449
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
• Information is data processed for some
purpose. Information can only be considered
to be ‘real’ info if it meets certain criteria i.e.
1. It must be communicated to the recipient.
2. It must be in a language that is
understood.
3. It must be in a suitable form.
4. It must be relevant for achieving some
purpose.
COMPUTERS
• A computer is an electronic machine that
helps to process data. It is used to solve
problems relating to almost all fields such
as education, home, medicine, science and
technology, research, designing, publishing,
communication, etc.
• Blaise Pascal had developed the first
mechanical calculator in 1642 AD, which is
called ‘Pascalene’.
• British scientist Charles Babbage was
the first person to conceive an automatic
calculator or a computer in 1833. He is
called the ‘Father of modern computer’.
• The credit of developing first computer
programme goes to Lady Ada Augusta, a
student of Babbage.
• Howard Eskin developed the first Mechanical
Computer ‘Mark-I’ in ‘ENIAC‑I’ in 1946.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS BASED
ON HARDWARE
• Computers may be classified into a number
of generations.
• The classification may be based on the
hardware technology used in building
a computer or based on its application
software used.
FIRST-GENERATION COMPUTERS
(1945-55)
• The first generation of computers started
with ENIAC.
• It was then followed by the IBM UNIVAC
I (Universal Automatic Computer) built by
Mauchly and Ecken in 1951.
• This machine could perform business
data processing.
• The first-generation computers used
vacuum tubes. Because of vacuum tubes,
the first-generation computers were very
large, required lot of energy, slow in
input/output, and suffered with heat and
maintenance problems.
• Further, the vacuum tubes needed to be
replaced often as they had short life-span.
SECOND-GENERATION COMPUTERS
(1955‑64)
• To overcome difficulties faced in the first
generation computers due to the use of
vacuum tubes, transistors were used in the
second generation computers.
• Transistor is a small component made of
semiconductor material. With transistors,
the problem of heat was minimized and
computers size was reduced.
• The computers now could perform operations
comparatively faster.
• The storage capacity was also improved.
Instead of working with machine language
now the machine could work with higher level
languages such as ALGOL and FORTRAN.
THIRD-GENERATION COMPUTERS
(1964‑75)
• The third-generation computers used the
integrated circuits (IC).
 450 General Knowledge  2020
• Jack Kilby developed the concept of inte­
grated circuit in 1958.
• It was an important invention in the
computer field. The first IC was invented
and used in 1961.
• The size of an IC is about ¼ square inch.
A single IC chip may contain thousands
of transistors.
• The computer became smaller in size,
faster, more reliable and less expensive. The
examples of third generation computers are
IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC 1108
and UNIVAC AC 9000 etc.
FOURTH-GENERATION COMPUTERS
(1975-PRESENT)
• The fourth-generation computers started
with the invention of Microprocessor. The
Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs.
• Ted Hoff produced the first microprocessor
in 1971 for Intel.
• It was known as Intel 4004. The technology
of integrated circuits improved rapidly.
• The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit
and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
circuit was designed.
• It greatly reduced the size of computer.
• The size of modern Microprocessors is
usually one square inch. It can contain
millions of electronic circuits.
• The examples of fourth generation computers
are Apple Macintosh & IBM PC.
FIFTH-GENERATION COMPUTERS
(PRESENT AND BEYOND)
• Scientists are working hard on the 5th-
generation computers with quite a few
breakthroughs.
• It is based on the technique of Artificial
Intelligence (AI).
• Computers can understand spoken words
and imitate human reasoning. It can
respond to its surroundings using different
types of sensors.
• Scientists are constantly working to increase
the processing power of computers. They
are trying to create a computer with real
IQ with the help of advanced programming
and technologies.
• IBM Watson computer is one example that
outsmarts Harvard University Students.
• The advancement in modern technologies
will revolutionise the computer in future.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified into three broad
categories based upon–type, purpose,
capacity.
TYPES
1. Analog Computers: These are measuring
devices that work on volatile data, e.g.,
heat, pressure, humidity, speed, etc.
For example thermometers, barometers,
speedometers. These are sensitive to the
slightest changes.
2. Digital Computers: Deal with numbers;
can be used to manipulate data with
great accuracy. Take input and give
output. Can store large quantities of
data, e.g., All electronic computers,
calculators, quartz watches, etc.
3. Hybrid Computers: Mixture of analog
and digital computers. Input is generally
in the analog form like heat/pressure,
etc. measured by analog part of computer
and then used by digital part for further
operations, e.g., computers used in
factories for controlling manufacturing
processes, launching a rocket, etc.
PURPOSE
1. General-purpose Computers: Capable
of handling many kinds of operations.
Used for both business and scientific
applications with equal efficiency. Can
be used at any place like offices, banks,
schools, etc.
2. Special-purpose Computers: Designed
to perform specific task and cannot be
used for other purposes. e.g., Monitor
patient’s health in hospitals, in airports
to monitor arrival/departure of flights,
etc.
CAPACITY
1. Micro Computer: Computers used by
individuals and hence are also called
Personal Computers or PCs.

2. Mini computer: This type of computers
are comparatively larger and are also 5
to 50 times powerful than that of a Micro
Computer.
3. Main Frame Computer: These are large-
sized computers. These are generally
used for scientific and research-based
projects.
4. Super Computer: These are much
more powerful in terms of their storage
capacity, efficiency and output ratio.
These are the most efficient and fastest
computers.
5. Quantum Computer: This stage of
computers is still in its development phase.
Some Important Facts Related to
Computers
• First computer (made in India) is
‘Siddharth’, which was manufactured by
Electronics Corporation of India.
• First computer in India was installed in the
Main Post Office of Bangaluru on August
16, 1986.
• Bangaluru (now Bengaluru) is also known
as the Silicon Valley of India.
• First Indian Newspaper to be available on
Internet is The Hindu.
• First Indian magazine to be available on
Internet is India Today.
• First Indian political party which has
created its website on Internet is ‘Bharatiya
Janata Party (BJP)’.
• First Super Computer of the world is CRAY
K-1-S, developed by Cray K Company of
USA.
• Most popular Operating System in the
world is WINDOWS.
• First book on Personal Computer was
written by Ted Nelson.
• The book written by Ted Nelson – ‘Soul of
New Machine’ – won the Pulitzer prize.
• First home computer is Commodore
VIC/20.
• First Practical Digital computer is UNIVAC.
• FORTRAN is the first programming
Language.
• PROLOG is the language of the fifth
generation of computer.
• J.S. Kilby developed the IC chips.
• A computer error is known as Bug.
Science and Technology 451
• C-DAC (Centre for Development and
Advanced Computing) was established in
Pune in 1988.
• National Aeronautics Laboratories,
Bangalore was the first in India to develop a
Super Computer named FLO SOLVER.
• Laser Printers are the fastest printers.
• Computer virus is a man-made digital
parasite, which corrupts the file and known
as ‘File corrupter’.
• Modem is a device which connects the
computers and works based on telephone
lines.
• The development of computer started in
India since 1955.
• Vellanad of Thiruvananthapuram district
in Kerala has been declared the first fully
computerised village of India.
SOFTWARE
• Software relates to set of programs.
• Applications programs are programs that
permit the computer to be used as a tool for
some specific tasks.
• A common term used for special text editors is
the Data Base Management System (DBMS).
• The most important system’s programme is
an operating system.
• Operating systems help users interact
with the computer.
• Example: Unix, Ms DOS, Linux.
The computer software is classified into two
broad categories:
(a) Application Software: Also known
as application packages. This is a set
of one or more programmes that are
developed or written to do a specific
job, e.g., an application package of a
company to process its sales data and
to generate various sales reports.
(b) System Software: Set of one or more
programmes which are developed to
control the operation of the computer
system. These programmes do not
solve specific problemmes but they are
general programs which help the user
in the use of the computer system.
 452 General Knowledge  2020
FIRMWARE
• Firmware is the technology which has the
combination of both hardware and software,
e.g., BIOS (Basic Input/Output System).
LIVEWARE
• At times, the users working on the system
are termed as ‘Liveware’.
HARDWARE
• A computer has three main units: 1. Input
unit, 2. Processing unit and 3. Output
unit. These are the physical units of a
computer system. These units constitute
the hardware of a computer.
• The computer has its own internal ‘language’.
• The computer is essentially made of electronic
components. All these components are
capable of generating any one of the two
states, either a low (or a 0 volt) or a high
(say 5 volts).
• It is difficult to talk always in terms of currents
and voltages to represent information.
Therefore, computer scientists use a
special convention. A high is symbolically
represented by a ‘1’ and a low is represented
by a ‘0’. The 1s and 0s are known as binary
digits, or in short ‘bits’ (the term ‘binary’
refers to something that has two parts).
• Computers always work with bits. They do
not understand any other form.
• Because every bit can take one of two possible
values, the total number of combinations
possible, using eight bits, the computer can
represent 256 different symbols.
• This is enough to cover our entire range
of alphabets, numbers and other special
characters like $, @, +, etc. Such a
combination of eight bits is called a byte.
• 1 kilobyte = 1024 bytes.
• In computers information is represented
using multiples of eight (23) bits, since eight
bits are the smallest unit of information.
Therefore, higher units are expressible in
multiples of 23.
• 1 MB = 1000 KB
• 1 GB = 1000 MB
• The basic elements of computers that can
signal a 1 or 0 are called flip-flops. It is a
simple electrical device and can either be
a ‘0’ or a ‘1’, which means that the flow of
current is either inward or outward.
• Silicon is obtained from sand and is a poor
conductor of electricity. But, by chemical
processes it becomes good conductor. The
surface and the interior of a silicon ‘chip’ are
called Integrated Circuits (IC).
• By 1971, engineers were able to put a few
component switches necessary to build
a complete computer on a single chip of
silicon. This silicon chip was called the
microprocessor.
• The computer converts all decimal number
into binary numbers of combinations of
bits. Then by acting upon individual bits,
it can perform the required mathematical
operation addition, subtraction, etc.
• The internal circuits that can perform
mathematical operations on bits are usually
made of two or more logic gates. Logic gates
are components that generate a 1 or a 0
depending on the input.
• The three basic logic gates are AND, OR and
NOT.
• A computer is organized into three basic units:
i. The Central Processing Unit (CPU).
ii. The Memory Unit (MU).
iii. The Input/Output Unit.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
• It is called the brain of the computer.
• The CPU can be divided into three main
components: (a) ALU (b) CU and (c) Registers.
(a) The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
ALU performs all the mathematical and
logical operations on the information
supplied to the CPU.
(b) Control Unit (CU): It fetches instructions
(Programs) from the memory and
according to the instructions, controls
the flow of data between the ALU and
other parts of the computer.
(c) Registers: Registers are storage
locations that hold instructions or date
while the CPU is using them.
MAIN ATTRIBUTES OF CPU
Data width: It refers to the number of bits
of data that can be manipulated within the
CPU at one given time.

• The data width of a computer is also
called its word size.
• Computers have data widths ranging from
8 to 64 bits.
• A higher data width means the CPU is
capable of processing data faster. A CPU
with a higher data width is more powerful.
Address Range: Address range refers to the
amount of memory that can be directly read/
written by the CPU.
Clock Speed: The speed of CPU is known
as Clock Speed.
• At any moment several thousand such
devices change their state. To synchronize
the change of all these components the CPU
uses an internal clock.
• With every tick of this clock, all switches
that need to change their position do so in
perfect harmony.
• Higher the clock-speed, faster the computer.
MEMORY UNIT (MU)
The storage device of a computer system is
known as memory.
(a) Primary Memory: It is often referred
to as the working memory of the main
memory of a computer system. It is
temporary in nature. So it is also called
volatile memory. An example of primary
memory is RAM.
ƒƒ Primary memory is directly accessible
to the CPU.
ƒƒ The two basic kinds of primary
memory are the Random Access
Memory (RAM) and the Read Only
Memory (ROM).
ƒƒ The RAM is a read/write memory.
ƒƒ The CPU can change the contents
of the RAM at any time. In addition,
RAM is volatile.
ƒƒ The ROM can be altered.
ƒƒ Information is stored on the ROM at
the time of its manufacture.
ƒƒ The ROM is non-volatile and retains
its information even after the power
is turned off.
ƒƒ The PROM (Programmable Read
Science and Technology 453
Only Memory) has the option of
being programmed.
(b) Secondary Memory: It is used to store
data for a long term. Secondary memory
is permanent in nature, so it is also
called non-volatile, memory are floppy
disks, hard disks, magnetic tapes, etc.
ƒƒ Information is moved from the
secondary memory to the primary
memory first and then the CPU.
ƒƒ Magnetic tapes are long plastic tapes
coated with magnetic material.
ƒƒ Magnetic tapes can store far largest
amounts of data than the floppy
diskette.
ƒƒ Another popular storage medium
is the compact disk (CD). CDs are
‘optical’ medium.
ƒƒ Conventional CDs are made of a
special kind of plastic.
ƒƒ The CD is read using a laser beam.
INPUT/OUTPUT
• Devices that permit users to supply
information to the computer are called ‘input’
devices.
• The common input devices are keyboard
and mouse.
• Physical channel that permits a computer
to convey the processed information to the
outside world. Devices that permit such a
function are called ‘output’ devices.
• The common output devices are monitor,
printer and speakers.
• Output devices are indispensable, but are
not a part of the CPU. They are also called
peripheral devices.
• These devices are also called an interface,
because they translate information for
man and machine.
• Another way to input information into a
computer is to use an Optical Mark Reader
(OMR). Optical Mark Readers are capable
of reading specially prepared forms. These
forms have a provision for black marks
to be made using a pen or a pencil in a
specific position.
 454 General Knowledge  2020
• Most competitive examinations that deal
with a large number of students usually
use this system.
• Bank use another input device called a
Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR).
• Bar codes are often imprinted on products
in merchandise stores. A bar code consists
of several parallel vertical lines of different
thickness that represent the binary digits.
• The bits form a code that can be used to
identify the object on which the bar code
is imprinted. Bar code reader is used to
read the bar codes by detecting the bars
by using light.
• The mouse is a pointing device. It can be
gripped in the palm of the hand moved
over a horizontal surface. The motion of the
mouse can be monitored by the computer
in different ways.
• The movement is measured and transmitted
to the computer. This generates a
corresponding movement of on-screen mark
called a cursor from one option to another.
• Another, input device is a digital camera.
A digital camera has a circuit that is
sensitive to light.
• The two most common devices are the Visual
Display Unit (VDU) and the printer.
• A Visual Display Unit (VDU) uses a cathode
ray tube to display information.
• To represent any character, VDU illuminates
a particular pattern of these dots. These dots
are also known as pixels, a short form for
picture elements.
• Printers come in three popular versions:
dot matrix printers, ink-jet printers and
laser printers.
• Dot matrix printers print character in the
form of combinations of very tiny dots.
• Ink-jet printers spray jets of ink on the paper
to print any character.
• Laser printer uses a laser beam to actually
‘burn’ the characters on the paper.
• We need to issue the computer a detailed
sequence of instructions that it needs to
follow to operate upon any data. Such a
sequence is called a programme.
• A programme may directly be written to
the RAM or may be stored in some form of
secondary memory.
• Computer programs are written using special
languages called programming languages.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
• Machine language and the assembly language
are examples of low-level languages.
• A special programme called Assembler
converts all instructions into the binary format.
• Because all such instructions must finally
be converted to the binary form, all high-
level languages have their own translation
programs called compilers or interpreters.
• Examples of popular high-level languages
are–C, C++, JAVA, Pascal, Fortran, etc.
COMPUTER LANGUAGES
• Computer processes information under
instructions from the user which are given
to the computer by way of input.
• These instructions can be written in one of
various languages evolved over years.
There are two major types of programming
languages. These are Low-level Languages
and High-level Languages. Low-level
Languages are further divided into Machine
language and Assembly language.
Low-level languages: The term ‘low level’
means closeness to the way in which the
machine has been built. Low-level languages
are machine-oriented and require extensive
knowledge of computer hardware and its
configuration.
High-level Languages: Assembly language
and machine language require extensive
knowledge of computer hardware. To
overcome this limitation, a user writes the
instructions in English, like sentences to
perform the logic of the problem irrespective
of the type of computer you are using. The
language used for this is referred to as high-
level language.
Some high-level languages are:
(a) BASIC: Beginners’ All Purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code. Easy to learn.
(b) FORTRAN: Formula Translation was
the first computer language developed
by IBM in 1957. Used in engineering

and scientific applications. Syntax is
very rigid in FORTRAN.
(c) P A S C A L : Designed for teaching
computer science and used on small
computers and is better structured
than BASIC.
(d) COBOL: Common Business-oriented
Language is the most popular business
language for data processing. We use
this language even today for developing
programmes.
(e) C: It is a middle-level general-purpose
language. It is used both with UNIX and
DOS. Developed in Bell Laboratories in
early 1970s. C++ is C’s object-oriented
version.
THE WORLD WIDE WEB
• The web is organised like a library.
• It has websites and each website has a title
and a number to identify it.
• The title of a website is called a URL (Uniform
Resource Locator).
• It is easy to remember the URL of the website
than its number.
• The URL of a website is also called its
address.
Science and Technology 455
INTERNET
• Computers in an office are networked using
LAN (Local Area Network).
• Computers in different locations are con­
nected by WAN (Wide Area Network).
• Both these network systems are not for
public use and have limited usage.
• The Internet is a network of thousands of
networks.
• Millions of computer networks are connected
to the Internet network and are available
to the public.
• Internet was invented by American Depart­
ment of Defence in 1969.
SEARCH ENGINES
• These are websites available on the
Internet that provide information on any
topic that you want.
• Search engines contain a programme that
collects information from other websites.
• This information is then stored according
to the category it belongs to, e.g., websites
about music will be stored in a category
named Fine Arts. Examples of popular search
engines are Yahoo, Alta Vista and Google.
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