrous consequences.
 Earthquake Engineering

• Of course the degree of importance of an

earthquake loading in any given location is related
to:
• Likelihood of occurrence
• Probable intensity of the earthquake

In other words the seismicity of the region

 Internal Structure of the Earth

 Crust:
 Continental crust (25-40 km)
 Oceanic crust (~6 km)
 Mantle
 Upper mantle (650 km)
 Lower mantle (2235 km)
 Core
 Outer core: liquid (2270 km)
 Inner core: solid (1216 km)

 Values in brackets represent the approximate thickness of each layer

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 Measuring an Earthquake

• Magnitude
– Energy released from the earthquake
– Measured in Richter Scale

• Intensity
– Ground Shaking at different places
– Measured in Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI)
 Magnitude vs Intensity

(Magnitude)

Mirror

(Intensity)

An example of reducing illumination with the distance

 Seismographs

• Instrument that records

the earth’s motion
• North-South
• East-West
• Vertical
• Pen-Plotter
• Digital
 Seismographs
• Seismographs – instruments that record earthquake
waves
• When waves from an earthquake come into contact
with a seismograph, a weight suspended from a
support will remain motionless as Earth moves
(providing a reference point) and can draw a
diagram showing Earth’s motion
• Seismograms – the electronically recorded ground
motion from a seismograph
Seismographs
 What causes earthquakes?

The lithosphere is broken into rigid plates that move.

 Type of Faults

Right Lateral Left Lateral

 Type of Faults Continued

Normal Reversed
“Blind Thrust Fault”

Dip of fault is less than 45

degrees. The “Dip” is the
angle between two
geologic surfaces – for
example, a fault plane and
the horizontal.
Characterized not so much
by vertical displacement,
but by horizontal
compression.
Thrust faults are an obvious
sign of compressional
tectonics.
 “Epicenter”

• The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the

(subterranean) point or origin of an earthquake;
only two measurements, latitude and longitude, are
needed to locate it.
 “Focus” or the “Hypocenter”

• The focus, or the hypocenter, is the point of origin

of an earthquake (subterranean). It can be
expressed with no fewer than three measurements:
latitude, longitude, and depth.
 Seismic Waves

• When the earth shakes it releases seismic waves

• Body waves pass through the “body” of the planet
(fastest waves and can be refracted and reflected)
• Surface waves stay near the surface
• There are many different types of waves
 Types of Seismic Waves

P Wave
Body

S Wave

Love Wave
Surface
Rayleigh Wave
Seismograms
Body Waves
 Primary Waves

• P-waves (body waves)

• Are the fastest; consequently, they reach the
recording station first.
• Move in a push-pull fashion, alternating pulses of
compression and tension
• Can travel in any medium
• Arrival at your site may be accompanied with
thunder-like noises and rattling windows (similar to
a sonic boom)
Like a slinky
 Secondary Waves

• S waves (body waves)

• The second wave to reach the recording station
• Transverse waves that propagate by shearing or
shaking particles in their path at right angles to the
path of advance
• Travel only through solids
• The wave motion that is most damaging to
structures
Snapping a
piece of rope
 Love Waves
• Surface waves
• Motion is essentially an S wave that has no vertical
displacement
• Moves the ground from side to side 90 degrees to
the direction of propagation
• Can be very damaging to structures
Love Waves
 Rayleigh Waves
• Most common surface wave
• Similar to water wave except they have a
backwards rotation
• Cause horizontal and vertical movement
• Slower than Love waves
• Pass through ground and water
• Long periods and travel a long way (once they get
started)
Being on
a ship
Waves
Waves

P waves travel approximately 1.7 times

faster than S waves
 Locating an Earthquake

• We can determine the distance to an epicenter by

finding the difference between the arrival of p
waves and s waves , then looking at a travel-time
graph we can determine how far away the epicenter
is
• Travel-time graphs from three or more seismographs
can be used to find the exact location of an
earthquake epicenter
• About 95% of earthquakes occur in a few narrow
zones, and most of these occur around the Pacific
Ocean
 Locating the Source

• The epicenter can be located using the lengths of

time the various seismic waves take to reach a
seismograph
• P waves travel approximately 1.7 times faster than S
waves; therefore, the larger the difference in arrival
time, the farther away from the epicenter you are
• This gives you distance.
 Magnitudes of Earthquakes

• The magnitude is an estimate of the relative size

(amplitude) of an earthquake measured from a
seismogram
 Richter Scale
• 1935, Charles Richter of CIT defined the magnitude
of an earthquake
Magnitude - the logarithm to the base ten of the
maximum seismic wave amplitude (in thousandths
of a millimeter) recorded on a standard seismograph
at a distance of 100 kilometers from the earthquake
center
• For every tenfold increase in amplitude on the
seismogram, the Richter Number increases
by 1.0
 Magnitudes

• Earthquakes of
magnitude < 5.0 are not
expected to cause
structural damage
• Earthquakes > 5.0 are
potentially very
damaging
Moment Magnitude
I. Instrumental Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
Modified Mercalli Scale
II. Feeble Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects
may swing.

III. Slight Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on the upper floors of buildings. Many do not
recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a
truck. Duration estimated.

IV. Moderate Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors
disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars
rocked noticeably. Dishes and windows rattle.

V. Rather Strong Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes and windows broken. Unstable objects
overturned. Clocks may stop.

VI. Strong Felt by all; many frightened and run outdoors, walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken; books
off shelves; some heavy furniture moved or overturned; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.

VII. Very Strong Difficult to stand; furniture broken; damage negligible in building of good design and construction; slight to
moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed
structures; some chimneys broken. Noticed by persons driving motor cars.

VIII. Destructive Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial buildings with partial
collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture moved.

IX. Ruinous General panic; damage considerable in specially designed structures, well designed frame structures
thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
foundations.

X. Disastrous Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with
foundation. Rails bent.

XI. Very Disastrous Few, if any masonry structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly.

XII. Catastrophic Total damage - Almost everything is destroyed. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects thrown into the
air. The ground moves in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock may move.
Some Notable Earthquakes in Pakistan
Some Notable Earthquakes
 Effects of Earthquake

• Structural damage
• Nonstructural damage
• Fire
• Flood
• Tsunami
 Shocks
• Foreshock – the earthquake that occurs prior to a
large earthquake
• Mainshock - the largest earthquake in any series of
earthquakes
• Aftershock - the earthquake that occurs after a
large earthquake within one rupture-length of the
original fault rupture and before the seismicity rate
in the area has returned to pre-mainshock levels.
 Earthquake Prediction
• Weather vs. Earthquake Prediction
• Arrangement of the planets
• Jumpiness of animals
• The numerous geological details make earthquakes
inherently unpredictable
 Elements of a Valid Prediction
• The time period
• Location, or area, of epicenter
• Magnitude range
• Chance, or odds, of an earthquake
 Reducing EQ Hazards
• Two mechanisms
• Prediction
• Mitigation
• Strengthening structures
• Preparation of response personnel
• Education of the public
• Structural engineers focus on mitigation,
specifically, strengthening (designing) structures
• We learn tremendous amounts from previous
earthquakes …
 Socio-Economic Effect of Earthquake
• Magnitude- an earthquake higher up the Richter scale
is more potent so more likely to cause economic
damage and a higher death/ injury toll
• Location- a natural disaster is defined as the
overlapping of a natural hazard (in this case the
earthquake) and a vulnerable population. If an
earthquake where a vulnerable population is not
present, then there will be no social impacts and very
few, if any, economic impacts.
• Population Density- an earthquake hitting an area with
a high population density is most likely to cause severe
social impacts as the death and injured toll will be
higher
 Socio-Economic Effect of an Earthquake
• Infrastructure- this is key when looking at the impacts
of an earthquake. Over 80% of deaths due to an
earthquake are caused the collapse of infrastructure. If
a building is earthquake proof, it will both protect the
people inside it and those near it as it will not collapse.
Better infrastructure also reduces economic
implications as it does not require re-building.
• Infrastructure is also very important when looking at
the secondary impacts of an earthquake and the
recovery of a nation. If the roads, railway and bridges
were badly damaged then it is unlikely aid can reach the
affected areas quickly thus exacerbating the social
impacts.
 Socio-Economic Effect of Earthquake
• Knowledge- if a population knows how to react to an
earthquake, they can greatly reduce its repercussions.
This involves earthquake drills and knowing how to act
when tremors are felt and having a 3 day emergency
supply of food and water.
• Time of day- the time of day an earthquake strikes is
very important in a populations ability to react and
ensure safety. An earthquake that occurs overnight will
catch people off guard and thus they may not be able to
efficiently seek shelter. This is likely to increase the
death toll.
 Socio-Economic Effect of Earthquake
• Vulnerability of the population- earthquakes require
swift reactions from the population to move. Young
children or the elderly are often reliable upon others
and thus more vulnerable in an earthquake situation.
• Property Value- this is key when examining the
economic implications of an earthquake. An earthquake
striking on a key global city (e.g Tokyo) would cause
billions dollars worth of damage. Whereas, this number
would be far reduced if it struck a rural region.
 Effect of an Earthquake
Earthquakes can destroy settlements and kill many
people. Aftershocks can cause even more damage to
an area. It is possible to classify the impacts of an
earthquake, by taking the following factors into
account:
• short-term (immediate) impacts
• long-term impacts
• social impacts (the impact on people)
• economic impacts (the impact on the wealth of an
area)
• environmental impacts (the impact on the
landscape)
 Effect of an Earthquake
Earthquakes can destroy settlements and kill many
people. Aftershocks can cause even more damage to
an area. It is possible to classify the impacts of an
earthquake, by taking the following factors into
account:
• short-term (immediate) impacts
• long-term impacts
• social impacts (the impact on people)
• economic impacts (the impact on the wealth of an
area)
• environmental impacts (the impact on the
landscape)
Effect of an Earthquake
HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKES IN PAKISTAN
HISTORY
Earthquake Hazard

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 Masonry Building

Masonry in Cement
Sand Mortar

70
 RC Building

71
 Dhajji

72
 Whole Settlement Destruction

73
 School Building

74
 Hospital

75
 Governmental Building

20
 Hotel

77
 Infrastructure

78
 Bridges

79
 Road Blocked by Debris

80
 Magnitude & Scale

• The Moment magnitude scale (abbreviated as

MMS; denoted as MW) is used to measure the size
of earthquakes in terms of the energy released.
• The scale was developed in the 1970’s to succeed
the 1930’s-era Richter magnitude scale (ML)
• Richter scale is improved form of Marcalli scale
RICHTER SCALE
 Tectonic Plates
• Tectonic plates are large plates of rock that make up
the foundation of the earths crust.

• There are ten major plates on the earth and many

more minor ones.

• The plates are most famously known for being the

source of Earthquakes.
 Pakistan Tectonic Plates

• Pakistan overlaps with

the Indian and the
Eurasian tectonic plates.
• Sindh and Punjab lie on
Indian plate.
• Balochistan and Khyber
Pukhtunkhwa lie within
the Eurasian plate
Pakistan Seismic Zones
2005 EARTHQUAKE (Muzafferabad,
AJK)
EARTHQUAKE DETAILS
EARTHQUAKE DETAILS
13th Deadliest Earthquake
Losses
 Losses
• 87,000 Dead (According to World Bank Report)
• 100,000 injured
• 171,884 houses completely demolished
• 4 Million people homeless in 1,083 villages of Azad
Kashmir
• In Kashmir, the districts of Muzaffarabad, Bagh and
Rawlakot were the most affected.
 Earthquake vs Tsunami

The adverse effects of this

earthquake are estimated to
be larger than those of the
Tsunami of December 2004
 Reasons of Destruction
• Stone masonry buildings (with poor bonding)
• No horizontal bond beams were provided at the
levels of plinth, or roof
• No vertical members of concrete or wood were
provided in walls
• In some cases, certainly due to economic
constraints, the stones were observed to have been
laid even dry (no mortar at all) and the gaps were
filled by small pieces of stones
 Reasons of Destruction
• Poor quality of concrete
used for fabrication of
blocks
• Inadequate thickness of
walls (6 inch)
• No integrity of the wall in
the transverse direction
• Weak connections at
corners
• Inadequate lap splices
 ERRA
• The Govt. of Pakistan established
the Earthquake Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA) on
October 24, 2005 to take up the
task of rebuilding in the earthquake
affected regions.
• It includes civil servants, armed
forces personnel and international
consultants.
• ERRA’s mission was to “Convert this
Adversity into an Opportunity” by
reconstructing the lost and
destroyed facilities.
 NDMA
• National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA), is the lead
agency at the Federal level to
deal with Disaster
Management Activities.
• In event of disaster,
Government Ministries &
Departments, Armed Forces,
NGOs, work through and from
NDMA to conduct one window
operation.
2011 earthquake, Pakistan
 2005 vs 2011 Earthquake
• 2005 Earthquake was Disaster while 2011
Earthquake was Hazard.
• 2005- Magnitude 7.8 & Densely populated areas.
• 2011- Magnitude 7.2 but Sparsely populated areas.
• 2005- 80 000+ people died.
• 2011- No major loss.
• HAZARD can become DISASTER, if earthquake
comes in Densely populated areas or near Coastal
Areas.
 Constraints
• Lack of latest equipment's.
• Lack of funding from Govt.
• Lack of implementation of Seismic Building Codes.
• Lack of public awareness.
• Lack of training programs and workshops.
• Poverty
THANKYOU