Communicating Risks v.5 - Jones10 10 2017

RUNNING HEAD: : COMMUNICATING RISKS
Communicating Risks: Factors Influencing Filipinos Living in High-Risk Areas to
Follow Pre-Emptive Evacuation Procedures
Jimwel B. Balunday
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts,
Major in Communication
Ateneo de Manila University

COMMUNICATING RISKS
2
COMMUNICATING RISKS: FACTORS INFLUENCING FILIPINOS LIVING IN
HIGH-RISK AREAS
Abstract
With recent mega disasters, risk communication has become one of the important areas in
disaster risk reduction. Pre-emptive evacuation has been a practice in the Philippines to
lessen the number of casualties. Risk perception as part of the risk communication
process was explored using the three predictors of the Theory of Planned Behavior. The
researcher surveyed 1,200 respondents from the provinces of Aurora, Eastern Samar, and
Davao Oriental of the Philippines regarding factors that influenced the participants to live
in high-risk areas. This study explored factors that include attitude towards being safe,
secured and comfortable, and acceptability of being called an evacuee; societal factors
that include local officials, friends, experts, television and radio; and perceived control
that includes difficulty and confidence in following evacuation and influences from
government, family and faith. The researcher explored the significance of socio-
demographic variables such as age, sex, civil status, income, education, home ownership,
living arrangement, awareness and knowledge on the proximity of the evacuation center.
Results were scored based on the recommendation of Francis and colleagues (2004),
statistical models such as factor analysis, data reliability test, and Ordinary Least Squares
(OLS) were used to examine the validity and relationships of factors. Overall, socio-
demographic determinants were significant in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures, with subjective Norms having the strongest positive impact on the desired
behavior. The respondents experienced the highest social pressure to the local officials;
however, level of importance of external referent differs across all the provinces. The
aggregated results showed strongest relationship of income, awareness of the evacuation
center and knowledge on the proximity of the evacuation center to the three predictors of
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the Theory of Planned Behavior, however, findings show nuances on the significance of
socio-demographic determinants unique to locations in the provinces. Results revealed
that the existing programs of the government on disaster management are focused more
on building awareness that helped in building the intention to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Risk communication strategies should be designed context
specific.
Keywords: Pre-emptive; Evacuation; Risk Communication
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: .......................................................................................................................... 1
Communication Flow during Emergencies and Disasters in the Philippines 2
Pre-Emptive Evacuation in the Philippines 5
Risk Communication in Disaster Management 7
Research Objectives / Research Questions 9
Scope and Limitation 11
Significance of Study 12
Ethical Consideration 21
Chapter 2: ........................................................................................................................ 22
Review of Related Literature 22
Typhoon Yolanda Related Studies 22
Risk Communication as a Process 25
Cultural and Socio-demographics Determinants 27
Attitude Towards Evacuation 33
Societal Factors 35
Mastery 41
Theory of Planned Behavior 42
Chapter 3: ........................................................................................................................ 44
Desired Behavior 45
Cultural and Socio-Demographics Determinants 46
Attitude towards Evacuation versus Attitude 46
Social Factors versus Subjective Norms 47
Mastery versus Perceived Behavioral Control 48
Chapter 4: ........................................................................................................................ 51
Background of the Study Area 51
Population 53
Data Gathering Instrument 54
Data Processing and Statistical Treatment 60
Threats to Data Reliability ........................................................................................ 62
Chapter 5: ........................................................................................................................ 70
Aurora Province 71
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Examination of Behavioral Intention: Aurora Province. 73
Respondents’ Overall Score Index on Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived
Behavioral Control: Aurora Province ....................................................................... 87
Factor Analysis 88
Statistical Analysis of Ordinary Least Regression Estimates (Model 1 to 3): Socio-
Demographic Determinants Impact to Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived
Behavioral Control 101
Estimation of Parameters: Aurora Province. .......................................................... 101
Statistical Analysis of the Factors that Significantly Affects the Intentions of Filipinos
to Follow Pre-emptive Evacuation Procedures (Model 4 and 5) 112
Estimation of Parameters: Aurora Province. .......................................................... 112
Cultural Determinants 116
Implications to Risk Communication 117
Eastern Samar Province 118
Examination of Behavioral Intention: Eastern Samar Province. 120
Examination of Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control:
Eastern Samar Province. ......................................................................................... 121
Behavioral Control: Eastern Samar ........................................................................ 135
Factor Analysis 136
Estimation of Parameters: Eastern Samar Province................................................ 148
Estimation of Parameters: Eastern Samar Province................................................ 159
Davao Oriental Province 165
Examination of Behavioral Intention: Davao Oriental Province. 167
Examination of Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control: Davao
Oriental Province. 168
Behavioral Control: Davao Oriental Province ........................................................ 180
Factor Analysis 181
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Estimation of Parameters: Davao Oriental Province .............................................. 194
Estimation of Parameters: Davao Oriental Province. ............................................. 205
Comparison Across Provinces 211
Examination of Behavioral Intention: Overall Results. 213
Aggregated Results. ................................................................................................ 215
Overall Scores: Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control:
Aggregated Results ................................................................................................. 233
Exploratory Factor Analysis of the study constructs 238
Estimation of Parameters: Overall Result ............................................................... 247
Chapter 6: ...................................................................................................................... 266
Summary of the Study 266
Summary of Findings 268
Implications277
Recommendations 279
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List of Figures
Figure 1. The NDRRMC Communication Flow, National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Operations Center (2016) .............................................................................. 3
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework .................................................................................... 50
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List of Tables
Table 1. Number of affected persons ................................................................................ 13
Table 2. Number of Casualties during Typhoon Pablo..................................................... 13
Table 3. Number of Affected Population during Typhoon Yolanda ................................ 15
Table 4. Number of Casualties during Typhoon Yolanda ................................................ 16
Table 5. Number of Affected Population during Typhoon Lando.................................... 18
Table 6. Number of Affected Population Casualties during Typhoon Lando .................. 19
Table 7. Sample Size......................................................................................................... 53
Table 8. Definitions and rule of thumb for structural diagnostics tests ............................ 67
Table 9. Distribution of Respondents According to Socio-demographic and Economic
Profile................................................................................................................................ 71
Table 10. Distribution of Respondents According to Awareness to Evacuation Facility 72
Table 11. Distribution of Respondents According to Behavioral Intention ..................... 73
Table 12. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on how difficult was it to make a
decision ............................................................................................................................. 74
Table 13. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on how likely they would feel
about evacuating: Aurora Province ................................................................................... 75
Table 14. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their Attitude towards the
Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation ............................................................................ 76
Table 15. Distribution of the Response of Respondents Agreement on Subjective Norms
relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation ................................................................................... 78
Table 16. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on the importance of
announcements when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation . 80
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Table 17. Distribution of the Response of Response of Respondents the difficulty of
following pre-emptive Evacuation procedure: Aurora Province ...................................... 81
Table 18. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their expectations relative to
pre-emptive evacuation: Aurora Province ........................................................................ 83
Table 19. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their agreement relative to
their confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Aurora Province ........... 84
Table 20. Distribution of the Response of Respondents Agreement on Perceived
Behavioral Control relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aurora Province ...................... 85
Table 21. Frequency Distribution of the Respondents on Information as Regards Media
Usage and Evacuation Experience: Aurora Province ....................................................... 87
Table 22. Overall Score Index on Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral
Control: Aurora Province.................................................................................................. 88
Table 23. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation ... 90
Table 24. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation 92
Table 25. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation:
Communalities .................................................................................................................. 93
Table 26. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms .................... 95
Table 27. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms towards
Preemptive Evacuation ..................................................................................................... 96
Table 28. Communalities of factors .................................................................................. 97
Table 29. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control . 99
Table 30. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control
......................................................................................................................................... 100
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Table 31. Communalities of factors Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control ........ 101
Table 32. Summary of estimated relationship between Socio-Demographic Determinants
and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. ...................................................................................................................... 107
Table 33. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3, using observations 1-411: Aurora
Province .......................................................................................................................... 109
Table 34. Summary of estimated relationship between Behavioral Intentions attributes
and Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral
Control. ........................................................................................................................... 114
Table 35. OLS for Econometric Models 4 and 5, using observations 1-411 .................. 114
Profile: Eastern Samar Province ..................................................................................... 119
Table 37. Distribution of Respondents According to Awareness and Behavioral Intention:
Eastern Samar Province .................................................................................................. 120
Table 38. Distribution of Respondents According to their Intention to Follow pre-emptive
evacuation: Province of Easter Samar ............................................................................ 120
decision: Eastern Samar Province ................................................................................... 121
about evacuating: Eastern Samar Province ..................................................................... 122
Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation: Eastern Samar Province ................................. 124
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relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Eastern Samar Province ........................................ 126
announcements when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation:
Eastern Samar Province .................................................................................................. 128
following pre-emptive Evacuation procedure: Eastern Samar Province ........................ 129
pre-emptive evacuation: Eastern Samar Province .......................................................... 131
their confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Eastern Samar Province
......................................................................................................................................... 132
relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Eastern Samar Province ........................................ 133
Usage and Evacuation Experience: Eastern Samar Province ......................................... 135
Control: Eastern Samar Province .................................................................................... 136
Table 50. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation . 138
Table 51. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation
......................................................................................................................................... 139
Table 52. Communalities ................................................................................................ 140
Table 53. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms .................. 143
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Preemptive Evacuation ................................................................................................... 144
Table 55. Communalities of factors ................................................................................ 145
Table 56. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control 146
......................................................................................................................................... 147
and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures in Eastern Samar Province ........................................................................... 154
Table 60. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3 , using observations 1-411: Eastern
Samar Province ............................................................................................................... 156
Control. ........................................................................................................................... 161
Table 63. Distribution of Respondents According to Sociodemographic and Economic
Profile: Davao Oriental Province .................................................................................... 165
Davao Oriental Province ................................................................................................. 166
evacuation: Davao Oriental Province ............................................................................. 167
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decision: Davao Oriental Province ................................................................................. 167
about evacuating: Davao Oriental Province ................................................................... 168
Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation: Davao Oriental Province ................................ 169
relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Davao Oriental Province ....................................... 172
Davao Oriental Province ................................................................................................. 173
following pre-emptive Evacuation procedure: Davao Oriental Province ....................... 174
pre-emptive evacuation: Davao Oriental Province ......................................................... 176
their confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Davao Oriental Province
......................................................................................................................................... 177
relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Davao Oriental Province ....................................... 178
Table 75. Frequency Distribution of the Respondents om Information as Regards Media
Usage and Evacuation Experience: Davao Oriental Province ........................................ 180
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Control: Davao Oriental Province .................................................................................. 181
Table 77. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation . 183
......................................................................................................................................... 183
Table 80. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms .................. 188
Preemptive Evacuation ................................................................................................... 189
Table 83. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control 192
......................................................................................................................................... 193
Control. ........................................................................................................................... 199
Table 87. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3 , using observations 1-411: Davao
Oriental Province ............................................................................................................ 202
Control. ........................................................................................................................... 206
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Profile: Total ................................................................................................................... 212
Province of Total............................................................................................................. 213
evacuation: Total............................................................................................................. 213
decision: Aggregated Results .......................................................................................... 214
Table 94. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on how difficult was it to make a
decision, by Locality ....................................................................................................... 214
about evacuating: Aggregated Result ............................................................................. 216
Table 96. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their Behavioral Beliefs towards
Evacuation Centers, by Locality ..................................................................................... 217
Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aggregated Result .......................................... 218
Table 98. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on Outcome Evaluation Towards
Evacuation, by Locality .................................................................................................. 219
relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aggregated Result ................................................. 221
Table 100. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on Social Pressure, by Locality 222
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Aggregated Result........................................................................................................... 224
Table 102. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their Motivation to Comply, by
Locality ........................................................................................................................... 226
following pre-emptive Evacuation procedure: Aggregated Result................................. 227
Table 104. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents Difficulty to Follow Pre-Emptive
Evacuation Procedure, by Locality ................................................................................. 227
pre-emptive evacuation: Aggregated Result ................................................................... 229
decision, by Locality ....................................................................................................... 230
their confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Aggregated Result ...... 230
Table 108. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their agreement relative to their
confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures .............................................. 231
relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aggregated Result ................................................. 232
Table 110. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their agreement on the influence
of encouragement on their decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures, by
Locality ........................................................................................................................... 233
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Control: Aggregated Result ............................................................................................ 234
Table 112. Overall Scores: Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral
Control, by locality ......................................................................................................... 236
Usage and Evacuation Experience: Aggregated Result .................................................. 237
Table 114. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation 239
......................................................................................................................................... 240
Table 116. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms ................ 243
Pre-emptive Evacuation .................................................................................................. 244
Table 118. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control
......................................................................................................................................... 246
......................................................................................................................................... 247
Table 120. Summary of estimated relationship between Socio-Demographic
Determinants and Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and Perceived
Behavioral Control. ......................................................................................................... 254
Table 121. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3 using observations 1-1200:
Aggregated Result........................................................................................................... 256
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Control. ........................................................................................................................... 262
Table 123. OLS for Econometric Models 4 and 5, using observations 1-411 ................ 262
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Chapter 1: Commented [1]: Page numbers are not centered on
bottom. Please check format
Introduction
Natural hazards events cause disasters with unique impacts on populations,
economy, and the environment. The Philippines ranks 3rd in the World Risk Index as
most prone to all hazards, including those that are human induced (Garschagen et al.,
2015). According to Germanwatch Global Climate Risk Index, from 1995 to 2014, the
Philippines had a long-term climate risk index of 19.00, which came from specific
indicators such as death toll, losses, and number of events; the country ranked fourth out
of 10 countries most affected by extreme weather events (Kreft et al., 2016). From 1970-
2015, the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) tallied
880 tropical cyclones that entered the Philippine Area of Responsibility; 341 of these
were destructive in terms of impacts to the populace. Since 1970, tropical cyclones
claimed 33,673 lives and injured 72,967; 10,887 are still missing. Tropical cyclones have
affected 38.8 million families (194.1 million persons) and brought a total of PhP524.7B
damages to agriculture, infrastructure, and private properties.
Risk communication, as an integral factor in disaster risk reduction (DRR), forms
part of the perception of risk and influences action in terms of disaster preparedness and
for emergency response (Shaw, Takeuchi, & Matsuura, 2011). Risk communication, as a
practice, is an interactive process of exchange of information and opinion on risk among
all stakeholders, specifically among risk assessors and risk managers (World Health
Organization, 2014). According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(n.d.), risk communication aims to build dialogue between risk assessors and the public.
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Aside from increasing awareness and building mutual trust with all stakeholders, a
successful risk communication approach is measured by examining how the risk
communication translated into actions of prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and
emergency response. According to the Hyogo Framework of Action of the United
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (2007), under priority number 5,
impacts and losses can be reduced if authorities, individuals, and communities in hazard-
prone areas are well-prepared and ready to act and are equipped with the knowledge and
capacities for effective disaster management.
With recent mega disasters, risk communication has become an important area in
disaster risk reduction. Previous research (Smillie & Blissett, 2010) described effective
communication relative to media as channel, audience as the recipient, and science as the
basis of information. Haimes (2012) studied risk communication as a practice in disaster
preparedness and emergency response as part of holistic disaster risk reduction and
management. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2013) claimed
that successful risk communication should strengthen the utilization of media, including
social media, traditional media, big data, and mobile phone networks (The United Nation
Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015).
Communication Flow during Emergencies and Disasters in the Philippines
Republic Act 10121, or the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Act of 2010, was promulgated to strengthen disaster risk reduction in the Philippines. The
established coordinating councils from the national down to the local level will be known
as the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Council. The DRRM Council
Network is made up of 18 Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils,
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81 Provincial Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Councils, 144 City Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Councils, 1,490 Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Councils, and 42,027 Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Committees.
As mandated by Republic Act 10121, all councils shall establish the National
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center (NDRRMOC), an operating
facility that will perform disaster operations and give out warnings.
Figure 1 shows the information flow of the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council. Warning alerts or advisories will come from mandated
government agencies: hydro-metrological hazard warnings from the Department of
Science and Technology - Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (DOST-PAGASA), geophysical-related hazard warnings from
the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), terrorism
warnings from the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), human epidemic warnings
from the Department of Health (DOH), animal epidemic warnings from the Department
of Agriculture – Bureau of Animal Industry (DA-BAI), civil disturbance warnings from
the Philippine National Police (PNP), pest infestation warnings from Department of
Agriculture (DA), and radiological and nuclear hazard warnings from the Department of
Science and Technology - Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (DOST-PNRI). Warning
alerts or advisories will be forwarded to the NDRRMOC / Office of Civil Defense (OCD)
and forwarded to DRRM Council networks until these warnings reach the public, media
and the President of the Philippines. Warning alerts or advisories will be disseminated
through SMS and facsimile to Regional DRRM Councils/OCD Regional Centers and will
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be uploaded to the NDRRMC website (www.ndrrmc.gov.ph). The Regional DRRM
Councils/OCD Regional Centers will further disseminate the received warning alerts or
advisories to Local DRRM Councils from the provincial down to the municipal levels.
These councils will then undertake preparedness measures.
Figure 1. The NDRRMC Communication Flow, National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Operations Center (2016)
Source: National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council
The Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center at all levels will
develop a situational report detailing actions taken, including preparedness measures and
effects. The situational report will be forwarded to their respective higher DRRM
Councils through Short Message Service (SMS), electronic mail and facsimile.
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Surveillance agencies and the OCD will also conduct a series of press conferences about
hazard updates and its effects for the general public.
Pre-Emptive Evacuation in the Philippines
Evacuation is considered a basic preparedness measure (UNISDR, n.d.). In this
study, the researcher adopted the definition of preventive evacuation by Bas Kolen
(2012), which is the organization and the movement of people from a potentially exposed
area to a safe location outside this area before the beginning of flood.
The enforcement of pre-emptive evacuation has been a practice in the Philippines
as a part of disaster management. The NDRRMC (then the National Disaster
Coordinating Council) issued directive no. 24, s. 2003 entitled “Zero Casualty” During
Calamities to ensure that the Philippines is fully prepared for incoming hazards. The
achievement of zero-casualties became the aim of both national and local government
units in the Philippines as stipulated in their advisories and bulletins. To support the
directive, the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) issued
Memorandum Circular 2003-114, enabling the use of police powers to force the
evacuation of residents along riverbanks to prevent casualties during typhoons and heavy
rains. However, these policies and schemes plus warnings have not deterred people from
living in high risk areas, and some people still insist on staying at home during disasters
(Cruz, 2013).
Local governments attribute their success in disaster management to successful
pre-emptive evacuation of people living in high risk areas and acknowledge that pre-
emptive evacuation lessens the loss of lives. Albay, a prominent province in disaster
management in the Philippines, attained zero death tolls because of pre-emptive
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evacuation of residents during Typhoon Glenda, which killed 101 persons elsewhere in
the Philippines (Aquino, 2014). Dubbed as the “Albay Model” by the Philippine Daily
Inquirer (Andrade, 2014), Albay attained 17 years of zero-casualty from 1995-2011
(except for Typhoon Milenyo in 2006 and Typhoon Reming in 2011) because of its
practice of pre-emptive evacuation.
The concept of pre-emptive evacuation is part of both disaster prevention and
mitigation and disaster preparedness in the Philippines. Surveillance agencies provide
risk assessments, and these need to be turned into action by the local chief executive, who
needs to advise residents living in low-lying and coastal areas to follow pre-emptive
evacuation (Pama, 2014). The risk assessment allows the local government to enforce
pre-emptive evacuation procedures if a tropical cyclone is forecast to hit their area of
responsibility. However, researchers (Güss & Pangan, 2004) cited factors that influence
people to evacuate during the Mt. Pinatubo eruption such as “Kanya-kanya syndrome”
(i.e. every man for himself), “pakikipagkapwa” (being in harmony with others), “utang na
loob” (debt of gratitude), and “bahala na” (accepting a given situation). Previous studies
have also identified the importance of evacuation procedures (Cadag & Gaillard, 2011;
Lagmay & Arcilla, n.d).
Lagmay and Arcilla (n.d.) studied lessons from Tropical Storm Ondoy and
Typhoon Peping, both of which caused high death tolls and caused billions of damages to
property. The researchers cited the importance of flood evacuation drills that should be
conducted regularly, as well as the construction of safe evacuation platforms. However,
the researchers did not focus on the effectivity of their recommendations.
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Cadag and Gaillard (2011) studied integrating knowledge and actions in disaster
risk reduction in a project conducted in the municipality of Masantol, Philippines. The
researchers cited the importance of conducting evacuation drills and identification of
evacuation centers. However, researchers did not specify limitations in terms of the
number of evacuation sites and behavior of the population.
Most research focused on risk communication on the national level, which cannot
be utilized for localized integration of risk communication due to the differences in
cultures of local audiences. However, there is a limited number of studies related to
understanding the behavior of Filipinos in following evacuation procedures. This
research aims to describe behavioral intentions through factors that influence the
decisions of Filipinos in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The findings of
this study will help the disaster managers in designing risk communication strategies
specifically at the local level.
Risk Communication in Disaster Management
Previous studies in risk communication were concerned with understanding
external factors such as the role of media as channel, and science as the basis of
information. Risk perception studies focused on the characteristics of individual
judgment towards risk. Previous research studied recommended practical risk
communication practices (Kellens et al., 2013) such as giving concrete examples of what
might be the disaster effects (De Boer, 2007); improving dialogue with experts (Rød et
al., 2012a); and having unified procedures in defining communication process, flow, and
structure (Palttala et al., 2012). Further, researchers studied the importance of age
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(Kellens et al., 2012) and the delivery of science-based information (Tuler et al., 2012) in
risk perception.
Practices in science such as risk modeling (Haimes, 2012), risk appraisal (Smillie
& Blissett, 2010), disaster risk communication model for both modern knowledge and
indigenous knowledge (Nyathi, 2013), and the risk communication process in general
(Takeuchi et al., 2012) analyzed risk communication using an interdependent systems-
based approach (Haimes, 2012). Research shows that risk communication needs to be
designed for a specific group and toward specific actions (Zimmerman et al., 2010), and
emergencies need an appropriate response (Eisenman et al., 2007; Reynolds & Seeger,
2005; Tinker, 2013; Zimmerman et al., 2010).
Researchers analyzed factors to improve risk communication as a process (De
Boer, 2007; Haimes, 2012; Kellens et al., 2013; Palttala et al., 2012; Reynolds & Seeger,
2005) by understanding factors in influencing perceived risk such as cultural norms
(Clerveaux et al., 2008; Güss & Pangan, 2004; Larsons et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013;
Zimmerman et al., 2010), Attitude towards evacuation (Kolens, 2012; Rosenkeotter et al.,
2007; Stein, Osorio, & Subramanian, 2010; Tsujiuchi et al., 2016), societal factors
(Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Misha, Suar, & Paton, 2011; Takeuchi et al.,
2012; Tinker, 2013; Tuler et al., 2012; Shi et al., 2011; Smillie & Blissett, 2010; Stein et
al., 2010; Piotrowski, 2015; Rød et al., 2012a; Rosenkeotter et al., 2007; Wood et al.,
2012), and mastery to perform the desired behavior (Misha et al., 2011) that are affected
by socio-demographic variables (Eisenman et al., 2007; Kellens et al., 2012; Lim , Lim,
Piantanakulchai, & Uy, 2016; RØd et al., 2012b; Stein, Guven, Osorio, & Subramanian,
2014; Stein et al., 2014;).
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Despite the wide array of studies in risk communication in disaster management,
there is still a growing population that is not familiar with risk, particularly in the
Philippines. The growing numbers of casualties and damages in the Philippines
underscore the importance of risk communication. Studies, particularly in risk perception
and disaster prevention and mitigation, have identified science as a vital information
provider in risk communication (Haimes, 2012; Nyathi, 2013; Shi et al., 2011; Smillie &
Blissett, 2010; Takeuchi et al., 2012); however, the population at risk still needs
motivation in order to act on a disaster (Misha et al., 2011).
Researchers have also studied factors affecting the population during disasters
(Eisenman et al., 2007; Reynolds & Seeger, 2005; Tinker, 2013; Zimmerman et al.,
2010). These factors were identified but needed further studies in order to integrate in
preparing an effective risk communication messages.
Risk Perception is the ability to discern the amount of risk (Inouye, 2014). Risk
Perception describes the importance of integrating knowledge and actions in disaster risk
reduction (Cadag & Gaillard, 2011) and requires framing approaches to identify beliefs,
perception, and appreciation (De Boer, 2007).
Most research focused on risk communication in the Philippines is on the national
level, which cannot be utilized for localized integration of risk communication due to the
differences of local audiences. Further, there are a limited number of studies related to
understanding the behavior of Filipinos in following evacuation procedures.
Risk Communication in the Philippines
The strengthening of disaster risk reduction and management of the Philippines
started when Republic Act 10121 or the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and
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Management Act of 2010 was promulgated into a law. The NDRRMC, being
empowered with policy-making, coordination, integration, supervision, monitoring and
evaluation functions, shall establish a national early warning and emergency alert system
to provide accurate and timely advice to national or local emergency response
organizations and also to the entire population through mass media.
The communication process in the Philippines starts with science-based agencies
or the surveillance agencies through a process called Pre-Disaster Risk Assessment
(Pama, 2014); wherein Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council from all levels
convene to evaluate hazards to discuss possible impacts. At the council level, decision
must be made on whether there will be an enforcement of pre-emptive evacuation but
actions will be dependent to the Local Government Units as the frontline pursuant to the
Local Government Code of 1991. As a policy, a directive was issued by the NDRRMC
and supported by the DILG regarding attaining zero-casualty through conduct of pre-
emptive measures before and during emergencies and disasters.
A sound risk assessment of hazard allows decision makers to implement measures
in order to prevent and mitigate the impacts of the hazards. Science-based information
must be translated into actions of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and emergency
response.
Given the established process of communication and institutionalized policies, the
Philippines still experiences disasters. Science-based warnings were not sufficient to
deter people from living in high risk areas and to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures.
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Risk communication promotes strategies, approaches and methodologies in
communicating risk to the target audience; however, few studies were conducted in the
improving risk communication in the Philippines specifically understanding the target
audience.
The NDRRMC recorded varying impacts of disasters throughout the Philippines
from 1970 up to date. An effective communication strategy must be hazard-specific, area-
focused and time-bound (Pama, 2014).
Background of Study Sites
Risk Communication aims to prepare the population, provide information that can
be the basis of people in their actions and to mitigate harm from emergencies and
disasters. However, casualties were accounted in Baganga, Davao Oriental during
Typhoon Pablo in 2012, Guiuan, Eastern Samar during Typhoon Yolanda in 2013 and
Casiguran, Aurora during Typhoon Lando in 2015. This revealed the need to improve
risk communication strategies in these areas.
Typhoon Pablo and Davao Oriental. Davao Oriental of Davao Region (Region
XI) is a 1st class province located in the eastern most part of the Philippines. Davao
Oriental is the biggest province in Mindanao, at 5,164 square kilometers. Davao Oriental
is composed of 10 municipalities, 1 city, and 183 barangays, and is organized into 2
districts. As of August 2015, the population of Davao Oriental reached 558,958. Most
parts of Davao Oriental face the Pacific Ocean, exposing it to tropical cyclones.
Typhoon Pablo (international name: Bopha) was considered the 3rd worst
typhoon that made landfall in the Mindanao area in the last 45 years and was the most
destructive typhoon in 2012 (NDRRMC, 2013). Pablo entered the Philippine Area of
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Responsibility with the category of typhoon on December 2, 2012, threatening Davao
Oriental and Surigao del Sur. Typhoon Pablo retained its strength as it made landfall over
Baganga, Davao Oriental and traversed the provinces of Bukidnon, Negros Oriental and
Palawan. Typhoon Pablo stayed in the Philippine Area of Responsibility until December
9, with the highest recorded maximum sustained winds of 185 kph and gustiness up to
220 kph. Typhoon Pablo weakened into a Low Pressure Area before it exited the
Philippines.
PAGASA issued the initial advisory on Typhoon Pablo the day before it entered
the Philippine Area of Responsibility.
Typhoon Pablo affected 1,285,242 families or 5,704,005 persons in 3,391
barangays, 359 municipalities and cities, and 33 provinces in 10 regions (IV-B, VI, VII,
VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, CARAGA and ARMM).
Table 1. Number of affected persons due to Typhoon Pablo?

Region Province Barangays Families Persons
IV-B 1 40 1,242 6,060
VI 3 70 2,402 8,627
VII 4 283 18,861 90,442
VIII 3 32 1,356 5,884
IX 3 24 957 3,624
X 5 592 117,221 523,194
XI 4 1,162 986,733 4,295,416
XII 3 62 12,674 62,818
CARAGA 5 429 92,624 451,708
ARMM 2 697 51,172 256,232
Total 33 3,391 1,285,242 5,704,005
Table 1 shows the number of affected persons during the onslaught of Typhoon
Pablo. Around 75.31% of the people affected came from the Davao Region.
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Typhoon Pablo (Bopha) was considered the deadliest typhoon in 2012. Typhoon
Pablo killed 4,569 persons, injured 2,916 and rendered 797 missing persons.
Table 2. Number of Casualties during Typhoon Pablo

Region Dead Missing Injured
IV-B 3 - 7
VI 1 - -
VII 10 17 -
VIII 3 3 -
IX 1 - -
X 15 46 -
XI 1,188 2,777 480
XII 8 - 312
CARAGA 19 69 -
ARMM - 4 -
TOTAL 1,248 2916 799
Table 2 shows the number of casualties during Typhoon Pablo. Davao Region tallied the
most number of deaths at 1,188 or 95.19% of the total fatalities. According to the
Department of Health, most deaths were caused by severe trauma due to fallen trees and
debris (61%), drowning (18%), and multiple injuries secondary to trauma (8%).
Based on the NDRRMC Situation Report, Typhoon Pablo left a total amount of
PhP11,708,513,050.00 damages, including major damage in agriculture
(PhP8,889,738,250.00) and infrastructure (PhP2,818,774,800.00).
Typhoon Yolanda and Guiuan, Eastern Samar. Eastern Samar of the Eastern
Visayas Region (Region VIII) is a 1st class province that occupies a total land area of
4,470.75 square kilometers. Eastern Samar faces the Pacific Ocean and is normally the
entry point of tropical cyclones. As of August 2015, Eastern Samar has a total population
of 467,160 living in 1 city, 22 municipalities, and 597 barangays.
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Typhoon Yolanda (international name: Haiyan) was the 23rd tropical cyclone that
entered the Philippine Area of Responsibility in 2013. According to the NDRRMC, it is
considered as one of the strongest and most disastrous tropical cyclones that made
landfall in the Philippines. Typhoon Yolanda reached 195 kph in sustained winds and 230
kph gustiness when it entered the Philippines on November 6, 2013. On November 7,
Typhoon Yolanda intensified at 235 kph near the center with gustiness of 275 kph. Public
Storm Warning Signal 4, which was the highest warning signal then, was raised over in
the Provinces of Samar and Leyte.
At 4:40 AM of November 8, the PAGASA, the National Meteorological
Hydrological Services agency of the Philippines recorded that Typhoon Yolanda made
landfall over Guiuan, Eastern Samar, crossed over the Visayas region, exited through the
landmass of Busuanga, Northern Palawan, and finally exited the Philippine Area of
Responsibility on the evening of November 9.
President Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino III in a special broadcast on November 7,
2013 urged the Filipino people to follow warnings issued by PAGASA, including the
storm surge warning that killed thousands of people.
According to Y It Happened (Lessons from Typhoon Yolanda), a book published
by the NDRRMC on 2015, pre-emptive evacuation procedures were put in place in
Eastern Samar, Leyte (including Tacloban City), Surigao del Norte (Gigaquit), and
Misamis Oriental (Gingoog City) on November 7. According to the National Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management Operations Center, pre-emptive evacuation procedures
were put in place in 37 provinces, 38 cities, and 215 municipalities across Regions IV-A,
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IV-B, V, VI, VII, VIII, X, and XI, and tallied a total of 161,973 families or 792,018
persons.
Table 3. Number of Affected Population during Typhoon Yolanda

IV-A 5 168 5,935 27,076
IV-B 5 793 101,006 466,120
V 6 1,229 150,889 692,020
VI 6 3,176 840,557 3,873,028
VII 4 2,136 1,299,436 5,909,955
VIII 6 4,387 1,006,718 5,015,434
X 4 26 4,253 19,592
XI 3 19 1,000 5,000
XIII 5 205 14,799 69,956
Total 44 12,139 3,424,593 16,078,181
Table 3 shows the number of families and persons affected by Typhoon Yolanda
in 12,139 barangays, 591 municipalities, 57 cities, 44 provinces, and 9 regions. Around
36.76% of the total affected population came from Region VII, the highest of all the
provinces.
At the height of Typhoon Yolanda, a total of 1,687 evacuation centers were
opened, and 90,972 families or 430,041 persons were served. According to Y It
Happened (2015), due to the strength of the typhoon, many evacuation centers (which are
mostly schools, day care centers and other government facilities) were damaged and
endangered displaced populations.
Some residents refused to evacuate to protect their houses, which pushed Local
Government Units to conduct Forcible Evacuation Procedures. In this situation, the
residents who refused to evacuate were asked to sign a waiver absolving local
government from any responsibility (NDRRMC, 2014).
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Typhon Yolanda (Haiyan) is considered the “new normal”, as the strongest
typhoon ever recorded to make landfall, and due to its characteristics as tropical cyclone
and impacts (De Jesus, 2013). Yolanda outranked Tropical Storm Uring (international
name: Thelma) in 1991, which caused the Ormoc City Tragedy (Region VIII); Typhoon
Sendong (international name: Washi) in 2011; Typhoon Pablo (international name:
Bopha) in 2012; and Typhoon Nitang (international name: Ike) in 1984.
Table 4. Number of Casualties during

Typhoon Yolanda
IV-A 3 - 4
IV-B 19 24 61
V 6 - 21
VI 294 28 2,067
VII 74 5 348
VIII 5,902 1,005 26,186
IX 1 - 1
XIII 1 - -
TOTAL 6,300 1,062 28,688
Table 4 shows the number of casualties caused by Typhoon Yolanda. Of the total
number of dead, 93% came from Region VIII. According to the Department of Health,
most deaths were due to drowning and trauma.
Most of the deaths were due to storm surge or the sudden increase in sea water
level associated with the passage of Typhoon Yolanda (NDRRMC, 2014). The storm
surges reached 5-7 meters in height in Samar and Leyte provinces, claiming thousands of
lives. In Tacloban City, Leyte, alone, 2,678 persons died, most of them due to storm
surge.
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Typhoon Yolanda left PhP5,387,757,077.93 worth of damage in agriculture
(PhP1,504,206,113.56), infrastructure (PhP702,625,045.53), and private properties
(PhP3,180,925,918.84).
Public and local governments were warned ahead of time about Typhoon Yolanda
but many were not alarmed because of their experience with previous typhoons
(NDRRMC, 2015). A storm surge warning was also included in the warning but people
purportedly did not know its meaning and possible impacts (NDRRMC, 2015).
Some municipalities along the path of Typhoon Yolanda, especially those by the
coasts, conducted pre-emptive evacuation (NDRRMC, 2015). One of these was Guiuan,
Eastern Samar.
Typhoon Lando and Aurora. Aurora Province of Central Luzon (Region III) has
a total land area of 323,954 hectares. The provinces of Isabela, Quirino, Nueva Ecija and
Quezon border Aurora Province. Aurora Province is composed of 8 municipalities and
151 barangays, with the Municipality of Baler as the provincial capital. As of August
2015, the population of Aurora province reached 214,336 persons. Typhoon Lando
(international name: Koppu) entered the Philippine Area of Responsibility with the
category of Tropical Storm on October 14, 2015. Tropical Storm Lando intensified into a
Severe Tropical Storm on October 15 while threatening the Provinces of Isabela and
Cagayan (Region II). Lando was upgraded into a typhoon on October 6 as it continued to
move towards the Aurora – Isabela Provinces. Typhoon Lando made landfall in the
Municipality of Casiguran, Aurora Province at about 1:00 AM, October 18. As Typhoon
Lando traversed the landmass of Luzon it became weak and became a Low Pressure Area
in the afternoon of October 21.
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Typhoon Lando stayed in the Philippine Area of Responsibility for 8 days and
reached maximum sustained winds of 185 kph near the center, with gustiness up to 220
kph. Typhoon Lando was considered as the most destructive tropical cyclone of 2015,
affecting Regions I, II, III, IV-A, V, NCR, and CAR.
The NDRRMC conducted a pre-disaster risk assessment, or a process to evaluate
hazards to discuss possible impacts of Typhoon Lando, on October 14. President Benigno
S. Aquino III addressed the nation to prepare for Typhoon Lando after a meeting on
October 16.
Based on risk assessment, some municipalities ordered pre-emptive evacuation
procedures on October 14. A total of 5,426 persons or 23,993 families were pre-
emptively evacuated in Regions I, II, III, IV-A and CAR in anticipation of floods, strong
winds, storm surge and landslide. A total of 106 evacuation centers (schools, multi-
purpose halls, barangay halls and other government facilities) were opened to
accommodate families who evacuated before landfall.
Table 5. Number of Affected Population during Typhoon Lando

NCR - 7 1,431 6,696
I 4 1,378 264,305 1,126,326
II 5 637 87,425 390,491
III 7 1,298 365,035 1,532,331
IV-A 4 82 8,476 41,860
V 2 6 57 227
CAR 6 115 6,423 28,199
Total 28 3,523 733,152 3,126,130
Table 5 shows the number of families and persons affected by Typhoon Lando in
3,523 barangays, 294 municipalities, 23 cities, 28 provinces, and 7 regions. Around
49.02% of the total affected population came from Region III.
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Typhoon Lando caused 58 fatalities in regions I, II, III, IV-A, CAR and NCR.
Typhoon Lando was comparable to Typhoon Nona (international name: Koppu) that
affected Regions III, IV-B, V and VIII; however, Typhoon Lando left highest number of
casualties at 28 injured and 4 missing persons.
Table 6. Number of Affected Population

Casualties during Typhoon Lando
I 10 1 15
II 6 - 13
III 16 - 47
IV-A 2 - -
CAR 22 3 7
NCR 2 - 5
TOTAL 58 4 87
Table 6 shows the number of casualties caused by Typhoon Lando. CAR shared
the largest number of deaths, at 37.93%. According to the Department of Health,
drowning was still the leading cause of death.
The damages left by Typhoon Lando totaled PhP684, 780,473.60, including
agricultural (PhP603, 673,473.60) and infrastructure (PhP81, 107,000.00) damages.
Research Objectives / Research Questions
This research aims to measure risk perception and its attributes relative to pre-
emptive evacuation and will answer the following questions:
1.) What is the highest factor that influences the intentions of Filipinos to follow
pre-emptive evacuation procedures ?
a. What is the highest factor that influences the intentions of residents of
Casiguran, Aurora to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures?
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b. What is the highest factor that influences the intentions of residents of
Guiuan, Eastern Samar to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures?
c. What is the highest factor that influences the intentions of residents of
Baganga, Davao Oriental to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures?
2.) What are the relationships of factors affecting the intentions of Filipinos to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures?
a. What are the relationships of factors affecting the intentions of
residents of Casiguran, Aurora to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures?
b. What are the relationships of factors affecting the intentions of
residents of Guiuan, Eastern Samar to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures?
c. What are the relationships of factors affecting the intentions of
residents of Baganga, Davao Oriental to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures ?
3.) How can these findings be used to create disaster communication plans unique
to the needs and profile of each location?
Identifying the highest factor of Filipinos to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures can help create a risk communication plan. The data gathered can be a basis
for crafting policies, resolutions, and memoranda to address the immediate needs of
Filipinos at risk.
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Scope and Limitation
This study was conducted to determine the highest factor that influences the
intention of Filipinos to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures in the provinces of
Aurora, Eastern Samar, and Davao Oriental. The Provinces of Aurora, Eastern Samar and
Davao Oriental are seated in the Eastern Seaboard of the Philippines, which are
considered to be the entry points of tropical cyclones. The Province of Aurora
experienced the maximum strength of Typhoon Lando (international name: Koppu) in
2015, which left massive devastation to the province; the Province of Guiuan, Eastern
Samar experienced the maximum strength of Typhoon Yolanda (international name:
Haiyan) in 2013, which is considered to be the strongest typhoon that made landfall to
date ; and the Province of Davao Oriental experienced the maximum strength of Typhoon
Pablo (international name: Bopha) in 2012.
This study was designed to analyze the relationship of the identified factors that
affect the intention of Filipinos to follow pre-emptive evacuation. The findings of this
study will help policy makers in crafting policies and in designing risk communication
strategies specifically at the local level.
The researcher acknowledges that the results of this study will not ensure the
actual performance of the desired behavior (following pre-emptive evacuation procedures
due to changing situations in emergencies and disasters); however, factors will form part
of the risk perception that can influence the desired behavior and can be used in
developing a risk communication strategy.
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Significance of Study
Given the scant research in the field of Risk Communication in the Philippines,
this study will provide a comprehensive analysis in determining the factors influencing
people to evacuate. Data gathered can be the basis of both government and non-
government institutions in crafting a risk communication strategies and interventions
urging people to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Moreover, this study will
benefit policy makers and workers in disaster risk reduction in the Philippines through
analyzing the level of difficulty of people in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures.
Data from this study can be a reference in developing policies, memoranda, and
also programs, action plans, and activities including media usage of the population during
emergencies and disasters, which can be the main channel of the government in
delivering weather advisories and updates.
Ethical Consideration
Research Ethics Office of the Office of the Associate Dean for Research and
Creative Work of the Ateneo de Manila University reviewed the protocols of this study.
This study has been considered exempted through correspondence with the Ethics office
in a letter dated 10 April 2016, and with the understanding that no identifiable
information will be obtained from the respondents. Respondents were given full and
informed consent, and were allowed to withdraw their participation without penalty.
The researcher solicited the assistance of the Department of the Interior and Local
Government and Office of Civil Defense in obtaining respondents, and ensured voluntary
participation of the respondents.
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Chapter 2:
Review of Related Literature
This chapter will review literature in studies related to Typhoon Yolanda in 2013.
Further, this chapter will review literature in factors influencing peoples’ behavior toward
evacuation: risk communication as a process, cultural and socio-demographic factors, risk
perception, societal factors, and mastery to perform the desired behavior. No studies
related to Typhoon Lando and Typhoon Pablo related to risk communication were found.
Typhoon Yolanda Related Studies
Santiago and Roxas (2015) studied Typhoon Yolanda as an opportunity for
sustainable reconstruction. Researchers examined the Office of the Presidential Assistant
for Rehabilitation and Recovery’s (OPARR) Yolanda Comprehensive Rehabilitation and
Recovery Plan (CRRP), which incorporates best practices in reconstruction, and
rehabilitation. Santiago and Roxas (2015) explained that the current standards for human
habitat systems are no longer adequate due to climate change and a need to shift resource
investment into disaster preparedness. However, researchers did not discuss the
importance of fund utilization and implementation challenges of the CRRP that can be a
hurdle in the sustainable reconstruction of Typhoon Yolanda affected areas.
Kure and colleagues (2016) examined the characteristics of the human losses and
building damage and the relationship of human loss and the evacuation environment in
the coastal region of Leyte during Typhoon Yolanda. The researchers conducted two
surveys with 642 respondents on 14-22 March 2014 after Typhoon Yolanda and Typhoon
Ruby in Tacloban, Palo and Tanuan, Leyte. Researchers found that the Barangay
Captains were giving orders to people to evacuate. Researchers explained that Barangay
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Captains delivered the information by walking through their barangays and asking people
to evacuate to schools. Kure and colleagues (2016) explained that facilities and buildings
used in evacuation were inappropriate for storm surges and strong winds. Researchers
acknowledged that successful evacuation can save many lives and an evacuation plan is
essential. Although the researchers discussed the importance of evacuation, socio-
demographic variables should also be considered for profiling.
Hilvano and colleagues (2016) studied household disaster resiliency following
Typhoon Yolanda. Researchers conducted a survey, key informant interview, and focus
group discussions with 114 households in the Island of Manicani, Eastern Samar about
their coping strategies (disaster mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery).
Researchers suggested a need to strengthen the capital assets of the households, use of
radio as an effective tool to educate people living in small islands, and continuous
information and education campaign on potential hazards and risk to lessen the disaster
impacts on lives and properties. However, researchers need to look into the roles of local
government units in building household disaster resiliency.
Alcantara (2014) examined lessons learned from the Philippine government’s
response to Typhoon Yolanda and analyzed the positive points and areas for
improvement based on government’s disaster response in relation to emergency
management principles. Alcantara (2014) explained the importance of coordination,
investment in emergency management capabilities, emergency planning and plans, and
crisis communication in response to Typhoon Yolanda. The researcher acknowledged the
governmentś response but the roles of population in emergency management should also
be considered.
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Kure, Jikibi, Iuchi & Udo (2016) studied the characteristics of human damage due
to storm surge brought by Typhoon Haiyan in Tacloban, Palo and Tanauan. Kure and
colleagues (2016) explained human losses occurred due to lack of knowledge on “storm
surge”; however, the efforts of barangay captains to lead the evacuation lessen the
casualties. The researchers suggested that evacuation during typhoon should be the
priority to save lives of at risk populations. However, the researchers should also gather
the socio-demographic to support the findings in this study.
Esteban and colleagues (2016) studied storm surge awareness in the Philippines
before Typhoon Yolanda through a comparative analysis with tsunami awareness. The
researchers conducted structured questionnaire and focus group interviews with local
residents of Vietnam and the Philippines to gain the understanding of the level of
awareness about storm surges. Researchers explained that people were not able to clearly
conceptualize the phenomenon of storm surge as they described it as “tsunami”. Esteban
and colleagues (2016) suggested creating multi-layer safety strategies and improving the
communication process to local residents. Although researchers explained that local
residents perceived storm surges as tsunami, looking into the profile of the respondents
should be considered.
Previous researchers (Alcantara, 2014; Esteban, Valenzuela, Matsumaru, Mikami,
Shibayama et al., 2016; Hilvano, Nelson, Coladilla & Rebancos, 2016;Kure, Jikibi, Iuchi
& Udo, 2016; Kure, Jibiki, Quimpo, Manalo, Ono et al., 2016; Santiago & Roxas, 2015)
analyzed Typhoon Yolanda relative to its impact to the population. However, the
researchers should identify the factors that affected the decisions of the target audience to
evacuate during Typhoon Yolanda.
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Risk Communication as a Process
Kellens and colleagues (2013) systematically reviewed published research from
22 countries on flood risk perception and communication from the Web of Science and
Scopus databases. Kellens and colleagues (2013) explained that there is a need to
improve measurement instruments due to limited theoretical background in flood-risk
communication. The researchers found that there are a few studies that recommended
practical flood-risk communication. However, the researchers selected only 57 studies,
and with limited selection criteria, which may affect the generalizability of their work.
De Boer (2007) studied how to improve risk communication by sense-making and
framing approaches to identify beliefs, perception, and appreciation. The researcher
analyzed results of the International Social Survey Program, Eurobarometer 57, and
Eurobarometer 58 public opinion surveys in Europe. De Boer (2007) found that many
people in Western Europe took climate change seriously; however, majority of the
participants were still confused on how climate change is related to the ozone layer and
frequently framed it with rain and river-based problems. The researcher suggested giving
concrete examples in order to improve risk communication for climate related issues.
However, climate change is based on future perspective and it is a challenge to provide
concrete examples.
Reynolds and Seeger (2005) studied crisis and risk communication as an
integrated model using of Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication (CERC). The
researchers reviewed available literature on health and risk communication with work in
crisis and disaster communication and compared risk communication and crisis
communication. Reynolds and Seeger (2005) proposed a working model using CERC -
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
pre-crisis, initial event, maintenance, resolution, and evaluation. The researchers
proposed a method using CERC that covers pre-crisis until evaluation; however, the
researchers should have identified other stakeholders such as participants in the model in
order to create a feedback mechanism.
Haimes (2012) studied system-based approaches in disaster management and used
Economic Inoperability Input-Output Models to understand how sub-systems are
interdependent. The researcher conducted a case study on the development of risk
assessment, management, and communication to improve hurricane protection and
resilience with risk associated with portable water. Haimes (2012) found that risk
modeling, assessment, management, and communication must be holistic,
comprehensive, and repeatable. The researcher recognized that preparedness, response,
and recovery comprise many systems, but did not give concrete and practical examples of
the interdependency of systems.
Palttala and colleagues (2012) studied communication gaps based on the
perception of experts from both government and non-government organizations. The
researchers used the framework of CERC, which assumes that a single phase in disaster
management requires more than one method of communication. Palttala and colleagues
(2012) administered an online open-ended questionnaire focused on communication in
disaster management with policy adviser, communication experts, project/ programme
manager, academic/ researchers with expertise in education and training, emergency/
disaster managers, communication advisers, and officials in charge of crisis management
from various countries. Palttala and colleagues (2012) found that unified Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs) are needed to define the communication process, flow, and
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
structure. Since this study is focused on communication gaps, the researchers should have
also consulted the receivers of communication.
Previous researchers analyzed successful risk communication as being practical
(Kellens et al., 2013) through giving concrete examples (De Boer, 2007), using a holistic
process (Reynolds & Seeger, 2005) through a system (Haimes, 2012), and must have a
unified standard operating procedure (Palttala et al., 2012). Previous researchers (Haimes,
2012; Palttala et al., 2012; Reynolds & Seeger, 2005) studied risk perception based on the
audience acceptance of information regarding risk. The researchers suggested practical
recommendations on the message and its delivery and audience (De Boer, 2007; Kellens
et al., 2013). However, researchers did not address the importance of understanding the
behavior of the target audience. They studied risk communication as a process that is
mainly concerned with delivery of information, but did not focus on the desired behavior.
Cultural and Socio-demographic Determinants
Culture. Leonard and colleagues (2012) studied the role of culture and traditional
knowledge in climate change adaptation in East Kimberly, Australia. The researchers
conducted ethnography research in Kununurra and Keep River, East Kimberly between
through semi-structured interviews focused on traditional ecological knowledge and
changes on the local environment. The researchers explained that traditional ecological
knowledge can influence individual’s preferences. Specifically, knowledge that builds on
past experiences, adapts to changing circumstances, and is commonly held collectively
within a community can contribute towards improved understanding about impacts of
climate change, and can form part of the social, economic and cultural concepts.
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However, the researchers used an existing seasonal calendar of a group of people and not
the drastic changes in weather conditions that may affect their decisions.
Clerveaux, Katada, and Hosoi (2008) studied effective risk communication and
disaster management in a mixed cultural society by using the Information Transmission
Simulation Model (ITSM). In ITSM, the information is delivered through media channels
from a specified source to a specified target audience. The researchers identified
planning, communicating, and effective response during disaster as key steps in
successful disaster management. The researchers, however, applied a model which was
intended for the mono-cultural society of Japan, rather than using a model that is tested
for a mixed culture society.
Nyathi (2013) studied risk communication by incorporating indigenous
knowledge systems into the current practices of disaster management. The researcher
conducted focus group discussions with adult participants from Botswana, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe’s rural indigenous communities. Nyathi (2013) found that indigenous
knowledge was significant in disaster risk communication, and the participants related
disasters to natural resources like soil. The researchers proposed a disaster risk
communication model wherein both modern knowledge and indigenous knowledge are
acknowledged. Even though most participants were already living in urban areas and
already exposed to modern technology, the researcher should also have looked into
populations of indigenous people that are not yet familiar with modern advancements.
Güss and Panga (2004) studied the influence of culture on evacuation during the
Mt. Pinatubo eruption. The researchers conducted a case study using existing research
and publications of people who were involved in the disaster, as well as oral
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communication with people who are involved in the disaster management process. The
researchers cited factors such as “kanya-kanya syndrome” (i.e. every man for himself),
“pakikipagkapwa” (being in harmony with others), “utang na loob” (debt of gratitude),
and “bahala na” (accepting a given situation) attitude that defined the culture of the
affected population to evacuate. The researchers stated the implications of the eruption on
disaster management in the Philippines; however, researchers should identify concrete
interventions to reduce identified negative cultural factors.
Zimmerman and colleagues (2010) studied risk communication during
catastrophic events. The researchers conducted focus group discussions with emergency
planning and response professionals regarding approaches in risk communication during
extreme and catastrophic events, as well as the content of risk communication.
Zimmerman and colleagues (2010) found that delivery of messages in risk
communication should be specific for a group of people, with detailed actions matching
the scale of events. The researchers provided an improved mechanism in risk
communication, but they should also have considered the effects of geography and
culture on the risk communication mechanism.
Previous researchers studied the role of culture in risk communication through
indigenous knowledge building on past experiences (Leonard et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013)
from specified target audiences (Clerveaux et al., 2008; Zimmerman et al., 2010).
Researchers (Larsons et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013; Clerveaux et al., 2008; Güss&Pangan,
2004) acknowledged that culture and risk relate to many aspects of human and
institutional behavior (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,
2014). However, given the studies on the role of culture on disaster risk reduction and
30
HIGH-RISK AREAS
climate change, researchers did not examine how culture can influence risk perception
and actual behavior.
Socio-Demographic Determinants. Eisenman and colleagues (2007) studied risk
communication with vulnerable communities after Hurricane Katrina. The researchers
(Eisenman et al., 2007) interviewed evacuees, who were mainly low income African-
Americans from New Orleans. Eisenman and colleagues found that respondents did not
evacuate due to lack of transportation, personal reasons, lack of direction, old age, lack of
information, lack of experience, and lack of governance. However, the researchers
studied only participants from low income families, and might have seen different results
had data been gathered from participants of average to high socioeconomic status.
Lim and colleagues (2016) investigated factors in evacuation decision from
different flood affected areas in Quezon City, Philippines. The researchers gathered
socioeconomic characteristics such as age, sex, educational attainment, type of work of
the household head, household income, vehicle ownership, presence of pets, number of
members in the family, age of every member, presence of small children of equal or less
than 10 years old, presence of senior citizen or more than 60 years old, number of years
that household have been living in the residence, home ownership status, type of house
material, and number of house floor levels from respondents in Bagong Silangan, Bahay
Toro, Sto. Domingo and Roxas in Quezon City, Philippines. The researchers used
Discrete Choice Models to analyze the data. The researchers found that evacuation
decisions can be determined by household characteristics (Sex, educational level,
presence of children, number of years living in their residence), capacity-related factors
(house ownership, number of floors, type of house material), and hazard-related factors
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
(distance from source of flood, level of flood damage, source warning). Even though the
researchers acknowledged that information on evacuation needed disaggregation to
validate the model in representing the whole population, most of the respondents came
from an urban area, which limits the representation of population in rural areas.
Researchers (Stein et al., 2014) studied the consequences of preparing for
hurricanes for individuals and the larger community. Stein and colleagues conducted a
random-digit dial telephone survey with Houston residents after Hurricane Ike. The
researchers asked the respondents if they bought gas, batteries, additional food, and water
and generators; secured their homes, trimmed their trees, and made any repairs or
renovations to strengthen their houses as preparedness measures; and were asked their
opinion in the location of residence with no risk or some risk, high risk of storm surge,
wind, flooding, wind, flooding from rainfall, injury to themselves or their family, power
loss, loss of water, and sewage and property damage. Further, the researchers asked about
socioeconomic indicators and demographic traits such as length of time in the same
residence, coordinated plans to respond with other families, friends and neighbors, living
in evacuation areas, past evacuation, prior property damage experienced, reliance on
television weather reports, real damage during Hurricane Ike, having children under 18
years old, ethnicity, and home ownership. Stein and colleagues (2014) explained that
desired outcomes can be achieved when emergency planners properly inform the public
about how to prepare for natural disasters, and individuals are significantly less likely to
evacuate when they take steps in preparing for inconveniences associated with loss of
power, water, mobility, and others. However, the researcher did not explain the
implications of socio-demographic determinants in achieving the desired outcomes.
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Stein and colleagues (2010) investigated the determinants of individual
evacuation decisions by surveying Houston residents after Hurricane Rita made landfall
in 2005. The researchers found that older residents in non-evacuation areas were
significantly less likely to evacuate than their young neighbors. However, researchers did
not explain the knowledge gain by older people prior to Hurricane Rita that may affect
their decisions.
RØd and colleagues (2012b) studied how willing residents in threatened
communities were to follow evacuation instructions. The researchers surveyed residents
in threatened communities to determine the socio-demographic variables, individual
differences, and community relationships with experts. The researchers used correlations
to estimate the degree of relationship between a variable and a natural occurring
phenomenon. The researchers found that residents who already experienced disasters are
willing to follow the instructions to evacuate. While the researchers selected good target
participants, the researchers should also have identified and expounded on how the socio-
economic profile of the communities may have implications on their results.
Kellens and colleagues (2012) studied the public’s information-seeking behavior
regarding flood risks. Kellens and colleagues (2012) used the Theory of Planned
Behavior and information seeking models such as Risk Information Seeking and
Processing Model and Heuristic-Systematic Model. The researchers surveyed people
living on the Belgian Coast of Ostend City, which had already experienced storm surges
and severe flooding in September 2010. Kellens and colleagues (2012) found that
information-seeking behavior is enhanced when respondents are older residents and
consider information useful. The study, however, focused on the information seeking
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
behavior of a vulnerable population, but the characteristics of a non-vulnerable
population might be different. Also, the small return of surveys might have an
implication on the results of the study.
Previous researchers studied the implications of socio-demographic variables of
the population related to risk communication. Researchers cited access to basic needs
(Eisenman et al., 2007; Stein et al, 2014), household characteristics (Eisenman et al.,
2007; Kellens et al., 2012; Lim et.al, 2016; RØd et al., 2012b; Stein et al., 2010; Stein et
al, 2014) and past experiences in evacuating (Eisenman et al, 2007; Kellens et al., 2012;
RØd et al., 2012b; Stein et al, 2014). Researchers acknowledged the importance of
knowing the socio-demographic variables of the target audience especially in the risk
communication process; however, the studies lack concrete recommendations on risk
communication strategies that address specific variables.
In determining the factors that influence people to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures, researchers cited culture (Clerveaux et al., 2008; Güss & Pangan, 2004;
Larsons et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013; Zimmerman et al., 2010) and specific socio-economic
determinants (Eisenman et al., 2007; Kellens et al., 2012; Lim et.al, 2016; RØd et al.,
2012b; Stein et al, 2014) that can affect the decision of the target population to evacuate.
Attitude Towards Evacuation
Researchers (Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) analyzed evacuation needs and beliefs of
older adults in Columbia and Richmond Countries in Georgia, identified factors, and
provided health and emergency management information to plan effectively for disaster.
Rosenkeotter and colleagues (2007) used Older Adult Disaster Evacuation Assessment
(OADEA), a questionnaire developed by Covan and Rossenkoetter, to assess
34
HIGH-RISK AREAS
demographics, potential effects of disasters, individual needs and beliefs, and existing
health conditions of elderly participants. Rosenkeotter and colleagues (2007) found that
respondents are willing to evacuate for fear of safety for self and other, most respondents
are confident with county officials, and pets will influence their decision to evacuate.
However, researchers acknowledged that the sample used in this study is very limited in
data in term of race, sex, and educational level.
Kolens (2012) studied different types of evacuation and examined how these
types can be combined into possible evacuation strategies for emergency planning. The
researcher analyzed different evacuation strategies that require different measures, as
well as forms of traffic management and crisis management. Kolens suggested alternative
strategies such as the use of shelter, safe havens, or vertical evacuation (for storm surge).
The researcher acknowledged that moving to a safe place such as shelter or a safe haven
can reduce vulnerability and risk of loss of lives. However, the researcher identified
evacuation strategies based on hazards, and not on socio-demographic indicators.
Tsujiuchi and colleagues (2016) investigated post-traumatic stress symptoms in
relation to social factors of the population affected by Fukushima Nuclear Disaster in
Japan. Researchers conducted a survey of 2,011 displaced households from Fukushima
Prefecture living temporarily in Saitama Prefecture, and collected data on socio-
demographics , health status, socio-economic disaster-related consequences (e.g. worries
for livelihood, loss of jobs, family split-up), as well as written narratives from
participants. Researchers found that aside from socio-economic stability concerns
(unresolved issues of compensation and reparation, worries about livelihood
sustainability, and loss of jobs), the shrinking of human networks and social ties, as well
35
HIGH-RISK AREAS
as the stigma associated with being evacuated were linked to psychological distress and
suffering. Researchers acknowledged the low response rate and no statistical difference
between older and younger respondents can have an effect on the results of the survey.
Stein and colleagues (2010) investigated determinants of individual evacuation
decision by surveying Houston residents after Hurricane Rita made landfall in 2005.
Researchers explained that the knowledge about the evacuation zone will significantly
likely affect their decision in evacuating. However, the researchers did not consider the
experiences gained by respondents in previous emergencies and disasters.
Evacuation as a process must be inclined to the well-being of the displaced
population to ensure safety, security and comfort of the affected population. The
researchers cited safety and security (Kolens, 2012; Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) and
knowledge about the evacuation status (Stein et al., 2010; Tsujiuchi et al., 2016) of the
displaced population as factors that influence their behavior.
Societal Factors
Science and Experts. Shi and colleagues (2011) studied developing risk science,
including how science might be implemented in disaster risk reduction. The researchers
were guided by frameworks such as the Hyogo Framework for Action, Framework for
Integrated Disaster Risk Analysis, Framework for Integrated Risk Governance,
Serageldin’s triangle of sustainability, and the Framework for Vulnerability in disaster
management. The researchers identified disciplines in integrated governance and
explained disaster reduction through the implementation of science using the vitae
system; the Plan, Do, Check and Act (PDCA) model; and the Pagoda Model. The
researchers framed disaster science as a complex science that requires mechanisms and
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
change processes, and described disaster science as a way to understand the structure,
function, and driving force in disaster systems. However, the researchers did not discuss
the integration of these mechanisms into planning and development in risk governance.
Takeuchi and colleagues (2012) investigated the risk communication process in a
Japanese community’s disaster risk reduction and management. The researchers
conducted a survey through questionnaires and focus group discussion from July to
August 2006 with 50 heads of households in the Bosai Fukushi Community (Bocomi),
which functions as an evacuation center. The researchers found that experts or specialists
should build a relationship with the community to improve the risk communication
process. While the researchers were able to collect a good amount of data, they did not
provide the baseline data of the participants to support their present findings to support
the validity and reliability of the data presented.
Smillie and Blissett (2010) proposed a model for developing a risk
communication strategy. The researchers proposed that developing a risk communication
strategy, should begin with risk appraisal, wherein objectives are based on scientific
facts, situational analysis where there is perceived risk, and source analysis where the
communicator undertakes self-analysis in relation to the risk. Further, the researchers
explained that risk appraisal will provide foundation of further decisions. The model,
however, is more appropriate for a risk communication strategy on the national scale, and
not for local disaster management.
Rød and colleagues (2012a) studied risk communication and the public in
imminent disaster situations. The researchers used the Social Amplification of Risk
Framework (SARF), which claims that the perception of risk may intensify depending on
37
HIGH-RISK AREAS
the interpretation of threat. The researchers surveyed households living on the west coast
of Norway. The researchers found that respondents who already experienced a dialogue
with experts are likely to worry about the future calamity and will comply with
evacuation procedures. Researchers acknowledged that the limit in the return of the
respondents in this study that may have implication on the validity and reliability of the
results.
Tuler and colleagues (2012) analyzed workers’ perspectives on health and
environmental risk communication in Thailand. The researchers interviewed officers and
staff members of 3 bureaus of Thailand’s Pollution Control Department. Tuler and
colleagues found that risk communication should focus on science through all available
means. However, the researchers used data coming from participants who are already
working in disaster management rather than workers and receivers of the information to
view the delivery of effective risk communication. The necessity to identify the recipients
of the message may improve the risk communication process in ensuring that messages
successfully delivered.
Disaster risk reduction promotes a risk-informed society (The United Nation
Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015) through the acknowledgement of the
importance of science as a way of understanding risks (Shi et al., 2011; Tuler et al., 2012)
and the attainment of improved relationship building with experts as part of the
communication process (Rød et al., 2012a; Smillie & Blissett, 2010; Takeuchi et al.,
2012).
Government. Tinker (2013) studied communicating and managing change during
extreme weather events, and practices in responding to urgent and emergent climate
38
HIGH-RISK AREAS
threats. Tinker used the Change Communication and Management (CCM) model, which
provides insights on changing perspectives during extreme weather events. The
researcher conducted a series of interviews with national leaders from government,
academia, and commercial sectors, and also surveyed affected stakeholders. The
researcher found that the blend of change management and crisis communication can
increase awareness, build and maintain trust, encourage multi-sectoral cooperation, and
will result to well-informed decision making. The researcher did not provide the
perspective of the local government units, which may affect the interoperability of
national and local government units.
Rosenkeotter and colleagues (2007) investigated the evacuation needs and beliefs
of older adults through the Older Adult Disaster Evacuation Assessment (OADEA). The
researchers cited factors such as confidence in county officials, television, radio, and
having pets as influencing one’s decision to evacuate. The researchers found that trust
and confidence in country officials and the media were the best predictors of future
willingness to evacuate.
The government has always been involved in risk communication processes, and
researchers (Tinker, 2013; Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) cited the importance of officials in
influencing the risk perception of the population. However, researchers should also
consider trust (Smille & Blisett, 2010) in the government as a variable in influencing risk
perception.
Community. Wood and colleagues (2012) studied communicating actionable risk
for terrorism and other hazards. Wood and colleagues were guided by the Diffusion of
Innovations, which was supported by models such as Actionable Risk Communication
39
HIGH-RISK AREAS
Model, Synthesized Model, and Estimated Model. The researchers interviewed more than
3000 households from high terrorism visibility areas and lower terrorism visibility areas
in the United States. The researchers found that households were likely to prepare for the
developing disaster if they observed others also preparing; the researchers also found that
households were motivated to prepare if information about the developing disaster was
received ahead of time. Since the researchers targeted high and low terrorism visibility
areas in the United States, there is already “preparedness” in their lifestyle because of
their exposure. Moreover, some questions that were asked of the participants were more
on the personal side rather than the participants’ communication perspective.
Researchers (Mish et al., 2011) cited communal mastery or a generalized sense
that individuals can overcome life challenges and stresses because they are part of a
tightly interwoven social structure that can influence disaster preparedness behavior. The
researchers described communal mastery as community support to individuals. However,
researchers need to look into the connection of individual preparedness to community
preparedness, which may have implications on the over-all preparedness of the
government.
Stein and colleagues (2010) investigated the role of risk, information and location
through a survey conducted in 2005 of residents in the eight-county Houston
metropolitan area after Hurricane Rita. Researchers cited the strong influence of
neighbors on their evacuation decision.
Researchers suggested community preparedness towards perceived risk (Stein et
al., 2010; Wood et al., 2012) to attain a resilient social structure (Misha et al., 2011).
40
HIGH-RISK AREAS
Media. Ahmad and colleagues (2011) studied media dependency of the audience
during disasters. The researchers reviewed previous studies in risk communication such
as Chamhuri's 2005 work on the psychological effects of the 2004 Asian Tsunami on the
fisheries sector in West Malaysia, and Lee's 2009 work on the effectiveness of media
reporting in providing awareness about risk. The researchers found that the media play a
vital role in providing early warning and dissemination of information on the
destructiveness of a disaster. The researchers also found that close collaboration between
journalists and disaster managers will be more effective and comprehensive in providing
information. However, the researchers based their work on studies that are more
interpersonal or audience-based, rather than on an understanding the actual risk.
Egner, Schorch, Hitzler, Bergmann, and Wulf (2012) studied how people
communicate during disasters. The researchers described a new perspective in disaster
research: zooming out to obtain an encompassing and distant view by using frameworks,
and zooming in for detailed close-ups by using qualitative research methods. However,
the researchers detailed the differences of perspective in disaster research without citing
specific practices, approaches, and methodology in gathering data in an actual disaster.
Piotrowski (2015) studied mass media used by college students before hurricane.
The researcher developed a survey on strategies used before and after experiencing a
hurricane and focused on the survey section devoted to media usage. Piotrowski asked
the respondents how they updated themselves on weather developments. The researcher
found that college students prefer looking online for disaster information; however, a
majority of the respondents still relies on traditional media sources such as television.
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Nevertheless, the researcher acknowledged that the study applies to students and not the
general public.
Previous researchers (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015;
Stein et al., 2010) studied the importance of media and its audience in risk
communication. However, the researchers focused more on the importance of media and
its audience rather than the relationship of the message and its giver to the acceptance of
its audience through an effective media channel.
Social factors such as experts (Rød et al., 2012a; Shi et al., 2011; Smillie &
Blissett, 2010; Takeuchi et al., 2012; Tuler et al., 2012), government willingness (Tinker,
2013; Rosenkeotter et al., 2007), community decisions (Misha et al.,, 2011; Wood et al.,
2012) and media (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al.,,
2010) have been identified to influence people’s decision in evacuation procedures;
however, most of the studies focus on the perceived risk, and not the actual desired
behavior.
Mastery
Misha and colleagues (2011) studied self-esteem and sense of individual and
communal mastery as an influence on disaster preparedness behavior. The researchers
defined self-esteem as an individual’s sense of his/her value of favorable or unfavorable
attitude. The researchers used Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory in justifying
sense of mastery and surveyed households to measure self-esteem and sense of mastery
for flood and heat wave. The researchers found that people having self-esteem were more
prepared for flood and heat wave, and people with high self-esteem have more sense
worth to protect themselves from a threatening situation. The researchers explained that
42
HIGH-RISK AREAS
individual mastery or individualistic efforts were required for disaster preparedness
behavior, as motivation to elicit the desired behavior. The researchers also found that
individual response efficacy affects disaster preparedness behavior; and age, sex, family
type; caste, education, housing; annual income and years of stay can correlate with
perception of self-esteem. However, the survey respondents were predominantly male,
which limits the validity and reliability of the results of this study.
Studies (Cadag & Gaillard, 2011; Güss et al., 2004; Lagmay et al., n.d.)
conducted in the Philippines acknowledged the importance of evacuation and identified
some factors that affected the behavior of the Filipinos. However, researchers, being
challenged in providing baseline data, should have used firm empirical data in order to
strengthen the validity and reliability of the results. Further, studies acknowledge the
implication of not following evacuation procedures as a lesson and not as a process of
building intention to actual behavior of following evacuation procedure.
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Chapter 3:
Conceptual Framework
The Theory of Planned Behavior, developed by Ajzen (1988), proposed a model
in predicting the occurrence of an individual’s behavioral intentions. According to Davis,
Ajzen, Saunders, and Williams (2002), three major factors that influence human action
include favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior (Attitude towards the
behavior), perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior
(Subjective Norm), and attitude in relation to the behavior (Perceived Behavioral
Control). Ajzen (1988) explained that the attitude towards a behavior, Subjective Norms,
and Perceived Behavioral Control altogether formed a behavior. According to Ajzen
(1985), actions are controlled by intentions; however, not all intentions are performed due
to changing circumstances.
The Theory of Planned Behavior can be used in investigating potential attitudes of
the target population about influences that might affect their adoption of the desired
behavior (Foss & Littlejohn, 2009). The purpose of this study is to analyze variables
affecting the intention of Filipinos living in high risk areas to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures, to discover the highest factor that leads to influencing the
intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation, and to examine the relationship of the factors
to socio-demographic determinants that can influence the desired behavior. Further, this
study explained Risk Communication as an important factor in disaster risk reduction and
how risk perception influences affects the decision and willingness of a person in
following pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
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HIGH-RISK AREAS
Desired actions are controlled by intention (Ajzen, 1985). The research is limited
to the desired behavior: since the Theory of Planned Behavior is used in predicting
behavior, this study will not guarantee that Filipinos will perform the desired behavior.
Further, researchers (Francis et al., 2004) have found that intention can be used as a
proximal measure of behavior; however, there is no perfect relationship between the two.
Intentions are defined as the willingness of people to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures; as a general rule, the stronger the intention the more likely people will
perform the desired behavior (Ajzen, 1991).
Behavioral intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures are mediated
through three core variables which are Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived
Behavioral Control (Ajzen, 1985). The three core variables are conceptually independent,
and contribute to the formation of the behavioral intention that can predict the actual
behavior (Ajzen, 2002; Foss & Littlejohn, 2009). Attitude, Subjective Norms and
Perceived Behavioral Control are directly affected by the identified variables such as
cultural and socio-demographic factors, Attitude on evacuation, social factors, and
mastery to perform the desired behavior. These variables and the relationships among
them are shown in Figure 2.
45
COMMUNICATING RISKS: FACTORS INFLUENCING FILIPINOS LIVING IN HIGH-RISK AREAS
Figure 2. The Theory of Planned Behavior and Risk Communication Process
Risk Perception Risk Appraisal Target Behavior
RISK COMMUNICATION
Source: Francis et. al, 200 & Inouye, 2014
46
COMMUNICATING RISKS: FACTORS AFFECTING FILIPINOS LIVING IN 47
HIGH RISK AREAS TO FOLLOW PRE-EMPTIVE EVACUATION
PROCEDURES
Desired Behavior
The desired or target behavior in this study is that of following the pre-
emptive evacuation procedures or the organization and the movement of people from
a potentially exposed area to a safe location outside this area before the beginning of
flood (Kolen, 2012) during emergencies and disasters. The desired behavior has been Commented [r2]: Don’t use italics. Use direct quotes and
then give page number
practice in the Philippine that aims to avert the loss of lives (National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Council, 2015) and as part of the whole disaster risk
reduction and management approach of the Philippines.
Cultural and Socio-Demographics Determinants
Cultural factors interact with risk in many aspects of human and institutional
behavior including religious and related beliefs (International Federation of Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies, 2014). In this study, cultural factors and socio-economic
determinants influence the Attitude, Subjective Norms, and perceived control
behavior.
Socio-demographic determinants and cultural factors affect the decision to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Researchers (Eisenman et al., 2007;
Kellens et al., 2012; Lim et.al, 2016; RØd et al., 2012b; Stein et al, 2010; Stein et al,
2014) identified the importance of socio-demographic determinants in the decision in
following evacuation. Researchers (Clerveaux et al., 2008; Güss & Pangan, 2004;
Larsons et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013 ;) acknowledged the importance of culture in
influencing the intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation. Socio-demographic
determinants and culture related variables in the Theory of Planned Behavior
influenced the effects of Attitude, normative referents, and control towards the desired
behavior.
PROCEDURES
Attitude towards Evacuation versus Attitude
Attitude refers to an individual’s sense of his/her value or worth (Misha et al.,
2011), uncertainty to a perceived risk (Smille&Blisett, 2010), and an individual’s
assessment of the actual behavior (Zimmerman et al., 2010).
Previous studies already identified the importance of safe structures
(UNISDR, n.d.) in evacuation procedures and constructing safe evacuation platforms
(Lagamay & Arcilla, n.d). The overall evaluation of the behaviors reflects the degree
of favor or disfavor (Francis et al., 2004) of the Filipinos at risk in the situation of
evacuation centers. Attitude is composed of behavioral beliefs with the association of
outcome evaluation (Ajzen, 2002; Foss & Littlejohn, 2009); thus, intention to
evacuate is determined by individual’s Attitude (Ajzen, 1985) toward the evacuation
process and also the evacuation centers. Ajzen (1985) explained that an individual’s
evaluation as positive Attitude results in higher intention.
Social Factors versus Subjective Norms
Subjective Norms are defined as a person’s belief that certain individuals or
groups believe that an individual should or should not perform a given behavior (Foss
& Littlejohn, 2009). Subjective Norms refer to the effect of social structures in
overcoming challenges and stresses (Misha et al., 2011), powerful influence on
people’s opinion about risks (Fei et al. 2011), and the role of other people on
individual behavior (Wood et al., 2012).
The importance of building and maintaining trust and encouraging multi-
sectoral cooperation amongst stakeholders will result to well-informed decision
making of the community in an emergency situation (Tinker, 2013). Normative
influence of the local chief executive is necessary for Filipinos at risk. The motivation
PROCEDURES
to comply of Filipinos at risk will depend on the local chief executives as referent
(Ajzen, 1985).
Previous research claimed that strong family ties to extended family, friends,
and community groups hindered evacuation decisions (Eisenman et al., 2007). The
researchers (Eisenman et al., 2007) explained that an individual’s decision initiates a
chain reaction that affects the entire family. The effect of family in social pressure
affects the decision of the population at risk to perform the desired behavior.
Mastery versus Perceived Behavioral Control
Perceived Behavioral Control is the perception that performance of a specific
behavior is within a person’s control (Foss & Littlejohn, 2009), and refers to
individual mastery for preparedness as motivation to act (Misha et al., 2011).
Previous research (Haimes, 2012) described how a holistic, comprehensive,
and repeatable system in place improves preparedness, response, and recovery
stages. The participants in this study acknowledged that there is already an
established system by the local or national government that people follow during
pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The perceived difficulty of the participants in
this study contributes to the ability to perform the desired behavior (Ajzen, 1985).
Theory of Planned Behavior
Hirano and colleagues (2014) studied the relationship of Social Networking
Services (SNSs), such as Facebook and Twitter, as a platform in collecting disaster
information and people’s attitude towards behavior during flood. The researchers used
Structural Equation Modeling in examining the relationship of the variables and the
Theory of Planned Behavior to investigate behavioral intentions. The researchers
surveyed the usage of SNS, behavior during floods in 2011, personal attributes, and
information about collection of information in everyday life and during flood in 2011
PROCEDURES
in Bangkok. The researchers found that there is an intention to collect disaster
information, and this intention correlates positively with influencing people’s actions
in response to flood. However, the researchers did not explain the actual messaging in
SNS that can help in creating interventions.
Kellens and colleagues (2012) used the Theory of Planned Behavior and other
models in their study about the public’s information-seeking behavior regarding flood
risk. The researchers found that a high level of understanding in the information of the
public does not necessarily translate into increased seeking intentions or even desired
behavior. Based on the assumptions of Ajzen (1985), people will consider available
information and will behave in a sensible manner; however, concrete actions are not
guaranteed.
Paton (2003) studied disaster preparedness from a social-cognitive
perspective. The researcher described risk reduction behavior as mediated by
intentions, and intentions will be converted into action if people have strong feelings
of belonging to a place. The Theory of Planned Behavior assumes that an intention to
perform a behavior is the immediate determinant of the action, except for unexpected
events (Ajzen, 1985). However, intentions can change in due course and changes in
intentions will be greater with longer time intervals (Ajzen, 1985).
By identifying the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude,
Subjective Norm, and Perceived Behavioral Control), the researcher will try to apply
the theory in determining the factors affecting the behavior of Filipinos living in high
risk areas to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The Theory of Planned
Behavior will be helpful in designing strategies to help people at high risk areas to
adopt such behavior.
Risk Communication and Theory of Planned Behavior

PROCEDURES
This study explained the discernment on the amount of risk (Inouye, 2014)
vis-à-vis the three predictors of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen et al., 2002).
The factors affecting the intentions of the target populations encompass risk
perception since the three predictors of the Theory of Planned Behavior evaluates the
amount of risk that the population perceived. The risk appraisal, wherein the
objectives are based on scientific facts, perceived risk, and source analyses (Smillie &
Blissett, 2010), will form part of the intention to follow or not to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. The target behavior of followed pre-emptive evacuation
procedures means an effective risk communication process since the actual behavior
was performed.
The results related to the three predictors will provide basis to develop the
intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Further, the stronger the
intention/ risk appraisal the more likely people will perform the desired behavior that
manifest an effective risk communication plan/strategy.

PROCEDURES
Chapter 4:
Methodology
The methodology chapter is divided into the three sections. The first section
examines the population of the study areas and the appropriate number of
respondents. The second section details the development of the data-gathering
instrument. The last section is an explanation on methods to be used in data
processing and statistical treatment.
Population
The sample size of this study was calculated based on the August 2015
population of the municipalities of Casiguran, Aurora, Guiuan, Eastern Samar, and
Baganga, Davao Oriental from the Philippine Statistics Authority. The sample size
was 1,200 following the 5% margin of error and 95% confidence level.
The sample size for each location is summarized below:
Table 7. Sample Size

Population
Area of Assessment (2015 Population) Sample Size Actual Sample Size
Casiguran, Aurora 24,313 379 411
Guiuan, Eastern 52,911 382 387
Samar
Baganga, Davao 56,241 382 402
Oriental
Total 133,465 1143 1,200
Participants was recruited randomly and screened based on the following
questions:
(1) Are you a resident of (Casiguran, Aurora, Guiuan, Eastern Samar and
Baganga, Davao Oriental)?

PROCEDURES
(2) Where were you and what were you doing during (Typhoon Pablo in
Baganga, Davao Oriental, Typhoon Yolanda in Guiuan, Eastern Samar
and Typhoon Lando in Casiguran Aurora)
Participants that answered “yes” to question number 1 and “at home” or
somewhere in the assessment area were recruited to the study and asked to sign a
consent form (Appendix A). The consent form was translated into the local language
and a signed consent form was required before administering the questionnaire. Commented [r3]: Who recruited the participants? When
was recruitment done? Explain for each study area. When
did you stop recruitment?
Data Gathering Instrument
Francis and colleagues (2004) developed a manual for health services
researchers in constructing questionnaires based on the Theory of Planned Behavior.
This study adapted some of the concepts of the manual that fit with behaviors during
disasters. Francis and colleagues (2004) identified the 9 phases as: (1) define the
population of interest; (2) define the behavior under study; (3) decide how to best
measure the intentions; (4) determine the most frequently perceived advantages and
disadvantages of performing the behavior; (5) determine the most important people or
group who would approve or disapprove of the behavior; (6) determine the perceived
barriers or facilitating factors which could make it easier or difficult to adopt the
behavior, (7) include all items, (8) pilot test, and (9) assess the test-reliability.
The questionnaire was divided into seven (7) sections: socio-economic
determinants, intention simulation, measuring Attitudes, measuring Subjective
Norms, measuring Perceived Behavioral Control, media usage, and experience in
evacuation.
Socio-Economic Determinants. Individual factors included in socio-
demographics are age, sex, civil status, occupation, income, educational attainment,
PROCEDURES
home ownership status, living arrangements, living companions, knowledge on
evacuation center, and knowledge on the location/proximity of evacuation center.
Behavioral Intention. In measuring behavioral intention, which is to follow
pre-emptive evacuation procedures, a scenario was provided below as simulation for
the participant to favor or disfavor the desired behavior:
A typhoon, with 215 kph near the center and gustiness up to 250 kph,
slowly approaches the Philippines. Your area is forecasted to be on the
path of the Typhoon and local government units already ordered pre-
emptive evacuation.
Respondents were asked about their decision in following pre-emptive
evacuation procedures and how difficult the decision was:
On the scale of 1-7, how difficult was it for you to make a decision on the
abovementioned scenario?
Not at all difficult □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Extremely Difficult
Measuring Attitude. Attitude includes over-all evaluation of the person in
following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Attitude is assumed to have two
components: behavioral beliefs (indirect measures) and outcome evaluations (direct
measures) (Ajzen, 1988).
Variables for measuring Attitude were based on the perceived advantages and
disadvantages of pre-emptive evacuation. The variables were expressed as statements
that could be evaluated by the respondent using a seven-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 to 7 (likely and unlikely; desirable and undesirable). Questionnaire items from
this study included the following:
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe in the evacuation center.

Unlikely □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Likely
I will be comfortable in the evacuation center.
Unlikely □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Likely
I will feel secure in the evacuation center.
Unlikely □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Likely
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I am okay with being called an “evacuee”

Unlikely □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Likely
Staying safe in the evacuation center is:
Undesirable □-3 □-2 □-1 □0 □1 □2 □3 Desirable
Being comfortable in the evacuation center is:
Having security in the evacuation center is:
Being called an “evacuee” is:
Measuring Subjective Norms. Subjective Norms were based on the social
pressure of affected participants. The statements were based on external motivations
(such as from a group of people, neighbor, experts).
Variables for measuring Subjective Norms were based on individuals or
groups who would approve or disapprove performing pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. These variables were expressed as statements that could be evaluated by
the respondent using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7 (strongly disagree
and strongly agree; not at all and very much). Questionnaire items from this study
included the following:
I am expected to evacuate when asked by our local official.

Strongly disagree □-3 □-2 □-1 □0 □1 □2 □3 Strongly agree
When I hear pre-emptive evacuation announcement on the radio, I will
evacuate.
When I watch pre-emptive evacuation announcement on television, I will
evacuate.
When advised by friends, I will evacuate.
When advised by experts, I will evacuate.
Advice from our local official is important to me:
Not at all □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Very much
Radio announcement is important to me:
Television announcement is important to me:
PROCEDURES

What my friends think I should do matters to me.
What experts advise is important to me.
Measuring Perceived Behavioral Control. Perceived Behavioral Control
will evaluate the extent of a participant’s control over the behavior. The statements
were based on the reasons of the affected population in finding it difficult or easy to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
Variables for measuring Perceived Behavioral Control were based on the
perceived confidence to perform the desired behavior and controllability of desired
behavior. The variables were expressed in statements that participants could evaluate
using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7 (easy and difficult; likely and
unlikely; strongly disagree and strongly agree). Questionnaire items from this study
included the following:
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation procedure is:

Easy □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Difficult
I expect that government should encourage me to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedure.
Likely □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7Unlikely
My faith will determine my decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures.
Likely □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7Unlikely
I am confident that I can follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures:
Strongly disagree □1 □2 □3 □4 □5 □6 □7 Strongly agree
Having government encouragement would enable me to follow pre-emptive
Having family encouragement would enable me to follow pre-emptive
Having faith would enable me to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
PROCEDURES
Media Usage. The media usage variables took into account the platform from
which the respondents gather information regarding the disaster. Studies (Ahmad et
al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010) show the
importance of media in influencing the decision of the population in evacuation.
Questionnaire items from this study included the following:
If a typhoon is approaching your area, what is your source of information?

(you can check more than 1)
□ Internet
□Television
□Radio
□Announcement from the government through local officials
□Word-of-mouth (from neighbors)
□Newspaper
□Others: please specify:_______________________
Experience. The experience in evacuation identified the previous knowledge
of the target population. Research (Leonard et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013) identified that
previous knowledge may affect the decision of the population in evacuation.
Questionnaire items from this study included the following
Have you already experienced evacuating: □ Yes □ No

How many times you experienced evacuating?:
□ One
□ Two
□ Three
□ More than three: ______ (Please state the number)
If yes, during what circumstance:
□ Evacuation drill
□ During tropical cyclone
□ During tsunami alert
□ Others: Please specify: ____________________
If no, are you willing to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures?
□ Yes □ No
Pilot Test
PROCEDURES
A pilot study was conducted in the Office of Civil Defense – Camp
Aguinaldo, Quezon City. Five (5) disaster managers who are working with the
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council participated in the pilot
test to give feedback on the questionnaire and allow the researcher to revise questions.
Minor changes were recommended by the participants, which included wording,
revision of some questions, and other suggestions to make the questionnaire concise.
Revisions were made based on the feedback of the participants.
A local resident of the target areas translated the revised questionnaire.
Another pilot study was conducted to local residents to ensure correctness of the
translated questionnaire. Minor changes were recommended by the participants,
which included more appropriate wordings and other suggestions to make the
questionnaire concise. Revisions were made based on the feedback of the local
residents.
Administration of the Questionnaire
As noted by University Research Ethics Office, the researcher solicited
assistance of local government officials in obtaining respondents. The researcher
explained that local government officials should ensure voluntary participation of the
respondents.
The researcher solicited assistance from the personnel of Local Government
Monitoring and Evaluation Division of the Department of the Interior and Local
Government – Region III for Casiguran, Aurora; Local Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Officer of Guiuan, through Office of Civil Defense – Region VIII; and
Municipal Local Government Operations Officer of Baganga, through Department of
the Interior and Local Government Province of Davao Oriental for Baganga, Davao
Oriental.
PROCEDURES
Printed versions of the questionnaire were sent to the target areas for
facilitation. The local government officials employed different strategies. For
Casiguran, Aurora, the questionnaire was administered by the personnel of Local
Government Monitoring and Evaluation Division of the Department of the Interior
and Local Government – Region III. For Guiuan, Eastern Samar, the Municipal
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Officer sent the printed copies of the
questionnaires to all Barangay Officials to administer the questionnaire to their
residents. For Baganga, Davao Oriental, the Municipal Local Government Operations
Officer of Baganga administered the questionnaire. Participants answered the
questionnaire in their respective residences.
A certain province was challenged in data collection due to the ongoing
“Operation Tokhang” wherein the Philippine National Police knocks on the doors of
suspected drug users and pushers. According to the surveyor, people were afraid to
open their doors for this study because of the same strategy of going house to house.
After completing the desired number of participants, accomplished
questionnaires were sent back to the researcher. The actual questionnaire used in this
study , along with the consent form used, is found in Appendix A.
Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
Francis and colleagues (2004) developed a manual for health services
researchers in constructing questionnaires based on the Theory of Planned Behavior.
This study adapted the scoring method as suggested in the study.
Scoring Behavioral Intention. The researcher recoded the number of
approvals or “yes”. The higher the number of approvals means the stronger the
intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. In terms of decision difficulty,
the researcher calculated the mean of the response.

PROCEDURES
Scoring Attitudes. The researcher used the following formula to calculate the
positive or negative evaluation score of the Attitude.
A = (a x e) + (b x f) + (c x g) + (d x h)
Where: A is the total Attitude score

a, b, c, and d are scores for behavioral belief
e, f, g and h are scores for outcome evaluations
Source: Francis et. al., 2004
A positive score shows that respondents will be in favor of following pre-
emptive evacuation procedures, while a negative score shows that respondents will
not be in favor of following pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
Scoring Subjective Norms. The researcher used the following formula to
calculate the respondents’ experiences of social pressure.
A = (a x e) + (b x f) + (c x g) + (d x h)
Where: A is the total Subjective Norms score

a, b, c, and d are scores for normative beliefs
e, f, g and h are scores for motivation to comply
A positive score shows that respondents feel social pressures to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures, while a negative score shows that respondents do not
feel social pressures to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
Scoring Perceived Behavioral Control. The researcher used the following
formula to measure the respondents’ control in follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures.
PROCEDURES
A = (a x e) + (b x f) + (c x g) + (d x h)
Where: A is the total Perceived Behavioral Control

a, b, c, and d are scores for normative beliefs
e, f, g and h are scores for motivation to comply
A positive score shows that respondents feel in control of following pre-emptive
evacuation procedures and a negative score shows that respondents do not feel in
control of following pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
Treatment of Missing Data. Missing data did not affect the result of this
study since it was insignificant in numbers. The response rate was identified in each
question.
Threats to Data Reliability
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is used to define possibly correlated
variables into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated variables called principal
components. Factor Analysis (FA) is an explorative analysis in such way that it uses
cluster analysis, as if grouping similar cases, but factor analysis combines similar
variables into dimensions. This process is called recognizing dormant variables.
According to Statistics Solutions (2014) factor analysis is an explorative analysis that
does not distinguish between independent and dependent variables.
Data Reliability Test. Thompson (2013) explained that reliability refers to the
accuracy or repeatability of the test scores. Reliability indicates the degree to which a
person's test scores are stable or reproducible and free from measurement error.
Reliability depends on several factors, including the stability of the construct, length
of the test and the quality of the test items.

PROCEDURES
The researched used the Cronbach alpha or also known as coefficient alpha in
determining the reliability of the data or Cronbach alpha using this equation:
Equation 1. Cronbach alpha
Multiple Regressions. The researcher performed multiple regression to measure
the relationships of the variables. The intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures will be the dependent variable and variables for Attitude, Subjective
Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control, and socio-economic determinants will be the
independent variables. Using the ordinal variables, the researcher used dummy
variables to insert a nominal scale variable into a regression equation. Since the
numbers assigned to categories of a nominal scale are not assumed to have an order
and unit of measurement, they cannot be treated as “scores” as they would be in
conventional regression analysis.
These relationships are represented by an equation, which shows the magnitudes
of each relationship between each of the determinants and the behavior of
respondents. However, the relationship is only based on the observed behavior of the
variables during a limited period of time, thus, the resulting equation is only an
estimate of the true magnitudes of such relationship.
The Statistical Model.
Statistical treatments, specifically the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression,
were used to analyze and interpret the information gathered and its results. The
researcher used the following regression equation:
Equation 2. Regression Equation

PROCEDURES
Then substituted with the variables, the researcher derived the following
equations:
Equation 3. Econometric Model 1
Models 1, 2 and 3. The researched used the Econometric Model in measuring
the effects of socio-demographic determinants to the over-all scores of the
respondents.
Where:
= Constant term or intercept

= Partial Regression coefficient; each regression
coefficient represents the amount of deviation of the group identified in
the dummy variable from the mean of the reference category.
Random error term which contains the myriad other factors that can
influence the socio-economic and social conditions the households but
not taken into account in the model.
Dependent variables
Scores = the observed scores of the respondents in terms of:
(Model 1: Attitude, Model 2: Subjective Norms, Model 3: Perceived

Behavioral Control)
Independent variables
AGE =
SEX =
CIVIL STATUS=
INCOME =
EDUCATION =
HOME OWNERSHIP =
LIVING ARRANGEMENT =
AWARENESS =
PROCEDURES
Models 4 and 5. The researched used the Econometric Model in measuring
the effects of over-all score of the Respondents to Behavioral Intention to Follow Pre-
emptive Evacuation.
Equation 4. Econometric Model 1
Where:
= Constant term or intercept

= Partial Regression coefficient; each regression
coefficient represents the amount of deviation of the group identified in
the dummy variable from the mean of the reference category.
Random error term which contains the myriad other factors that can
influence the socio-economic and social conditions the households but
not taken into account in the model.
Dependent variables
Behavioral Intention = the observed Attitude of the respondents in terms of:
(Model 4: Difficulty in Decision to follow and Model 5: Willingness
to Follow)
Independent variables
Attitude Scores = the observed Attitude of the respondents in terms of:
(Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control)
Diagnostics and Tests
To further analyze and interpret the results of the data and information
gathered, the researcher used some statistical treatments, particularly regression
analysis, in order to interpret the relationships among variables. Multiple regressions
were used in analyzing the impact of the independent variables. Woodridge (2006)
explained that multiple regression analysis allows one to explicitly control many other
factors that simultaneously affect the dependent variable. The researcher used
PROCEDURES
ANOVA and Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression to minimize the sum of square
deviations to determine the relationship of dependent and independent variables.
Variables used for regression are treated according to their level of measurement as
ordinal.
Sets of values for variables associated with a single time period constitute a
joint observation of the values of these variables.
The following are assumptions made in the classical linear regression model:
a. The value of the dependent variables for a given set of values for all
independent variables in the model is derived from a probability
distribution
b. All the independent variables are fixed
c. The probability distribution of dependent variable is assumed normal
d. The variance is constant
The estimates yielded by the model have several desirable characteristics
summarized into Best Linear Unbiased Estimate.
To observe these assumptions the researcher carried out the following test to
check for the technical violations if the of the models if there were any. The details on
the statistics and formulae for these tests are attached as Appendix B.
PROCEDURES
Table 8. Definitions and rule of thumb for structural diagnostics tests Commented [r4]: Do youneed this table or can it be
moved to appendix?
Statistics Definition Rule of Thumb
1. Coefficient of the It gives the change in the The sign should be correct
Independent Variables dependent variable caused
by a unit change in the
independent variable
2. Standard Error of It gives us an idea of the

Coefficient range within which the true
coefficient can possibly lie
3. T-test The statistics used to test Find evidence to reject

whether the coefficients are H0: there is NO effect
significantly different from
zero. T value > 2.00
P-value < 0.05
When the t-statistics are
low,
4. F-test The statistic used to test for >10
the linearity of the
regression model, i.e., that
all the coefficients are
significantly different from
zero.
5. R-Squared It measures how much of Close to 1.00

the total variation in the
dependent variable was
explained by the model.
6. Adjusted R-Squared The coefficient of Close to 1.00

determination that takes
into consideration the
number of independent
variables used in the model.
With more independent
variables, the adjusted R-
squared drops
Normally used for multiple

regression analysis
7. Variance Inflation Test for Multicollinearity Should be less than 10.0

Factor (Technical violation)
Assumption: Xs are
independent of each
other
PROCEDURES
8. Regression Specification and functional Find evidence to reject

Specification Error form test H0: there is a functional
Test (RESET) form misspecification
Specification Error
Assumption: The error (Technical violation) If the F statistic is greater
terms ( e ) has a mean than the critical value at a
equal to zero Note: Ho is bad so given significance level
attempt to reject then we reject the null
hypothesis of correct
H0: there is a functional specification. This
form misspecification indicates that there is a
functional form
P-value should be higher misspecification.
than 0.05 so that the
model is not specified If F-statistics is significant
when the p-value is lower
than 0.05 - then there is a
functional form
misspecification.
There is an evidence of
non-linearity if we reject
the Null Hypothesis if the
p-value is lower than 0.05
To reject H0
p-value should be higher
than 0.05
9. Jarque Bera Disturbance distribution Find evidence to reject

and Normality Test H0: Residuals are
normally distributed.
Note: Ho is good so
attempt not to reject JB Value should be
greater than the CV
H0: Residuals are normally
distributed. A significant p-value for
the Jarque-Bera test
P-value should be lower indicates that you can
than 0.05 reject the null hypothesis
of normality
To reject H0
p-value should be higher
than 0.05
10. Breusch-Pagan Heteroskedasticity tests Find evidence to reject

PROCEDURES

Assumption: The (Technical violation) H0: heteroskedasticity not
Error term ( e ) has a present
mean equal to zero. Note: Ho is good so
attempt not to reject Reject if too much of the
variance is explained by
H0: Heteroskedasticity not additional explanatory
present variables
P-value should be lower To reject H0

than 0.05 p-value should be higher
than 0.05
Implications to Risk Communication
Risk communication strategies should be designed based on the characteristics
of a target population. Previous study (Zimmerman et al., 2010) described that an
effective risk communication should be context specific. Findings in this study will
help disaster managers to design specific programs to the targeted area and audience.
Further, findings will help the disaster managers in identifying the highest factor that
affects Filipinos at risk in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures that can help
them in reinforcing or develop specific programs.
The current programs of the government are focused more on building
awareness of the population. However, in the desire to have behavioral change to
move out population at risk out of danger areas, risk communication strategies must
be improved.
Further, the findings will help the government and non-government
organizations appreciate the differences and similarities of the target areas in this
study. Moreover, findings will provide recommendations on how to communicate pre-
emptive evacuation procedures and improving risk communication process will be
presented.
PROCEDURES
Chapter 5:
Results and Discussion
The purpose of this study is to investigate the intention of Filipinos living in
high-risk areas to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. This study used the
Theory of Planned Behavior (1988) as framework in predicting the occurrence of
behavioral intentions, which is the intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. In addition, risk communication, as a process, was used following the risk
perception (Inouye, 2014), risk appraisal (Smillie & Blissett, 2010), and a target
behavior of following pre-emptive evacuation procedures as an indicator in the risk
communication process.
This chapter will discuss results in three provinces and the overall result as
data gathering was conducted in three different provinces in the Philippines. Each
province and the overall will be treated as a unique case. This chapter will examine
the socio-demographic and economic profiles of the respondents, behavioral
intention, socio-demographic determinants, the three predictors of Theory of Planned
Behavior, the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior, and difficulty in
making decisions and willingness to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The
overall result will also be analyzed based on similarities and differences of each
province. After the presentation of data, recommendations on how to communicate
pre-emptive evacuation procedures and improving the risk communication process
will be presented.
Data gathering was conducted on the last quarter of 2016 through the help of
Department of the Interior and Local Government and Office of Civil Defense.
PROCEDURES
Participation in this study was voluntary and a consent form was required before the
proceeding to the actual questionnaire.
The sample comprised 1,200 respondents, including 411 respondents from
Casiguran, Aurora, 387 respondents from Guiuan, Eastern Samar, and 402
respondents from Baganga, Davao Oriental.
Aurora Province
Socio-demographic and Economic Profile. Table 9 shows the socio-
demographic and economic profile for Aurora. This includes data on eight variables:
sex, civil status, age, average monthly income, house ownership, living arrangements,
living companions and educational attainment. Almost half (202/411) of the
respondents were female. Out of the 411 respondents, over half (243) of the
respondents were married, while the rest were single, legally separated, or refused to
disclose their status. About 25% (102/411) were in the 40-49 age bracket. Majority
(79%) of the respondents earns between 1,001 to 5,000 (41%) pesos and between
5,001-10,000 pesos (38%) monthly. Around a fourth (125) were house and lot owners
and sharers (104), while the rest were renters, caretakers, house owners and lot
owners. Majority (72%) of the respondents were living with their family and over half
(274/411) of the respondents were living with someone below 18 years old. Almost
half (165/411) of the respondents finished high school.

PROCEDURES
Table 9. Distribution of Respondents According to Socio-demographic and Economic Profile:

Province of Aurora
Variables n % Variables n %
Sex House Ownership
Male 202 49.1% House and Lot Owner 125 30.4%
Female 141 34.3% Sharer 104 25.3%
Civil Status Renter 68 16.5%
Single 109 26.5% Caretaker 29 7.1%
Married 211 51.3% I own my house but not the 68 16.5%
lot
Others 5 1.2% I own the lot but not my 5 1.2%
house
Age I do not own the house I am 9 2.2%
living
Below 20 7 1.7% Living Arrangements
20-29 53 12.9% Alone 21 5.1%
30-39 94 22.9% With my friends 41 10.0%
40-49 102 24.8% With my family 295 71.8%
50-59 47 11.4% With my extended family 53 12.9%
60 and Above 23 5.6% Living Companions
Average Monthly Income in Pesos With someone below 18 274 66.7%
None 29 7.1% With someone above years old 2 0.5%
Less than 1,000 34 8.3% With animals/pets 1 0.2%
1,001 to 5,000 169 41.1% Educational Attainment
5,001 to 10,000 155 37.7% Less than Elementary 28 6.8%
10,001 to 50,000 17 4.1% Elementary 77 18.7%
50,001 to 100,000 1 0.2% High School 165 40.1%
More than 0 0.0% College 135 32.8%
100,000
Post-Grad 6 1.5%
Awareness. The information regarding the location of evacuation facilities
should be considered in developing a message in risk communication (Zimmerman et
al., 2010). Table 10 shows the distribution of respondents according to awareness of
evacuation enter and its location. Nearly all (95%) respondents, with very few
exceptions, were aware of the evacuation center. Over half (208/411) of the
respondents acknowledged schools as evacuation centers, which is restricted through
a policy of the Department of Education. Aside from the disruption of education,

PROCEDURES
schools cannot provide adequate shelter to the evacuees due to limited space and
facilities.
Table 10. Distribution of Respondents According to Awareness to Evacuation Facility:

Province of Aurora
Variables n %
General Knowledge of the Evacuation Center
Yes 389 94.6%
No 3 0.7%
Knowledge of the location/proximity Evacuation Center
Nearest school 188 45.7%
Government Facility 208 50.6%
Relatives 6 1.5%
Others 2 0.5%
Examination of Behavioral Intention: Aurora Province.
Behavioral Intention. Table 11 shows that the behavioral intention with an
overwhelming majority (95.6%) who answered affirmatively in their intention to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. This matches findings from previous
research (Tinker, 2013) that the increased awareness of the target population would
result into well-informed decision-making.
Table 11. Distribution of Respondents According to Behavioral Intention: Province

of Aurora
Variables n %
Intention to Follow pre-emptive evacuation
Yes 393 95.6%
No 4 1.0%
Table 12 shows that respondents experienced low difficulty in making
decisions. However, a closer examination of the data showed that the most responses
were on the “not at all difficult” to “somewhat difficult”. Results revealed that the
respondents experienced low difficulty (mean = 2.69) in making decisions. This
result concurs with the findings of Misha and colleagues (2011) that the higher the
PROCEDURES
self-esteem, the more sense of worth feels in protecting himself or herself from a
threatening situation.
Table 12. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on how difficult was it to make a decision:
Province of Aurora
Response Frequency Distribution
Rate ND LD SD N MD D ED Grand Weighted
N=411 Total Mean
Frequency 94.9% 125 111 61 18 26 25 24 390 2.69
32.1% 28.5% 15.6% 4.6% 6.7% 6.4% 6.2% 100.0% Low
Difficult
Note: ND – Not at all difficult; LD – Low Difficult; SD – Somewhat Difficult; N -
Neutral; MD - Moderately Difficult; D – Difficult; ED - Extremely Difficult
Aurora Province.
Respondents’ Attitude towards Pre-emptive Evacuation. Table 13 shows
the distribution of responses on how likely respondents felt about evacuating. The
feeling about evacuating includes variables such as feeling safe, comfortable, secure,
and acceptability of being called an evacuee. Table 13 shows that the mean value of
five items under subjective norm ranged from 5.60 – 5.69. Almost all respondents
appeared to have positive attitudes to all variables. Previous research (Misha et al.,
2011) described the importance of strong sense of value relation to evacuation
facility. Respondents mostly favored the feeling of security (mean = 5.69). This
matches findings from previous research (Kolens, 2012) on the importance of security
of people in influencing their behavior. Previous research (Smillie et al., 2010)
described the importance of the situation of a person in evacuation facility in
determining the decision to follow evacuation. Results revealed the positive risk
perception of a place influence how people behave.

PROCEDURES
Table 13. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on how likely they would feel about
evacuating: Province of Aurora
Item RR Frequency Distribution
N=411 EU U SU N SD D ED Gran Weighte
d d Mean
Total
If I 99.3% 36 10 11 20 54 92 185 408 5.60
evacuate, I 8.8 2.5 2.7 4.9 13.2 22.5 45.3 100.0 Likely
will feel that % % % % % % % %
I am safe in
the
evacuation
center.
I will be 98.8% 30 11 17 26 48 105 169 406 5.57

comfortable 7.4 2.7 4.2 6.4 11.8 25.9 41.6 100.0 Likely
in the % % % % % % % %
evacuation
center
I will feel 98.5% 30 13 13 16 53 78 202 405 5.69

secure in the 7.4 3.2 3.2 4.0 13.1 19.3 49.9 100.0 Likely
evacuation % % % % % % % %
center
I am okay 97.8% 35 14 17 18 34 83 201 402 5.62

with being 8.7 3.5 4.2 4.5 8.5% 20.6 50.0 100.0 Likely
called an % % % % % % %
“evacuee”

Table 14 shows the distribution of the response of respondents on how likely
they would feel about evacuating. Table 12 shows the mean value of five items under
subjective norm ranged from 2.05 – 2.36. Almost all respondents appeared to have
positive attitude to all variables. Previous research (Misha et al., 2011) described the
importance of strong sense of value relation to evacuation facility. Respondents
mostly desired the feeling of safety (mean = 2.46). This matches findings from
previous research (Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) on the willingness to evacuate for fear of
PROCEDURES
safety. Results revealed that in designing risk communication strategies, disaster
managers or concerned stakeholders should put on focus the importance of safety in
pre-emptive evacuation.
Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Aurora
d d Mean
Total
Staying safe 100.0 4 2 3 8 56 83 255 411 2.36
in the % 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.9 13.6 20.2 62.0 100.0 Extremel
evacuation % % % % % % % % y
center is. Desirabl
e
Being 100.0 9 5 3 17 40 99 238 411 2.22
comfortable % 2.2 1.2 0.7 4.1 9.7% 24.1 57.9 100.0 Extremel
in the % % % % % % % y
evacuation Desirabl
center is e
Having 100.0 7 6 3 17 40 99 239 411 2.24

security in % 1.7 1.5 0.7 4.1 9.7% 24.1 58.2 100.0 Extremel
the % % % % % % % y
evacuation Desirabl
center is e
Being called 100.0 17 2 6 27 38 96 225 411 2.05

an % 4.1 0.5 1.5 6.6 9.2% 23.4 54.7 100.0 Desirabl
“evacuee” is % % % % % % % e
Note: RR – Response Rate; EU Extremely Undesirable; U – Undesirable; SU –

Slightly Undesirable; N - Neutral; SD – Slightly desirable; D – Desirable; ED -
Extremely Desirable
Respondents’ Subjective Norms towards Pre-emptive Evacuation. Table 15
shows the distribution of the response to the perceived social pressure to perform or
not to perform pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Social pressure includes variables
such as local officials, friends, experts, and announcement from television and radio.
Almost all respondents appeared to experience social pressure to all variables.

PROCEDURES
Previous studies (Fei et al., 2011; Wood et al., 2012) explained the power influence of
social structures to the individual behavior. Table 15 shows the mean value of five
items under subjective norm ranged from 2.16 – 2.44. Respondents experienced
strongest social pressure from local officials. This result concurs with the findings of
Haimes (2012) and Rosenkeotter (2007) in establishing trust and confidence in
officials. The influence of local chief executives or local officials in the Philippines is
very important since specific actions of the population were based on the information
gathered by the local officials. This also matches the findings of (Kure et al., 2016) on
the importance of local officials in giving orders to evacuate. Results revealed the
importance of role of local officials in risk communication process in the Province of
Aurora.
PROCEDURES

relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Aurora
N=411 SD D SM N SAG A SA Grand Weighte
D Total d Mean
I am 100.0 0 4 2 14 39 81 271 411 2.44
expected to % 0.0 1.0 0.5 3.4 9.5% 19.7 65.9 100.0 Strongly
evacuate % % % % % % % Agree
when asked
by our local
official
When I hear 98.5% 6 7 6 18 41 109 218 405 2.16

pre-emptive 1.5 1.7 1.5 4.4 10.1 26.9 53.8 100.0 Agree
evacuation % % % % % % % %
announceme
nt on the
radio, I will
evacuate.
When I 98.3% 4 8 4 10 47 110 221 404 2.22

watch pre- 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.5 11.6 27.2 54.7 100.0 Strongly
emptive % % % % % % % % Agree
evacuation
announceme
nt on
television, I
will
evacuate.
When 98.1% 4 6 4 23 44 95 227 403 2.20

advised by 1.0 1.5 1.0 5.7 10.9 23.6 56.3 100.0 Strongly
friends, I % % % % % % % % Agree
will
evacuate
When 100.0 3 1 3 15 39 77 273 411 2.43

advised by % 0.7 0.2 0.7 3.6 9.5% 18.7 66.4 100.0 Strongly
experts, I % % % % % % % Agree
will
evacuate
Note: RR – Response Rate; SD - Strongly Disagree; D – Disagree; SMD = Somewhat
Disagree; N = Neutral; SAG - Somewhat Agree; A - Agree; SA – Strongly Agree
PROCEDURES
Table 16 shows the importance of advice from local officials, experts and
friends, and radio and television announcements to the respondents. Respondents
acknowledged the importance of all items. The mean value of five items under
subjective norm ranged from 5.62 – 6.91. Respondents considered radio and
television announcements as the most important items. This result coincides with the
findings of Ahmad (2011) about the media dependency of the audience. Previous
researchers (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al.,
2010) described the importance of media in risk communication process. Respondents
acknowledged the importance of radio announcement when it comes to making a
decision to evacuate. Results revealed the focus of delivery of disaster information
through radio and television as platform in communicating risks. The NDRRMC
acknowledges that media is a strong force to increase the awareness of people, and
always conducts press conferences and interviews before and during emergencies and
disasters, and conveyed the information to the target population through radio or
television.
PROCEDURES
Table 16. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on the importance of announcements

when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation: Province of Aurora
N=411 EU U SU N SI I EI Gran Weighte
d d Mean
Total
Advice from 100.0 0 0 0 9 8 4 390 411 6.89
our local % 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 1.9% 1.0% 94.9 100.0 Extremel
official is % % % % % % y
important to Importan
me t
Radio 100.0 0 0 0 7 7 4 393 411 6.91

announceme % 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 1.7% 1.0% 95.6 100.0 Extremel
nt is % % % % % % y
me t
Television 100.0 0 0 0 8 7 3 393 411 6.90

nt is % % % % % % y
me t
What my 100.0 0 0 0 9 13 6 383 411 6.86

friends think % 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 3.2% 1.5% 93.2 100.0 Extremel
I should do % % % % % % y
matters to Importan
me t
What 100.0 0 0 0 42 11 7 351 411 5.62

experts % 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.2 2.7% 1.7% 85.4 100.0 Very
advise is % % % % % % Importan
important to t
me
Note: RR – Response Rate; EU Extremely Unimportant; U – Unimportant; SU –

Slightly Unimportant; N - Neutral; SI – Slightly Important; I – Important; EI -
Extremely Important
Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control towards Pre-emptive
Evacuation. Table 17 shows the distribution of response of respondents’ difficulty of
following pre-emptive evacuation procedure. Previous research (Misha et al., 2011)
described the importance of individual mastery as motivation to act. Results revealed

PROCEDURES
that the respondents experienced difficulty (mean = 3.34) in following the orders to
evacuate. This result is surprising because of the overwhelming positive scores in the
intention to perform evacuation procedures. This result shows that there is a limitation
of a participant’s control over the behavior (Ajzen, 1985). The result may be affected
by the living arrangement of the respondents. Majority of the respondents were living
with their family and strong family ties hindered their individual decision to follow
evacuation orders. This result concurs with the findings of Eisenman (2007) that an
individual’s decisions initiates a chain reaction that affects the entire family. Further,
the result concurs with the findings of Lim and colleagues (2016) that evacuation
decisions can be determined by household characteristics. Results revealed the need to
improve stronger family ties where all family members should have positive behavior
towards following orders in evacuation.
Table 17. Distribution of the Response of Response of Respondents the difficulty of following pre-
emptive Evacuation procedure: Province of Aurora
N=411 Total Mean
Frequency 95.9% 117 72 42 30 50 21 62 394 3.34
29.7% 18.3% 10.7% 7.6% 12.7% 5.3% 15.7% 100.0% Somewhat
Difficult
Table 18 shows respondents’ expectation on the encouragement from the
government, family and faith towards evacuation. The mean value of three items
under perceived behavioral control ranged from 4.81 – 4.95. Results revealed that the
even though most respondents scored “extremely likely”, it was followed by
remarkable scores of “unlikely”. This revealed that some respondents have strong
control over the behavior and already showed mastery of following evacuation
PROCEDURES
procedures. Since it is assumed that the perceived behavioral control also reflects past
experiences, this result matches the findings of Cadag and Gaillard (2011) and
Lagmay and Arcilla (n.d.) on the importance of building mastery through conduct of
regular drills.
Respondents weighted encouragement from government the highest as a
requirement in performing the evacuation procures. Previous studies (Haimes, 2012;
Rosenkeotter, 2007) described the important role of officials in risk communication
process. This stresses the importance of establishing systems of the local and national
government to strengthen people’s control of performing evacuation (Haimes, 2012).
This also revealed the need of encouragement from the local government officials of
the Province of Aurora to support the risk communication process.

PROCEDURES
Table 18. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their expectations relative to Pre-
emptive evacuation: Province of Aurora
N=411 EU U SU N SL L EL Grand Weighte
Total d Mean
I expect that 95.9% 24 76 48 12 12 30 192 394 4.95
government 6.1 19.3 12.2 3.0% 3.0% 7.6% 48.7 100.0 Slightly
should % % % % % Likely
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
I expect that 96.6% 31 74 46 19 21 29 177 397 4.81

family 7.8 18.6 11.6 4.8% 5.3% 7.3% 44.6 100.0 Slightly
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
My faith 96.1% 35 70 42 17 22 9 200 395 4.89

will 8.9 17.7 10.6 4.3% 5.6% 2.3% 50.6 100.0 Slightly
determine % % % % % Likely
my decision
to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedures
Note: RR – Response Rate; EU Extremely Unlikely; U – Unlikely; SU – Slightly

Unlikely; N - Neutral; SL – Slightly Likely; L – Likely; EL - Extremely Likely
Table 19 shows overwhelming positive results (mean = 1.73) of respondent’s
confidence in evacuation. The high positive results show that respondents are
confident in performing evacuation procedures. This result concurs the findings of
Misha and colleagues (2011) described self-esteems affects disaster preparedness
behavior. The results revealed the positive self-worth that can help respondents to
improve their risk perception in Province of Aurora.

PROCEDURES
Table 19. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their agreement relative to their
confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Province of Aurora
Rate SD D SMD N SAG A SA Grand Weighted
N=411 Total Mean
Frequency 100.0% 26 8 20 29 35 87 206 411.00 1.73
6.3% 1.9% 4.9% 7.1% 8.5% 21.2% 50.1% 100.0% Agree

Table 20 shows respondents’ expectations towards pre-emptive evacuation.
Items related in making decisions include encouragement from the government, and
family and faith. The results revealed overwhelming positive results with mean value
of three items ranging from 1.66 – 1.76. The results revealed that the respondents
acknowledged the importance of encouragement from government. This further put
emphasis on the importance of local officials in contributing to the over-all risk
perception of the respondents in Province of Aurora.

PROCEDURES
Table 20. Distribution of the Response of Respondents Agreement on Perceived Behavioral

Control relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Aurora
N=411 SD D SM N SAG A SA Gran Weighte
D d d Mean
Total
Having 100.0 24 10 15 37 31 82 212 411 1.76
government % 5.8 2.4 3.6 9.0 7.5% 20.0 51.6 100.0 Agree
encouragem % % % % % % %
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
Having 100.0 24 16 10 33 32 95 201 411 1.73

family % 5.8 3.9 2.4 8.0 7.8% 23.1 48.9 100.0 Agree
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedure
Having faith 100.0 28 6 26 30 34 92 195 411 1.66

would % 6.8 1.5 6.3 7.3 8.3% 22.4 47.4 100.0 Agree
enable me to % % % % % % %
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedures

Respondents’ Media Usage and Evacuation Experience: Aurora Province.
Media Usage and Evacuation Experience. Table 21 shows the frequency
distribution of the respondents on information sources and evacuation experience. The
items include information sources such as media platforms, announcement from Local
Government, word-of-mouth from neighbors, experience about evacuation, and

PROCEDURES
willingness to follow evacuation orders. Majority of the respondents used television
(71%) and radio (65%) as sources of information before and during emergencies.
These results concur with the findings of Ahmad (2011), which described the vital
role of media in providing early warning and dissemination of information. Only few
people were using the Internet as platform to access information before and during
emergency. These results are surprising: most of the participants are middle-aged, and
middle-aged persons in previous studies (Piotrwoski, 2015) prefer looking online for
disaster information. This contradicts previous research (Nyathi, 2013) on the strong
exposure to modern technology.
Stein et al., 2010) described the importance of media in the risk communication
process. Respondents acknowledged that they rely on traditional media for disaster
information. Disaster managers should maintain a strong relationship with media to
deliver disaster information to the local community. Previous studies (Esteban et al.,
2016) described the importance of creating a multi-layer safety strategies and
improving the communication process to local residents.
Over half (69%) of the respondents experienced evacuation. Over half (58%)
experienced evacuating during an actual tropical storm. About 68% experienced
evacuating more than once. Previous studies (Leonard et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013)
acknowledged the importance of past experiences in building intention. Since Aurora
Province is located on the Eastern Seaboard of the Philippines, it is also prone to
tsunami and only about 9% experienced due to its frequency.
An overwhelming majority (83%) of respondents was willing to follow
evacuation even though only over half (69%) experienced evacuation. This
PROCEDURES
contradicts the study of Eisenman and colleagues (2007) and RØd and colleagues
(2012b) that claim that the lack of experience may impede the decision to evacuate.

Usage and Evacuation Experience: Province of Aurora
Variables N=411 % Variables N=41 %
1
Media Usage Experience about Evacuation

Internet 112 27.3% Yes 284 69.1%
Television 293 71.3% No 108 26.3%
Radio 267 65.0% Circumstances of Evacuation
Announcement from 193 47.0% Evacuation Drill 62 15.1%
Local Government
Word-of-Mouth from 35 8.5% Tropical Cyclone 240 58.4%
Neighbors
Newspaper 20 4.9% Tsunami 35 8.5%
Others 9 2.2% Others 11 2.7%
No. of Times Experienced Willingness to follow
One 82 20.0% Yes 342 83.2%
Two 82 20.0% No 4 1.0%
Three 43 10.5%
More than 3 70 17.0%
Behavioral Control: Aurora Province
Table 22 shows the overall score index on Attitude, Subjective Norms, and
Perceived Behavioral Control of Aurora Province. Subject Norms showed the
strongest factor (mean = 72.3, range = 105) on building the intention to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedure compared to Attitude (mean = 53.1, range = ± 84) and
Perceived Behavioral Control (mean = 10.5, range = ± 84). Previous study (Foss &
Littlejohn, 2009) explained that societal factors strongly affect the behavior and
positively affecting the intention. This result concurs the study of Fei and colleagues
(2011) on the influence of societal factors on people’s opinion about risk. Disaster
managers should focus on building relationships with the community. Previous

PROCEDURES
studies (Tinker, 2013) cited the importance of building and maintaining trust and
encouraging multi-sectoral cooperation amongst stakeholders that will result to well-
informed decision making of the community in an emergency situation.
Control: Province of Aurora
Scale Attitude Subjective Norms Perceived
Behavioral Control
Highly Strong (-) 20 0.05 22 0.05 86 0.21

Strong (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Moderate (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Neutral 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (+) 45 0.11 22 0.05 152 0.37
Weak (+) 47 0.11 36 0.09 148 0.36
Moderate (+) 72 0.18 95 0.23 17 0.04
Strong (+) 72 0.18 41 0.10 3 0.01
Highly Strong (+) 155 0.38 195 0.47 5 0.01
Grand Total 411 1.00 411 1.00 411 1.00
Index Score 53.1 Strong 72.3 Highly 10.5 Highly
Positive Strong Weak
Positive Positive
Factor Analysis
Reliability. The researcher used the Cronbach Alpha in evaluating reliability
and internal consistency of the data. Previous studies (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011)
explained that the acceptable values of alpha should range from 0.70 to 0.95. It is
recommended to use an index of internal consistency because people can hold have
both positive and negative beliefs (Francis et al., 2004). In this study, the researcher
used both indirect and direct measures.
The study found determining reasons for the three predictors of Theory of
Planned Behavior towards following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. A reliability

PROCEDURES
coefficient (Cronbach Alpha) was first computed for each factor. All factors with a
reliability coefficient above 0.6 were considered acceptable in the study.
Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. A reliability
coefficient (Cronbach Alpha) was first computed for each factor and all factors with a
Factor Analysis on Attitude. Factor Analysis using Principal Component
Analysis with Varimax Rotation was applied to the eight statements to identify the
reason for the respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation. Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO)
Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity were applied to test
the fitness of data prior to the factor analysis. The KMO was found to be 0.843 and
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was found to be 1,781.95 with significance lower than
0.001. These tests supported the use of factor analysis.
Table 23 shows that the final scale of Attitude towards following pre-emptive
evacuation procedures had an excellent value of Cronbach Alpha of 0.867. Discarding
factor loadings and communalities that are less than 0.40 was done to reduce the
number of items. However, the lowest was 0.865 (“Being called an ‘evacuee’ is”) and
no item was discarded. The rules resulted in eight statements measured in two
dimensions or factors.
Factors or dimensions with eigenvalues of less than 1 were to be discarded.
These computed eigenvalues were taken from the factor loading of the final iteration
of the Rotated Component Matrix. The respective eigenvalues of each dimension or
factor were computed as the summation or total of the square of the factor loading.
Table 24 shows two factors or dimensions were labeled in order of decreasing
explained variance.
PROCEDURES
Table 23. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards

Evacuation: Province of Aurora
Factor Eigen % Cronbach
Dimensions
Loading Value Variance Alpha
Attitude Dimension 4.188 52.355 0.867
Positive Attitude
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am
0.867
safe in the evacuation center.
I will be comfortable in the
0.847
evacuation center
I will feel secure in the evacuation
0.887
center
I am okay with being called an
0.865
“evacuee”
Desirability in Evacuation center
Staying safe in the evacuation
0.774
center is
Being comfortable in the
0.847
evacuation center is
Having security in the evacuation
0.796
center is
Being called an “evacuee” is 0.770
Kaiser-Mayer Olkin Measure of

= 0.843
Sampling Adequacy
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity = 1,781.95 Sig 0.0000
There are two primary reasons why the respondents prioritize evacuation -
factor 1 which is primarily concerned with respondents realization of their
attitude (self-esteem or the confidence) found when in evacuation center and factor 2
which are the advantages in evacuation centers that include comfort and security
issues. The variable security has a correlation of 0.87 with factor 1 since factor
loadings can be interpreted like standardized regression coefficients. The results
revealed a strong association for a factor analysis. The other variables – comfort,
security and self-worth - are also associated with factor 1. Based on the variables
loading highly onto factor 1, the researcher labelled it as “Positive Attitude.” The
PROCEDURES
variable being comfortable in the evacuation center is has a high factor loading on
factor 2. The results revealed the overall desirability within the evacuation center; the
researcher labeled it as Factor 2 “Desirability in Evacuation center.”
The researcher also found that the respondents prioritize comfort and security
of the evacuation centers employment for the realization of their self-worth (“I am
okay with being called an “evacuee”). Previous studies (Misha et al., 2011)
described that an individual’s sense of value or worth affects the evaluation as either
positive or negative attitude results in intention. The individual’s Attitude (Ajzen,
1985) towards the evacuation process and also the evacuation centers will determine
the intention to evacuate. This revealed that the attitude of the respondents resulted to
generally favorable intention, which means positive risk perception.
The variable with the strongest association to the underlying latent variable in
Factor 1 is the respondents feeling of security in the evacuation center, with a factor
loading of 0.87. Previous research (Smillie et al., 2010) described the importance of
the situation in evacuation centers in providing foundation in building intentions. This
of people in influencing their behavior.

PROCEDURES
Table 24. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards

Evacuation: Province of Aurora
Rotated Component Matrixa
Component
Attributes
1 2
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe in
0.867 0.118
the evacuation center.
I will be comfortable in the evacuation
0.847 0.250
center
I will feel secure in the evacuation center 0.887 0.242
I am okay with being called an “evacuee” 0.865 0.161
Staying safe in the evacuation center is 0.095 0.774
Being comfortable in the evacuation
0.137 0.847
center is
Having security in the evacuation center
0.250 0.796
is
Being called an “evacuee” is 0.241 0.770
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
Table 26 shows the values that can also be considered as multiple R-
squared values for regression models predicting the variables of interest from the two
factors. The communality for a given variable can be interpreted as the proportion of
variation in that variable explained by the two factors. If we perform multiple
regression of the respondents feeling of security against the two common factors, the
results obtained an R-squared = 0.845, indicating that about 84.5% of the variance in
the respondents’ feeling of security is explained by the factor model. The results
revealed that the factor analysis explained the variation in all the attributes.
PROCEDURES

Evacuation Communalities: Province of Aurora
Communalities
Initial Extraction
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe in the evacuation
1.000 .765
center.
I will be comfortable in the evacuation center 1.000 .779
I will feel secure in the evacuation center 1.000 .845
I am okay with being called an “evacuee” 1.000 .774
Staying safe in the evacuation center is 1.000 .609
Being comfortable in the evacuation center is 1.000 .736
Having security in the evacuation center is 1.000 .695
Being called an “evacuee” is 1.000 .651
Factor Analysis on Subjective Norms. Factor Analysis using Principal
Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation was applied to the ten statements to
identify the reason for the respondents’ Subjective Norm towards Evacuation. Kaiser-
Meyer Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of
Sphericity were applied to test the fitness of data prior to the factor analysis. The
KMO was found to be 0.852 and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was found to be
2,422.26 with significance lower than 0.001. The results of both tests supported the
use of factor analysis.
Table 25 shows that the final scale of Subjective Norms towards following
pre-emptive evacuation procedures had an excellent value of Cronbach Alpha of
0.883. Discarding factor loadings and communalities that are less than 0.40 was done
to reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.629 (“When I watch pre-
emptive evacuation announcement on television, I will evacuate.”) and no item was
discarded. The rules resulted in eight statements measured in two dimensions or
factors.
PROCEDURES
The results revealed that there are two primary motives why the respondents
follow preemptive evacuation - factor 1, which is primarily concerned with
respondents’ perception of the government and experts’ opinion and factor 2, which
is the influence of media and friends.
The results revealed that the respondents gave high importance to radio and
advice from local officials. This result concurs the findings of Haimes (2012) and
Rosenkeotter (2007) in establishing trust and confidence in officials. This result
coincides with the findings of Ahmad (2011) about the media dependency of the
audience. The influence of local chief executives or local officials and media are very
important since specific actions of the population were based on the information
gathered by the local officials and media. These match the findings of (Kure et al.,
2016) of the importance of local officials in giving orders to evacuate. Previous
research (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010)
described the importance of media in the risk communication process.

PROCEDURES
Table 26. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms: Province

Dimensions
5.199 51.992 0.883

Confidence in Sources of Information relative to preemptive evacuation
I am expected to evacuate when
0.764
asked by our local official
Advice from our local official is
0.867
important to me
Radio announcement is important
0.861
to me
Television announcement is
0.864
important to me
What my friends think I should do
0.645
matters to me
What experts advise is important to
0.703
me
Influence of Media and Friends
When I hear pre-emptive
evacuation announcement on the 0.715
radio, I will evacuate.
When I watch pre-emptive
evacuation announcement on 0.629
television, I will evacuate.
When advised by friends, I will
0.797
evacuate
When advised by experts, I will
0.797
evacuate
= 0.852
Sampling Adequacy
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity = 2422.26 Sig 0.0000
of Aurora
PROCEDURES

Preemptive Evacuation: Province of Aurora
Component
Attributes
1 2
I am expected to evacuate when asked by our local
0.764 0.300
official
When I hear pre-emptive evacuation announcement on
0.144 0.866
the radio, I will evacuate.
When I watch pre-emptive evacuation announcement on
0.216 0.828
When advised by friends, I will evacuate 0.159 0.896
When advised by experts, I will evacuate 0.489 0.490
Advice from our local official is important to me 0.867 0.195
Radio announcement is important to me 0.861 0.286
Television announcement is important to me 0.864 0.215
What my friends think I should do matters to me 0.645 0.245
What experts advise is important to me 0.703 -0.030
Table 28 shows that values that can also be considered as multiple R-
regression of the importance of the advice from the local official is to the respondents
against the two common factors, the results obtained an R-squared = 0.825, indicating
that about 82.5% of the variance in the importance of advice is explained by the factor
model. The results revealed that the factor analysis explained the variation in advice
from government, experts, and friends. This shows the importance of social ties in the
Province of Aurora.
PROCEDURES
Table 28. Communalities of factors: Province of Aurora

Communalities
Initial Extraction
When I watch pre-emptive evacuation announcement on
1.000 .674
When advised by friends, I will evacuate 1.000 .771
When advised by experts, I will evacuate 1.000 .732
Advice from our local official is important to me 1.000 .828
Radio announcement is important to me 1.000 .479
Television announcement is important to me 1.000 .790
What my friends think I should do matters to me 1.000 .823
What experts advise is important to me 1.000 .792
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. 1.000 .476
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. 1.000 .495
Factor Analysis on Perceived Behavioral Control. Factor Analysis using
Principal Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation was applied to the ten
statements to identify the reason for the respondents’ Subjective Norm towards
Evacuation. Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity were applied to test the fitness of data prior to the factor
analysis. The KMO was found to be 0.883 and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was found
to be 2,514.67with significance lower than 0.001. The results of both statistical tests
supported the use of factor analysis.
The initial Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha resulted to -.378. The value
is negative due to a negative average covariance among items. This violates reliability
model assumptions. Consequently, the researcher conducted separate tests for
questions 1 to 4 and questions 5 to 8. Table 29 shows the final scale of Perceived
Behavioral Control towards following pre-emptive evacuation procedures with a good
value of Cronbach Alpha of 0.830 and 0.944.

PROCEDURES
Discarding factor loadings and communalities that are less than 0.40 was done
to reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.400 (“For me, the pre-
emptive evacuation procedure is”) and no item was discarded. The rules resulted in
eight statements measured in one dimension or factor.
Table 30 showed the two separate factors or dimensions were labelled in order of
decreasing explained variance.
The results revealed that there are two primary reasons why the respondents
follow preemptive evacuation - factor 1, refers to the respondents’ expectations from
government, and family and faith to encourage them to follow evacuation orders; and
factor 2, which refers to the respondents’ perceptions that their ability to making
decisions as regards following evacuation orders is attributed to the encouragement
from the government, and family and faith.
Respondents feel that the government’s encouragement will enable them to
observe pre-emptive evacuation. Previous studies (Haimes, 2012; Tinker, 2013 &
Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) cited the importance of established systems by government
agencies. Commented [r5]: Wait. Some of your questions are now

scored as negative. What does this mean for the factor?
Factor analysis identifies dimension which represent the Perceived Behavioral
Control variables which are being measured with observable measures or scales of
“likeliness” and “agreement”. The factor scores or "factor loadings" indicate how
PROCEDURES
each dimension is associated with the "observable" variables used in the analysis.
Factor loadings close to -1 or 1 indicate that the factor strongly affects the variable.
There are eight observable variables which are represented by statements that
identify two hidden factors or dimensions. It can be observed the factor loadings on
hidden Factor 1 across the four variables are negative: -0.555, -0.789, 0.-749 and -
0.813. This describes an inverse relationship emerged from the responses to these
statements that are based on behavioral tendencies. This means that the observable
measures captured the respondents’ slight likeliness to develop expectations from
government, and family and faith to encourage them to follow evacuation orders.
On the other hand, it can be observed the factor loadings on hidden Factor
2across the four variables are positive: 0.823, 0.893, 0.906 and 0.896. This illustrates
a direct relationship emerged from the responses to these statements that are based on
behavioral tendencies. This means that the observable measures captured the
respondents’ agreement that encouragement from government, and family and faith
will enable them to follow evacuation orders.

PROCEDURES
Table 29. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control:

Province of Aurora

Dimension
5.250 65.628 0.803

Encouragement Expectations
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation
-0.555
procedure is difficult
I expect that government should
encourage me to follow pre-emptive -0.789
evacuation procedure
I expect that family should
encourage me to follow pre-emptive -0.749
My faith will determine my decision
to follow pre-emptive evacuation -0.813
procedures
0.944
Encouragement as Enabler
I am confident that I can follow pre-
0.823
emptive evacuation procedures
Having government encouragement
would enable me to follow pre- 0.893
emptive evacuation
Having family encouragement would
enable me to follow pre-emptive 0.906
Having faith would enable me to
follow pre-emptive evacuation 0.896
procedures

= .883
Sampling Adequacy
PROCEDURES
Table 30. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Commented [r6]: Hala ka. Negative ang ibang attributes
Control: Province of Aurora including government, family, and faith. Make sure you
explain what this means!
Component
Attributes
1
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation procedure is difficult -0.555
I expect that government should encourage me to follow pre-emptive
-0.789
I expect that family should encourage me to follow pre-emptive evacuation
-0.749
procedure
My faith will determine my decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation
-0.813
procedures
I am confident that I can follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures 0.823
Having government encouragement would enable me to follow pre-emptive
0.893
evacuation
Having family encouragement would enable me to follow pre-emptive
0.906
Having faith would enable me to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures 0.896
Table 31 shows the values that can also be considered as multiple R-squared
values for regression models predicting the variables of interest from the two factors.
The communality for a given variable can be interpreted as the proportion of variation
in that variable explained by the two factors. If we perform multiple regression of the
statement “Having family encouragement would enable me to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedure” against the factor, the results obtained an R-squared = 0.821,
indicating that about 82.1% of the variation in having family encouragement is
explained by the factor model. The results revealed that the factor analysis indicate Commented [r7]: Malabo. rewrite
that the model can explain most of the variation for those variables that represent the
response behavior of individuals to attributes that are consistent with following pre-
emptive evacuation procedures. This revealed, however, that some respondents have
weak control over the behavior and already showed mastery of following evacuation
procedures. Since it is assumed that the perceived behavioral control also reflects past
PROCEDURES
regular drills.
Table 31. Communalities of factors Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control:

Province of Aurora
Communalities
Initial Extraction
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation procedure is
1.000 .308
difficult
I expect that government should encourage me to
1.000 .622
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedure
I expect that family should encourage me to follow
1.000 .561
pre-emptive evacuation procedure
My faith will determine my decision to follow pre-
1.000 .661
I am confident that I can follow pre-emptive
1.000 .677
evacuation procedures
Having government encouragement would enable me
1.000 .798
to follow pre-emptive evacuation
Having family encouragement would enable me to
1.000 .821
Having faith would enable me to follow pre-emptive
1.000 .802
Statistical Analysis of Ordinary Least Regression Estimates (Model 1 to 3):
Socio-Demographic Determinants Impact to Attitude, Subjective Norms
and Perceived Behavioral Control
Estimation of Parameters: Aurora Province.
Table 32 presents the OLS result using the aggregated survey data which
provides the estimated true relationship between Socio-Demographic Determinants
and the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior.

PROCEDURES
The estimates are summarized into three models that isolate the effects of each
of the Socio-Demographic Determinants affecting the three predictors that have been
singled out. The model, for example, indicates that:
1. Assuming age is kept constant; we can expect that the three predictors of
Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures to yield positive scores as age of the respondents’ decreases.
The corresponding magnitude of the effect for every unit increase in the
respondents age indicate that Attitude scores will decrease by 0.093,
Subjective Norm will decrease by 0.130, and Perceived Behavioral
Control will decrease by 0.064, which means that younger the person is,
the stronger the intention to follow evacuation procedure. This result
contradicts the study of Kellens and colleagues (2012), which describes
that behavior is enhanced when respondents are older residents. However,
this matches the findings from previous research (Eisenman et al., 2007)
that explained old age could cause people not to evacuate. This revealed
that in order to improve the risk communication strategies, it should be age
specific and focus more on older people.
2. As to the effect of perspective in terms of sex, we can expect that the three
predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive
evacuation procedures to yield positive scores among women. The
corresponding magnitude of the effect for every unit increase in the
number of women respondents indicate that Attitude scores will increase
by 6.528, Subjective Norm will increase by 8.305, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will increase by 3.420, which means that women are
more inclined to follow evacuation. This matches the findings of previous

PROCEDURES
research (Lim et al., 2016) that sex can determine the evacuation decision.
This revealed that risk communication strategies should also be gender
specific.
3. Relative to the effect civil status, we can expect that Attitude and
Subjective Norms to yield positive scores; however, the Perceived
Behavioral Control will yield negative scores among married respondents.
number of respondents who are married indicate that Attitude scores will
decrease by 4.657, Subjective Norm will decrease by 3.273, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will increase by 0.344, which means that married
respondents tend to have less perceived control over the behavior. This
matches previous studies (Misha et al., 2011; Tsujiuchi et al, 2016) on the
importance of social ties and individual response efficacy that is affected
by family. This revealed that married persons have less perceived control
over the desired behavior because their decision is affected by his/her
companion. This revealed that to improve risk communication strategies,
mastery should be developed through disaster preparedness activities for
both married couples.
4. With regard to the effect of income, we can expect that Attitude and
Subjective Norms to yield positive score; however, the Perceived
Behavioral Control will yield negative scores as income of the
respondents’ increases. The corresponding magnitude of the effect for
every unit increase in the income of indicate that Attitude scores will
increase by 3.820, Subjective Norm will increase by 5.914, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will decrease by 0.954 (with range of ± 84 points for

PROCEDURES
Attitude and PCB and ± 105 points for Subjective Norms), which means
that people with high income tend to have less perceived control over
evacuation. This matches findings from previous studies (Lim et al., 2016)
that show that household income can determine the evacuation decision. In
the Philippines, evacuation is a government driven practice, or is catered
toward those who are in dire need. Families with high income tend to be
more resilient compared to low-income households and are normally not
displaced; thus, they are not normally directly affected by evacuation. This
revealed to improve risk communication strategies; programs should focus
more on low-income households.
5. In the effect educational attainment, we can expect that Attitude and
Subjective Norms to yield negative score; however, the Perceived
Behavioral Control will yield positive scores as educational attainment of
the respondents’ increases. The corresponding magnitude of the effect for
every unit increase in the educational attainment of respondents indicate
that Attitude scores will decrease by 2.028, Subjective Norm will decrease
by 2.929, and Perceived Behavioral Control will increase by 2.685, which
means that those with high educational attainment tend to favour
evacuation less and feel less social pressure to evacuate. The results concur
with the study of Lim and colleagues (2016) that showed that educational
attainment can determine evacuation decisions. This revealed that the need
to improve the mainstreaming of disaster risk in the education system and
curriculum to improve risk perception of the respondents.
6. Relative to the effect of home ownership, we can expect the three

PROCEDURES
evacuation procedures to yield positive scores among house and lot
owners. The corresponding magnitude of the effect of the perspective of
the respondents who are home owners indicates that Attitude scores will
increase by 1.262, Subjective Norm will increase by 0.963, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will increase by 0.252 (with range of ± 84 points for
that house and lot owners are more inclined to follow evacuation. This
concurs with the findings of previous study (Lim et al., 2016) that claimed
that house ownership can determine evacuation decision. House and lot
owners have an assurance that they can return to their house after the
emergency, unlike those who do not own their house. This stress of the
need to prioritize safety rather than the dwelling to improve risk
communication.
7. In terms of living arrangements, we can expect the three predictors of
procedures to yield positive scores among living with family. The
corresponding magnitude of the effect for every unit increase in the living
arrangements of respondents indicates that Attitude scores will increase by
3.050, Subjective Norm will increase by 4.157, and Perceived Behavioral
Control will increase by 1.972. This matches findings from previous
studies (Misha et al., 2011; Tsujiuchi et al, 2016) on the importance of
social ties and individual response efficacy that is affected by family. The
also matches the finding of Eisenman and colleagues (2007) that explained
individual’s decision initiates a chain reaction that affects the entire
family. The results revealed the importance of activities in building

PROCEDURES
positive perception towards pre-emptive evacuation of the whole members
of the family to improve risk communication.
8. With regard to the effect of awareness of location of evacuation center, we
can expect the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following
pre-emptive evacuation procedures to yield negative scores to those who
do not know the location of evacuation centers. The corresponding
magnitude of the effect for every unit increase in the number of
respondents who are aware of the location of the evacuation center
indicate that Attitude scores will decrease by 4.867, Subjective Norm will
decrease by 8.643, and Perceived Behavioral Control will decrease by
2.920, which means respondents who are aware of the location of
evacuation centers are more inclined to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. Previous studies (Kolens, 2012) described the importance of
moving to a safe place such as shelter that can reduce vulnerability. This
revealed the importance of visual representation of evacuation centers such
as maps to increase the awareness of the location of the evacuation in risk
communication process. In terms in terms of awareness of proximity of the
evacuation center, we can expect the three predictors of Theory of Planned
Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures to yield positive
scores to those who know the location of the evacuation center. The
number of respondents who have Knowledge on the Proximity of the
Evacuation Location indicates that Attitude scores will increase by 3.986,
Subjective Norm will increase by 3.517, and Perceived Behavioral Control
will increase by 5.882, which means respondents who are aware of the
PROCEDURES
location of evacuation centers are more inclined to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures.
PROCEDURES

Determinants and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-
emptive evacuation procedures: Province of Aurora
Cultural and socio-demographic Attitude Subjective PBC
Determinants Norms
Aurora
Age - - -
Sex + + +
Civil Status - - +
Income + + -
Education - - +
Home Ownership + + +
Living Arrangement + + +
Awareness on the Location of the - - -
Evacuation Location
Knowledge on the Proximity of the + + +
Evacuation Location
Table 33 provides the regressions result for Aurora Province’s Socio-
Demographic Determinants and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior.
The results revealed that sex (co-efficient=6.528, p=0.05> .0002) showed the
strongest relationship to both Attitude (adjusted R-squared value = 0.047), which
means females are more inclined to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Sex
(co-efficient=8.305, p=0.05> 0.001) was also strongly related to Subjective Norm
(adjusted R-squared value of 0.048). Therefore, risk communication strategies for
Aurora Province should be gender specific.
The results revealed that knowledge on the proximity of the evacuation center
with co-efficient of 5.882 (p=0.05> 0.005) for Perceived Behavioral Control (adjusted
R-squared value = 0.048). This means that respondents who are aware of the location
of evacuation centers are more likely to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
Therefore, risk communication strategies for Aurora Province should include
materials that provide visual representation of the location of the evacuation centers.
COMMUNICATING RISKS: FACTORS AFFECTING FILIPINOS LIVING IN HIGH RISK AREAS TO FOLLOW PRE-EMPTIVE
EVACUATION PROCEDURES
Table 33. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3, using observations 1-411: Province of Aurora
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Attitude Subjective Norms Perceived Behavioral Control
coefficient t-ratio p-value coefficient t-ratio p-value coefficient t-ratio p-value
Estimation of Parameters
Constant 34.881 3.065 0.002 49.292 3.595 0.000 (9.652) (0.991) 0.322
Age (0.093) (1.184) 0.237 (0.130) (1.368) 0.172 (0.064) (0.952) 0.342
Sex 6.528 3.122 0.002 8.305 3.297 0.001 3.420 1.911 0.057
Civil Status (4.657) (2.567) 0.011 (3.273) (1.498) 0.135 0.344 0.222 0.825
Income 3.820 2.641 0.009 5.914 3.395 0.001 (0.954) (0.771) 0.441
Education (2.028) (1.281) 0.201 (2.929) (1.536) 0.125 2.685 1.981 0.048
Home Ownership 1.262 1.433 0.153 0.963 0.907 0.365 0.252 0.335 0.738
Living 3.050 1.447 0.149 4.157 1.637 0.103 1.972 1.092 0.275
Arrangement
Awareness on the (4.867) (0.767) 0.444 (8.643) (1.130) 0.259 (2.920) (0.537) 0.591
Location of the
Evacuation
Location
Knowledge on 3.986 1.639 0.102 3.517 1.200 0.231 5.882 2.826 0.005
the Proximity of
the Evacuation
Location
R-squared 0.068 0.069 0.045

Adjusted R- 0.047 0.048 0.023
squared
P-value(F) 0.001 0.001 0.031
Note: Author’s computation using Gretl
109
COMMUNICATING RISKS: FACTORS AFFECTING FILIPINOS LIVING IN
PROCEDURES
Diagnostic tests results.
The researcher tested the reliability of the variables. First, the researcher tested
for multicollinearity, which tests if the variables have existing linear relationships that
could preclude factor analysis, and then for normality of residuals, to see if the errors
are normally distributed.
For Aurora Province, the researcher found no multicollinearity, which means
that there is no biased and have consistent result. Second, the researcher tested for
Normality of Residuals, which tests if the residuals’ errors are normally distributed
using Jarque-Bera. The residuals were normally distributed, which means that the
computed p-value for the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following
pre-emptive evacuation procedures is 0.000, all lower than 0.05. Third, the researcher
tested if the estimates are biased using Ramsey RESET. There is no functional form
of misspecification, which means that the computed p-value for the three predictors of
Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures are
0.084, 0.251, and 0.251, higher than 0.05. Fourth, the researcher tested if the
regression residuals have unequal variances using Breusch-Pagan –
heteroscedasticity. The p-value for Perceived Behavioral Control and Subjective
Norms are 0.003 and 0.000, lower than 0.05, which means does not have enough
evidence to reject the null hypothesis’ heteroscedasticity was not present on the
model. Attitude is 0.055 slightly higher than 0.05, which means that the study does
have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis and that heteroscedasticity was
present in the model. Commented [r8]: Therefore what?
As it relates to statistics, the presence of heteroscedasticity implies that the
variance of the error terms differs across observations. Heteroskedasticity arises more
frequently in cross-sectional data. These are data where observations are all for the
110
PROCEDURES
same time period (e.g., a particular month, day, or year) but are from different entities
(e.g., people, firms, provinces, countries, etc.). This means that the observed linear
effect of the independent variables to the dependent variables is suspected to produced
varying relationships among specific groups.
Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in Appendix C.
Hypothesis Testing.
The researcher tested the empirical evidence to support the significant effects
of socio-demographic attributes of the respondents in explaining the three predictors
of Theory of Planned Behavior towards pre-emptive evacuation.
For attitude, the results showed that sex (p-value = 0.002 < 0.01) and income
(p-value = 0.048 < 0.009) are statistically significant at 99% significance level, which
means female and the higher income class respondents are more inclined to follow
pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Moreover, civil status (p-value = 0.011 < 0.05) is
statistically significant at 95% significance level (but not at 99% significance level),
which means married respondents are more inclined to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. The t-ratio of the remaining attributes shows that there is no statistical
evidence to reject the Null Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant
effect on Attitude.
For Subjective Norm, the results revealed that sex (p-value = 0.001 < 0.01)
and income (p-value = 0.001 < 0.009) are statistically significant at 99% significance
level, which means female and the higher income class respondents are more inclined
to feel social pressure follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The t-ratio of the
remaining attributes shows that there is no statistical evidence to reject the Null
Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect on Subjective Norms.
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PROCEDURES
For Perceived Behavioral Control, the results showed that sex (p-value =
0.057 < 0.10) is statistically significant at 10% significance level (but not at 5%
significance level), which means females have stronger perceived control to follow
pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Education (p-value = 0.057 < 0.10) is statistically
significant at 10% significance level (but not at 5% significance level), which means
with higher level of education, the stronger the perceived control to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures. Knowledge on the Proximity of the Evacuation
Location (p-value = 0.005 < 0.01) is statistically significant at 99% significance level,
which means that the more knowledgeable the respondents are on the evacuation
location, the stronger the perceived control to follow pre-emptive evacuation
effect to Perceived Behavioral Control. Details on the outcomes of these tests are
presented in Appendix D.
Statistical Analysis of the Factors that Significantly Affects the Intentions of
Filipinos to Follow Pre-emptive Evacuation Procedures (Model 4 and 5)
Estimation of Parameters: Aurora Province.
Table 35 provides the regressions result for Aurora’s Behavioral Intentions
attributes as the dependent variables and the relation to other variables including
Attitude Score, Subjective Norm Score, Perceived Behavioral Control Score, and
number of times respondents experienced evacuation.
The model, for example, indicates that:
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PROCEDURES
1. The corresponding magnitude of the effect for every unit increase in the
respondent’s attitude scores will have an effect of a decrease by 0.000 with
respect to their difficulty in making a decision. On the other hand,
willingness to follow evacuation orders will decrease by 0.000. Therefore,
the estimates suggest that increase in the attitude scores of the participants
reflects less difficulty in making decisions to follow evacuation orders but
not willing to follow evacuation orders.
respondents’ Subjective Norm Score scores will have an effect of a
decrease by 0.005 with respect to their difficulty in making a decision to
follow. On the other hand, willingness to follow will increase by 0.001.
Therefore, the estimates suggest that the increase in the normative scores
of the participants reflects less difficulty in making decisions to follow
evacuation orders and more willingness to follow evacuation orders.
respondents Perceived Behavioral Control scores will have an effect of a
follow. On the other hand, willingness to follow evacuation orders will
increase by 0.011. Therefore, the estimates suggest that the increase in the
Perceived Behavioral Control score reflects less difficulty in making
decisions to follow evacuation orders and more willingness to follow
evacuation orders.
respondents Number of Times have Experienced Evacuation will have an
effect of an increase by 0.092 with respect to their Difficulty in making a
113
PROCEDURES
Decision to follow. On the other hand, willingness to follow evacuation
orders will increase by 0.011. Therefore, the estimates suggest that the
increase in the number of times respondents experienced evacuation
reflects more difficult to follow evacuation orders but more willingness to
follow evacuation orders.
The results revealed that the respondents experienced less difficulty in making
decision to follow evacuation for every increase in the scores of the three predictors of
the Theory of Planned Behavior. Previous literature (Ajzen, 2002; Foss & Littlejon,
2009) cited that the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior are conceptually
independent that can add to the development of intention.
The results revealed that the respondents experienced more difficulty for every
increase of the number of times he/she experienced evacuating. This contradicts the
study of RØd and colleagues (2012b) describing how residents who already
experienced disasters are willing to follow the instructions to evacuate. Respondents
identified government facilities such as gym, barangay hall, municipal hall, and other
community infrastructure as evacuation centers. However, government facilities are
not equipped to handle evacuees.
The results revealed that the respondents are less willing to follow evacuation
for every increase of Attitude scores. This study revealed the importance of safe,
secured, and comfortable evacuation facility. Previous studies (Kolens, 2012)
acknowledged that moving to a safe place such as shelter or a safe haven could reduce
vulnerability and risk of loss of lives.
These results revealed of the importance of the three predictors of the Theory
of Planned Behavior in designing risk communication strategies. This stresses the
114
PROCEDURES
need to increase the scores of all the three predictors of the Theory of Planned
Behavior to have less difficulty in making decision to follow evacuation in Aurora
Province.
Table 34. Summary of estimated relationship between Behavioral Intentions attributes and
Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control:
Province of Aurora.
Socio-demographic Determinants Model 4 Model 5
Difficulty in making Willingness to Follow
a Decision to follow
Aurora
Attitude Score - -
Subjective Norm Score - +
Perceived Behavioral Control Score - +
Number of Times have Experienced
Evacuation + +
Table 35. OLS for Econometric Models 4 and 5, using observations 1-411: Province of
Aurora
Model 4 Model 5
Difficulty in making a Willingness to Follow
Decision to follow
coefficient t-ratio p- coefficient t-ratio p-
value value
Constant 3.144 15.550 0.000 0.760 16.327 0.000
Attitude Score (0.000) (0.062) 0.951 (0.000) (0.368) 0.713
Subjective Norm Score (0.005) (1.580) 0.115 0.001 1.373 0.171
Perceived Behavioral Control (0.036) (10.418) 0.000 0.002 2.414 0.016
Score
Number of Times have 0.092 1.610 0.108 0.011 0.817 0.414
Experienced Evacuation
R-squared 0.244 0.030

Adjusted R-squared 0.236 0.020
P-value(F) 0.000 0.016
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PROCEDURES
could preclude factor analysis, and for normality of residuals, to see if the errors are
For Aurora Province, the researcher found no multicollinearity, which means
that there is no bias and have consistent result. Second, the researcher tested for
heteroscedasticity. The computed p-value for Attitude and Subjective Norms are
0.017 and 0.013, which is lower than 0.05 which means that there is not enough
model. Whereas, Perceived Behavioral Control is 0.560 higher than 0.05, which
means that the study does have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis and that
heteroscedasticity was present on the model. Details on the outcomes of these tests
are presented in Appendix E.
Hypothesis Testing.
of the respondents’ scores on Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral
Control towards pre-emptive evacuation to their difficulty in making a decision to
follow and their willingness to follow evacuation.
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PROCEDURES
For difficulty in making a decision to follow evacuation, the Perceived
Behavioral Control (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05) is statistically significant at 95%
significance level, which mean the participants with more perceived control over the
behaviors tend to have less difficulty in making decision to follow evacuation. For
willingness to follow evacuation, the Perceived Behavioral Control (p-value = 0.016 <
0.05) follow is statistically significant at 95% significance level, which means the
participants with more perceived control tend to have more willingness to follow
evacuation orders. The t-ratio of the remaining attributes shows that there is no
statistical evidence to reject the Null Hypothesis that the said variables have no
significant effect to their difficulty in making a decision to follow and their
willingness to follow pre-emptive evacuation. Details on the outcomes of these tests
are presented in Appendix F.
Cultural Determinants
The results revealed that the family as a variable in Perceived Behavioral
Control has positive impact on the decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures.
Family as an indicator in living arrangement and also an external referent
affects the intention to follow evacuation procedures. Most of the respondents were
living with family. The family, which is considered the center of social structure, also
affects the difficulty of the respondents to follow pre-emptive evacuation as
subjective norm. This result concurs the findings of Lim and colleagues (2016) that
evacuation decisions can be determined by household characteristics. This revealed
that the strong family ties, as a cultural indicator, should be considered in designing
risk communication strategies.
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Respondents also agreed that they have more perceived control because of
faith. This matches the findings of Güss and Panga (2004) describing the “bahala na”
(accepting a given situation) attitude of the respondents. The acknowledgement of the
respondents to accept their fate showed faith as an indicator in forming the behavior
to follow evacuation. The results stress the need to also put focus in the advantages of
having faith in designing risk communication strategies.
Aurora Province showed positive intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. However, there are nuances in the factors affecting the intentions and
difficulty of the target populations to evacuate. The difficulty, at varying level of
magnitude, of the respondents to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures affects
their perception of evacuation as an effective way to reduce vulnerability.
Risk communication strategies should be designed based on the target
population. In Aurora Province, sex showed the strongest relationship to Attitude and
Subjective Norm and knowledge on the location of the evacuation to the Perceived
Behavioral Control. Therefore, risk communication strategies should be gender-
specific and to provide visual representation of the location of the evacuation.
In terms of difficulty in following evacuation order for Eastern Samar, risk
communication strategies should improve the scores of the predictors of the Theory of
Planned. Therefore, in order to decrease the difficulty level, risk communication
strategies should focus more on improving behavioral belief, stronger social pressure
from local official, friends and media and improvement of the individual mastery
towards evacuation.
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In terms of willingness to follow evacuation orders, risk communication
strategies should improve the Attitude scores. Therefore, risk communication
strategies should focus more on improving behavioral belief towards evacuation.
The results revealed that in Aurora Province that Subjective Norm is the
strongest factor that affects the decision to follow evacuation procedures. The strong
social pressure from local officials, experts, friends and media such as television and
radio reflects the importance of social ties in risk communication process.
Eastern Samar Province
demographic and economic profile, consisting of eight variables: sex, civil status, age,
average monthly income, house ownership, living arrangements, living companions,
and educational attainment. Almost half (199/402) of the respondents from Guiuan
were female. Out of the 402 respondents, over half (243) of the respondents were
married, while the rest were single, legally separated, or refused to disclose their
status. About 29% (118/402) were in the 40-49 age bracket. Over half (60%) of the
respondents earns between 1,001 to 5,000 monthly. Over half (215/402) were house
and lot owners, while the rest were sharers, renters, caretakers, house owners and lot
owners. Majority (87%) of the respondents were living with their family and over half
(202/402) of the respondents were living with someone below 18 years old. About
36% of the respondents finished college, while 33% finished high school and the rest
were able to finish elementary school.

Province of Eastern Samar
Sex House Ownership
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Female 199 49.5% Sharer 17 4.2%
Married I own my house but not the
243 60.4% lot 140 34.8%
Others I own the lot but not my
48 11.9% house 0 0.0%
Age I do not own the house I am
living 7 1.7%
20-29 26 6.5% Alone 11 2.7%
30-39 90 22.4% With my friends 6 1.5%
40-49 118 29.4% With my family 351 87.3%
10,001 to 50,000 7 1.7% Elementary 43 10.7%
50,001 to 100,000 1 0.2% High School 133 33.1%
More than College
100,000 3 0.7% 145 36.1%
Post-Grad 73 18.2%
exceptions, were aware of the evacuation center. Almost half (162/402) of the
a policy of the Department of Education. Aside from the disruption of education, the
schools cannot provide adequate shelter to the evacuees due to limited space and
facilities.
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Variables N=402 %
Yes 372 92.5%
No 8 2.0%
Relatives 83 20.6%
Others 74 18.4%
Examination of Behavioral Intention: Eastern Samar Province.
Behavioral Intention. Table 38 shows that an overwhelming majority (97.8%)
of respondents answered in the affirmative when asked about their intention to follow
pre-emptive evacuation procedures. This matches findings from previous research
(Tinker, 2013) that the increased awareness of the target population would result to
well-informed decision-making. The results revealed that the participants strong
intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation and according to Ajzen (1985) desired
actions are controlled by intention.

evacuation: Province of Easter Samar
Variables N=402 %
Yes 393 97.8%
No 7 1.7%
Table 39 shows that respondents experienced low difficulty in making a
decision. However, a closer examination of the data showed that the most responses
respondents have low difficulty (mean = 2.69) in making decision. The results
revealed an extremely diverse population with varying level of difficulty.
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N=402 Total Mean
Frequency 94.5% 164 71 47 36 24 12 26 380 2.54
43.2% 18.7% 12.4% 9.5% 6.3% 3.2% 6.8% 100.0% Low
Difficult
Eastern Samar Province.
Respondents’ Attitude towards Pre-emptive Evacuation. Table 40 shows
distribution of the responses on how likely participants would feel about evacuating.
The feeling about evacuating includes variables such as feeling safe, comfortable, and
secure, and the acceptability of being called an evacuee. Table 40 shows that the
mean value of five items under subjective norm ranged from 4.33 – 4.63. Overall,
responses appeared to be positive; however, closer examination of the data shows that
the level of likelihood was widely dispersed. This revealed that some of the
respondents treated the situation in the evacuation facility as insignificant.
Respondents mostly favored being called an “evacuee”. Previous research
(Misha et al., 2011) cited individual’s sense of value or worth affects the overall
intention. This parallels the study of Kure and colleagues (2016) and Esteban and
colleagues (2016) lack of knowledge of the terminologies. Previous studies (Esteban
et al., 2016) suggested improving the communication process to local residents would
enhance their behavior. Results revealed the positive risk perception of the
respondents towards evacuation center could contribute in improving the risk
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evacuating: Province of Eastern Samar
N=40 EU U SU N SL L EL Gran Weighte
2 d d Mean
Total
If I evacuate, 96.5 55 53 48 35 31 46 120 388 4.42
I will feel % 14.2 13.7 12.4 9.0 8.0% 11.9 30.9 100.0 Neutral
that I am safe % % % % % % %
in the
evacuation
center.
I will be 95.0 54 48 47 48 36 51 98 382 4.33

comfortable % 14.1 12.6 12.3 12.6 9.4% 13.4 25.7 100.0 Neutral
in the % % % % % % %
evacuation
center
I will feel 95.8 48 41 45 43 40 61 107 385 4.55

secure in the % 12.5 10.6 11.7 11.2 10.4 15.8 27.8 100.0 Slightly
evacuation % % % % % % % % Likely
center
I am okay 95.8 53 39 41 40 32 53 127 385 4.63

with being % 13.8 10.1 10.6 10.4 8.3% 13.8 33.0 100.0 Slightly
called an % % % % % % % Likely
“evacuee”

Table 41 shows how likely respondents would feel about evacuating. Overall,
responses appeared to be positive; however, closer examination of the data shows that
the level of desirability was clustered between slightly desirable and desirable. This
revealed of a diverse population. Table 41 shows that the mean value of five items
under subjective norm ranged from 0.46 – 1.19.
Respondents mostly desired the feeling of safety (mean = 1.19). This matches
findings from previous research (Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) on the willingness to
evacuate for fear of safety. This matches the study of Kure and colleagues (2016) that
described facilities and buildings used in evacuation were inappropriate for storm
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PROCEDURES
surges and strong winds. Results revealed that in designing risk communication
strategies, disaster managers or concerned stakeholders should put on focus the
importance of safety in pre-emptive evacuation.
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Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Eastern Samar
d d Mean
Total
Staying safe 100.0 36 22 23 17 82 96 126 402 1.19
in the % 9.0 5.5 5.7 4.2 20.4 23.9 31.3 100.0 Slightly
evacuation % % % % % % % % desirable
center is.
Being 100.0 42 33 27 21 78 97 104 402 0.91

comfortable % 10.4 8.2 6.7 5.2 19.4 24.1 25.9 100.0 Slightly
in the % % % % % % % % desirable
evacuation
center is
Having 100.0 34 28 25 21 80 101 113 402 1.09

security in % 8.5 7.0 6.2 5.2 19.9 25.1 28.1 100.0 Slightly
the % % % % % % % % desirable
evacuation
center is
Being called 100.0 65 34 40 28 71 74 90 402 0.46

an % 16.2 8.5 10.0 7.0 17.7 18.4 22.4 100.0 Neutral
“evacuee” is % % % % % % % %

Extremely Desirable
shows distribution of the response to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to
perform pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Social pressure includes variables such
as local officials, friends, experts, and announcement from television and radio.
Overall respondents appeared to experience social pressure from all variables;
however, closer examination of data shows neutrality in their response. This revealed
that some of the respondents experienced less social pressure.
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PROCEDURES
Previous studies (Fei et al., 2011; Wood et al., 2012) explained the power
influence of normative reference to the behavior. Table 42 shows that the mean value
of five items under subjective norm ranged from 1.24– 2.18. Respondents experienced
strongest social pressure from experts (mean = 2.18). The results revealed that Eastern
Province trust experts more than local officials, friends and media. Risk
Communication acknowledged the importance of science as a way of understanding
risks (Shi et al., 2011; Tuler et al., 2012) and improvement of the communication
process lies with building relationship with experts (Rød et al., 2012a; Smillie &
Blissett, 2010; Takeuchi et al., 2012). Based on the communication flow chart of the
NDRRMC, information used by local officials came solely from surveillance agencies
that include PAGASA, PHIVOLCS and other government agencies. This matches the
study of Tinker (2013) that the blend of change management and crisis
communication can increase awareness, build and maintain trust, encourage multi-
sectoral cooperation, and will result to well-informed decision making.
IN CONCLUSION. This stresses the amount of discernment of risk of the
respondents will be based on the forecast given by science-agencies, thus, it is
necessary to deliver it promptly and accurately to have a well-informed decision. Commented [r9]: Hmmm… I would avoid making this
conclusion too early. Tell me what it means. Does it mean
that the Guiuan residents trust experts more?
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relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Eastern Samar Province
D d d Mean
Total
I am 100.0 3 9 4 15 85 62 224 402 2.11
expected to % 0.7 2.2 1.0 3.7 21.1 15.4 55.7 100.0 Agree
evacuate % % % % % % % %
when asked
by our local
official
When I hear 100.0 3 6 6 19 96 71 201 402 2.02

pre-emptive % 0.7 1.5 1.5 4.7 23.9 17.7 50.0 100.0 Agree
evacuation % % % % % % % %
announceme
nt on the
radio, I will
evacuate.
When I 100.0 4 11 10 19 81 79 198 402 1.96

watch pre- % 1.0 2.7 2.5 4.7 20.1 19.7 49.3 100.0 Agree
emptive % % % % % % % %
evacuation
announceme
nt on
television, I
will
evacuate.
When 100.0 39 11 29 27 83 57 156 402 1.24

advised by % 9.7 2.7 7.2 6.7 20.6 14.2 38.8 100.0 Somewh
friends, I % % % % % % % % at Agree
will
evacuate
When 100.0 4 4 2 18 87 49 238 402 2.18

advised by % 1.0 1.0 0.5 4.5 21.6 12.2 59.2 100.0 Agree
experts, I % % % % % % % %
will
evacuate
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PROCEDURES
Table 43 shows the importance of advice from local officials, experts and
subjective norm ranged from 5.77– 6.78. Respondents considered local government
official and radio announcement as the most important items. This stresses the
findings of Haimes (2012) and Rosenkeotter (2007) about establishing trust and
confidence in officials. This result matches with the findings of Ahmad (2011) about
the media dependency of the audience. Previous researchers (Ahmad et al., 2011;
Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010) described the importance of
media in risk communication process. This also matches the findings of (Kure et al.,
2016) about the importance of local officials in giving orders to evacuate during
Typhoon Yolanda. Respondents acknowledged the importance of radio
announcement and local officials when it comes to making a decision to evacuate.
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when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation: Province of Easter
Samar
d d Mean
Total
Advice from 100.0 0 0 0 15 18 9 360 402 6.78
me t
Radio 100.0 0 0 0 13 20 11 358 402 6.78

nt is % % % % % % y
me t
Television 100.0 0 0 0 16 22 8 356 402 6.75

nt is % % % % % % y
me t
What my 100.0 0 0 0 14 48 34 306 402 6.57

friends think % 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.5 11.9 8.5% 76.1 100.0 Extremel
I should do % % % % % % % y
matters to Importan
me t
What 100.0 0 0 0 15 19 10 358 402 5.77

experts % 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.7 4.7% 2.5% 89.1 100.0 Very
important to t
me
Extremely Important
Evacuation. Table 15 shows respondents’ difficulty of following pre-emptive
evacuation procedure. Previous research (Misha et al., 2011) described the importance
of individual mastery as motivation to act. Results revealed that the respondents
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PROCEDURES
experienced difficulty (mean = 2.91) to follow evacuation. This result is surprising
because of the overwhelming positive scores in the intention to perform evacuation
procedures. This result shows that there is a limitation of a participant’s control over
their behavior (Ajzen, 1985). The result may be affected by the living arrangement of
the respondents. Majority of the respondents were living with their family and strong
family ties hindered their individual decision to follow evacuation orders. This result
concurs with the findings of Eisenman (2007) that an individual’s decisions initiates a
chain reaction that affects the entire family. Results revealed the need to improve
stronger family ties where all family members should have positive behavior towards
following orders in evacuation.
emptive Evacuation procedure: Province of Easter Samar
N=402 Total Mean
Frequency 95.0% 123 87 53 38 24 15 42 382 2.91
32.2% 22.8% 13.9% 9.9% 6.3% 3.9% 11.0% 100.0% Somewhat
Difficult
Table 45 shows respondents’ expectations toward evacuation and items related
to making decisions, including encouragement from the government and family and
faith. The mean value of three items under perceived behavioral control ranged from
4.18 – 4.91. Results revealed that the even though most respondents scored
“extremely likely”, it was followed by remarkable scores of “extremely unlikely” and
“unlikely”. This revealed that some respondents have strong control over the behavior
and already showed mastery of following evacuation procedures.
Since it is assumed that the perceived behavioral control also reflects past
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PROCEDURES
regular drills.
Respondents weighted encouragement from government the highest as a
requirement in performing evacuation procedures. Previous studies (Haimes, 2012;
Rosenkeotter, 2007) described the importance of officials to contribute in
respondents’ risk perception of difficulty to perform evacuation process. This stresses
the importance of establishing systems of the local and national government to
strengthen people’s control of performing evacuation (Haimes, 2012). This also
revealed the need of the encouragement from the government to support the risk
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Table 45. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their expectations relative to pre-
emptive evacuation: Province of Easter Samar
Total d Mean
I expect that 95.5% 51 40 37 25 18 27 186 384 4.94
government 13.3 10.4 9.6% 6.5% 4.7% 7.0% 48.4 100.0 Slightly
should % % % % Likely
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
I expect that 94.3% 73 59 47 27 22 24 127 379 4.18

family 19.3 15.6 12.4 7.1% 5.8% 6.3% 33.5 100.0 Neutral
should % % % % %
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
My faith 95.3% 50 61 38 25 25 18 166 383 4.65

will 13.1 15.9 9.9% 6.5% 6.5% 4.7% 43.3 100.0 Slightly
determine % % % % Likely
my decision
to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedures

confidence in evacuation. The high positive results show that respondents are willing
to perform evacuation procedures. The results revealed the positive self-worth that
can help respondents to improve their risk perception.
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confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Province of Easter Samar
N=402 Total Mean
Frequency 100.0% 19 8 18 24 25 60 248 402.00 1.99
4.7% 2.0% 4.5% 6.0% 6.2% 14.9% 61.7% 100.0% Agree
Items related to making decisions include encouragement from the government and
family and faith. The results revealed positive result with mean value of three items
ranged from 1.91 – 1.93. The respondents acknowledged the importance of
encouragement from government. Previous studies (Haimes, 2012; Rosenkeotter,
2007) described the importance of officials to contribute in respondents’ risk
perception of difficulty to perform evacuation process. This further puts emphasis to
the importance of local officials in contributing to the over-all risk perception of the
respondents.
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relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Easter Samar
D d d Mean
Total
Having 100.0 24 9 12 34 26 41 256 402 1.93
government % 6.0 2.2 3.0 8.5 6.5% 10.2 63.7 100.0 Agree
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
Having 100.0 20 15 9 31 29 56 242 402 1.91

family % 5.0 3.7 2.2 7.7 7.2% 13.9 60.2 100.0 Agree
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedure
Having faith 100.0 19 13 10 37 24 56 243 402 1.92

would % 4.7 3.2 2.5 9.2 6.0% 13.9 60.4 100.0 Agree
enable me to % % % % % % %
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedures

Respondents’ Media Usage and Evacuation Experience: Eastern Samar

Province.
distribution of the respondents on information sources and evacuation experience. The
items include information sources such as media platforms, announcement from Local
Government, word-of-mouth from neighbors, experience about evacuation, and
willingness to follow evacuation orders. Majority of the respondents used television
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PROCEDURES
(69%) and radio (65%) as sources of information before and during emergencies.
These results concur with the findings of Ahmad (2011), which described the vital
role of media in providing early warning and dissemination of information. Only a
few people used the Internet as platform to access information before and during
emergency. These results are surprising: most of the participants are middle-aged, and
middle-aged persons in previous studies (Piotrwoski, 2015) prefer looking online for
disaster information. This contradicts previous research (Nyathi, 2013) on the strong
exposure to modern technology.
information. Disaster managers should maintain strong relationships with media to
deliver disaster information to the local community. Previous studies (Esteban et al.,
2016) described the importance of creating multi-layer safety strategies and
Majority (89%) of the respondents experienced evacuation. Majority (85%)
experienced evacuating during an actual tropical storm. Majority (75%) experienced
evacuating more than once. Previous studies (Leonard et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013)
acknowledged the importance of past experiences in building intention. Since Eastern
Samar Province is located in the Eastern Seaboard of the Philippines, it is also prone
to tsunami and about 9% experienced due to its frequency.
An overwhelming majority (92%) was willing to follow evacuation. This
matches the study of Eisenman and colleagues (2007) and RØd and colleagues
(2012b) that describe how the lack of experience may impede the decision to
evacuate.
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Table 48. Frequency Distribution of the Respondents on Information as Regards Media Usage
and Evacuation Experience: Province of Easter Samar

Internet 61 15.2% Yes 359 89.3%
Television 277 68.9% No 31 7.7%
Announcement from Local 231 Evacuation Drill 26 6.5%
Government 57.5%
Word-of-Mouth from 27 Tropical Cyclone 341 84.8%
Neighbors 6.7%
One 60 14.9% Yes 368 91.5%
Two 108 26.9% No 1 0.2%
Three 89 22.1%
More than 3 106 26.4%
Behavioral Control: Eastern Samar
Table 49 shows the overall score index on Attitude, Subjective Norms and
Perceived Behavioral Control of Aurora Province. Subject Norms showed the Commented [r10]: ???
strongest factor (mean = 61, range = 105) on building the intention to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedure compared to Attitude (mean = 23, range = ± 84) and
Perceived Behavioral Control (mean = 23, range = ± 84). Previous studies (Foss &
positively affect the intention. This result concurs with the study of Fei and colleagues
(2011) on the influence of societal factors on people’s opinion about risk. Disaster
managers should focus on building relationships with the community. Previous
studies (Tinker, 2013) cited the importance of building and maintaining trust and
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PROCEDURES
encouraging multi-sectoral cooperation amongst stakeholders that will result to well-
informed decision making of the community in an emergency situation.
Control: Province of Easter Samar
Scale Attitude in Social Pressure Perceived
Pre-emptive and Motivation to Behavioral Control
Evaluation Comply
Highly Strong (-) 115 0.29 30 0.07 60 0.15
Strong (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Moderate (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Neutral 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (+) 83 0.21 43 0.11 118 0.29
Weak (+) 63 0.16 70 0.17 124 0.31
Moderate (+) 55 0.14 64 0.16 51 0.13
Strong (+) 25 0.06 56 0.14 35 0.09
Highly Strong (+) 61 0.15 139 0.35 14 0.03
Grand Total 402 1.00 402 1.00 402 1.00
Index Score 22.9 Weak 60.7 Strong 23.1 Weak
Positive Positive Positive
Source: Author’s own computation
Factor Analysis
and internal consistency of the data. Previous study (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011)
explained that the acceptable values of alpha should range from 0.70 to 0.95. Francis
and colleagues (2004) recommended to use an index of internal consistency because
people can hold have both positive and negative beliefs. In this study, the researcher
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Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. A reliability
coefficient (Cronbach Alpha) was first computed for each factor and all factors with a
reason for the respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation. Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO)
0.001. The results of both statistical tests supported the use of factor analysis.
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PROCEDURES
Factors or dimensions with eigenvalues of less than 1 were discarded. These
computed eigenvalues were taken from the factor loading of the final iteration of the
Rotated Component Matrix. The respective eigenvalues of each dimension or factor
were computed as the summation or total of the square of the factor loading. Table 51
shows two factors or dimensions were labeled in order of decreasing explained
variance.
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Evacuation: Province of Easter Samar
Positive Attitude
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe
0.834
in the evacuation center.
0.865
evacuation center
0.866
center
0.741
“evacuee”
Staying safe in the evacuation center
0.846
is
0.908
center is
0.913
center is

= 0.847
Sampling Adequacy
Respondents prioritized comfort and security in the evacuation centers. The
individual’s Attitude (Ajzen, 1985) toward the evacuation process and also the
evacuation centers will determine the intention to evacuate. This revealed that the
attitude of the respondents resulted to generally favorable intention, which means
positive risk perception.
The variable of being comfortable has a correlation of 0. 866 and security has
a correlation of 86.6% with factor 1 since factor loadings can be interpreted like
standardized regression coefficients. The results revealed a strong association for a
factor analysis. The other variables – comfort, security and self-worth - are also
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PROCEDURES
associated with Factor 1. Based on the variables loading highly onto Factor 1, the
researcher labelled it as “Positive Attitude.” The variable being comfortable in the
evacuation center is has a high factor loading on factor 2. The results revealed the
overall desirability within the evacuation center, the researcher labelled it as factor 2
“Desirability in Evacuation center.

Evacuation: Province of Easter Samar
Component
Attributes
1 2
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe in 0.049 0.834
the evacuation center.
I will be comfortable in the evacuation 0.312 0.865
center
Being comfortable in the evacuation 0.908 0.231
center is
Having security in the evacuation center 0.913 0.221
is
The researchers found that respondents are concerned in building their self-
esteem when in evacuation center and advantages when you are in evacuation center.
Table 52 shows the communality for a given variable can be interpreted as the
proportion of variation in that variable explained by the two factors. If we perform
multiple regression of the respondents’ feeling of security against the two common
factors, the results obtained an R-squared = 0. 883, indicating that about 88.3% of the
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PROCEDURES
variation in the respondents feeling of security are explained by the factor model. The
results revealed that the factor analysis explained the variation in all the attributes.
Table 52. Communalities: Province of Easter Samar

Communalities
Initial Extraction
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe in
the evacuation center. 1.000 .765
I will be comfortable in the evacuation
1.000 .779
center
1.000 .845
center
1.000 .774
“evacuee”
1.000 .736
center is
Having security in the evacuation center
1.000 .695
is
2,082.79 with significance lower than 0.001. The results of both statistical tests
pre-emptive evacuation procedures had a good value of Cronbach Alpha of 0.821.
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Discarding factor loadings and communalities that are less than 0.40 was done to
reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.629 (“When I watch pre-
emptive evacuation announcement on television, I will evacuate.”) and no item was
discarded. The rules resulted in eight statements measured in three dimensions or
factors.
shows the two factors or dimensions labelled in order of decreasing explained
variance.
The results revealed that there are three primary reasons why the respondents
follow pre-emptive evacuation - factor 1, which is primarily concerned with
respondents’ perception of the government and experts’ opinion, factor 2 which is the
influence of authorities and media, and factor 3 which the influence of friends.
The results revealed that the respondents gave high importance to radio,
television and advice from experts. This result concurs the findings of Haimes (2012)
and Rosenkeotter (2007) in establishing trust and confidence in experts. This result
audience. The influence of experts and media is very important since specific actions
of the population were based on the information gathered from the experts and
delivered media. Previous researchers (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012;
Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010) described the importance of media in risk
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of Easter Samar

4.242 42.419 0.821

0.823
important to me
Radio announcement is important to Commented [r11]: Actually, mas dramatic ang radio, tv,
0.921 and experts.
me
0.903
important to me
0.903
me
Influence of Media and Authorities
0.793
asked by our local official Commented [r12]: Asan ang factor loading nito?
When I hear pre-emptive evacuation
announcement on the radio, I will 0.867
evacuate.
When I watch pre-emptive evacuation
announcement on television, I will 0.686
evacuate.
Influence of Friends
0.819
evacuate
0.732
matters to me
= 0.832
Sampling Adequacy
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Preemptive Evacuation: Province of Easter Samar

Component
Attributes
1 2 3
I am expected to evacuate when asked by
0.175 0.793 -0.060
our local official
announcement on the radio, I will 0.111 0.867 0.144
evacuate.
announcement on television, I will 0.017 0.686 0.158
evacuate.
When advised by friends, I will evacuate -0.060 0.272 0.819
When advised by experts, I will evacuate 0.175 0.731 0.281
0.823 0.097 -0.065
important to me
Radio announcement is important to me 0.921 0.120 0.157
Television announcement is important to
0.903 0.167 0.194
me
What my friends think I should do matters
0.420 0.077 0.732
to me
What experts advise is important to me 0.903 0.120 0.097
Table 55 shows the communality for a given variable can be interpreted as the
proportion of variation in that variable explained by the two factors. If we perform
multiple regression of the importance of the advice from the experts against the two
common factors, the results obtained an R-squared = 0. 881, indicating that about
88.1% of the variation in the importance of advice from the experts is explained by
the factor model. The results revealed that the factor analysis explained the variation
in advices from government, expert and friends.
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Table 55. Communalities of factors: Province of Easter Samar

Communalities
Initial Extraction
When I watch pre-emptive evacuation announcement on 1.000 .663
Advice from our local official is important to me 1.000 .748
What my friends think I should do matters to me 1.000 .887
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. 1.000 .718
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. 1.000 .840
to be 1,699.91 with a significance lower than 0.001. The results of both statistical tests
Table 56 shows that the final scale of Perceived Behavioral Control towards
following pre-emptive evacuation procedures had a good value of Cronbach Alpha of
to reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.623 (“I am confident that I
can follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures”). The rules resulted in eight
statements measured in one dimension or factor.
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Province of Easter Samar

Dimension
3.484 43.550 0.698

Likeliness of a positive Attitude
For me, the pre-emptive
evacuation procedure is 0.623
encourage me to follow pre- 0.754
emptive evacuation procedure
encourage me to follow pre- 0.715
My faith will determine my
decision to follow pre-emptive 0.643
Desirability of Evacuation center

0.928
emptive evacuation
procedures

= .777
Sampling Adequacy
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Table 57. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral

Control: Province of Easter Samar
Component
Attributes
1 2
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation procedure is 0.042 0.623
-0.015 0.754
pre-emptive evacuation procedure 0.042 0.715
0.027 0.643
0.928 0.030
0.945 0.023
0.927 0.052
0.919 0.032
Table 58 shows the values that can also be considered as multiple R2 values for
regression models predicting the variables of interest from the two factors. The
communality for a given variable can be interpreted as the proportion of variation in
that variable explained by the two factors. If we perform multiple regression of the
statement “Having family encouragement would enable me to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedure” against the factor, the results obtained an R-squared = 0.821,
indicating that about 89.4% of the variation in having family encouragement is
explained by the factor model. The results revealed the variation in all the attributes
respondents’ confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. This revealed
that some respondents have weak control over the behavior and already showed
mastery of following evacuation procedures. Since it is assumed that the perceived

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behavioral control also reflects past experiences, this result matches the findings of
Cadag and Gaillard (2011) and Lagmay and Arcilla (n.d.) on the importance of
building mastery through conduct of regular drills.

Province of Easter Samar
Communalities
Initial Extraction
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation procedure is 1.000 .390
I expect that government should encourage me to 1.000 .569
I expect that family should encourage me to follow 1.000 .513
My faith will determine my decision to follow pre- 1.000 .414
I am confident that I can follow pre-emptive 1.000 .861
Having government encouragement would enable me 1.000 .894
Having family encouragement would enable me to 1.000 .861
Having faith would enable me to follow pre-emptive 1.000 .846
Estimation of Parameters: Eastern Samar Province
Table 60 provides the estimated true relationship between socio-demographic
determinants and the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior towards
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of the socio-demographic determinants affecting the three predictors of Theory of
Planned Behavior towards following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The model,
for example, indicates that:
1. Assuming age is kept constant; we can expect the three predictors of
respondents age indicate that Attitude scores will increase by 0.235,
the stronger the social pressure, more perceived control, and less favour in
evacuation. This result contradicts the study of Kellens and colleagues
(2012), which describes that behavior is enhanced when respondents are
older residents. However, this matches the findings from previous research
(Eisenman et al., 2007) that explained old age could cause people not to
evacuate. This revealed that risk communication strategies should be age
specific and more focus on older people.
2. As to the effect of perspective in terms of sex, we can expect the three
number of women respondents indicates that Attitude scores will increase
by 5.450, Subjective Norm will decrease by 1.241, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will decrease by 4.874 (with range of ± 84 points for
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that women tend to feel stronger the social pressure, more perceived
control and less favour in evacuation. This matches the findings of
previous research (Lim et al., 2016) that sex can determine the evacuation
decision. This revealed that risk communication strategies should also be
gender specific.
3. Relative to the effect of civil status, we can expect Attitude and Subjective
Norms to yield positive score; however, the Perceived Behavioral Control
will yield negative scores among married respondents. The corresponding
respondents who are married indicates that Attitude scores will decrease
Behavioral Control will increase by 0.472, which means that married
respondents tend to have less perceived control over their behavior. This
revealed that married persons have less perceived control over the desired
behavior because their decision is affected by his/her companion. This
revealed that to improve risk communication strategies, mastery should be
developed through disaster preparedness activities for married couples.
4. With regard to the effect of income, we can expect Attitude and Subjective
Norms to yield positive scores; however, the Perceived Behavioral Control
will yield negative score as income of the respondents’ increases. The
income of indicates that Attitude scores will decrease by 2.064, Subjective
Norm will decrease by 2.034, and Perceived Behavioral Control will
decrease by 1.138, which means that the higher the income, the more
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inclined to follow evacuation orders. This matches the findings of previous
studies (Lim et al., 2016) that household income can determine the
evacuation decision. Families with high income tend to be more resilient
compared to low-income households and are normally not displaced; thus,
they are not normally directly affected by evacuation. This revealed to
improve risk communication strategies; programs should focus more on
low-income households.
5. Moreover, on the effect of educational attainment, we can expect Attitude
and Subjective Norms to yield negative scores; however, the Perceived
every unit increase in the educational attainment of respondents indicates
that Attitude scores will increase by 0.170, Subjective Norm will decrease
by 2.048, and Perceived Behavioral Control will increase by 0.531, which
means that the higher the educational attainment, the more social pressure
feels. The results concur with findings by Lim and colleagues (2016) that
educational attainment can determine evacuation decision. This revealed
that the educational system should focus on establishing trust and building
relationship towards the community to improve the risk communication
process.
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decrease by 1.078, Subjective Norm will increase by 1.130, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will decrease by 0.592, which means that house and lot
owners tend to have less perceived control and less favor towards
evacuation. This concurs with the findings of previous studies (Lim et al.,
2016) that claimed that house ownership can determine evacuation
decision. House and lot owners have an assurance that they can return to
their house after the emergency, unlike those who do not own their house.
The results revealed that not everyone would evacuate due to fear of their
home being damaged or looted. This stress of the need to prioritize
personal safety and security over home being damaged or looted to
improve risk communication. Commented [JB13]: Len pls fix this.
procedures to yield positive scores among people living with family. The
Control will increase by 0.601. This matches previous studies (Misha et
al., 2011; Tsujiuchi et al, 2016) on the importance of social ties and
individual response efficacy that is affected by family. The also matches
the finding of Eisenman and colleagues (2007) that explained individual’s
decision initiates a chain reaction that affects the entire family. The results
revealed the importance of activities in building positive perception
towards pre-emptive evacuation of the whole members of the family to
improve risk communication.
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pre-emptive evacuation procedures to yield negative scores to those do not
know the location of the evacuation center. The corresponding magnitude
of the effect for every unit increase in the number of respondents who are
aware of the location of the evacuation center indicates that Attitude scores
will decrease by 5.119, Subjective Norm will decrease by 28.546, and
Perceived Behavioral Control will increase by 1.111, which means
respondents who are aware of the location of evacuation centers tend to
have less perceived control. In terms in terms of awareness of proximity of
scores to those who know the location of evacuation center. The
Evacuation Location indicates that Attitude scores will increase by 1.086,
Control will decrease by 0.338, which means respondents who are aware
of the location of evacuation centers tend to have less perceived control
and feel less social pressure. This result was surprising since the
assumption is you will gain control over the desired behaviour when you
know where the evacuation is; however, majority of the respondents
experienced evacuating and identified school as their evacuation facility.
This revealed dissatisfaction of the respondents from evacuating due to
appropriateness of the evacuation facility. Previous studies (Kolens, 2012)
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described the importance of moving to a safe place such as shelter can
reduce vulnerability. This can be addressed through focusing the strategy
into safety and security over comfort in the evacuation.

Determinants and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-
emptive evacuation procedures in Baganga, Eastern Samar Province
Determinants Norms
Eastern Samar
Age + - -
Sex + - -
Civil Status - - +
Income - - -
Education + - +
Home Ownership - + -
Living Arrangement + + +
Awareness on the Location of the
Evacuation Center - + +
Knowledge on the Proximity of the
Evacuation Center + - -
Table 60 provides the regressions result for Socio-Demographic Determinants
and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior.
The results revealed that sex (co-efficient=5.450, p=0.05> 0.046) showed the
strongest relationship to Attitude (adjusted R-squared value = 0.020), which means
females are more inclined to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Risk
communication strategies should therefore be gender specific.
The results revealed that awareness of the evacuation facilities (co-
efficient=28.546, p=0.05> 0.000) showed the strongest relation to Subjective Norm
(adjusted R-squared value of 0.040), which means respondents who are aware of the
location of evacuation centers are more likely to feel social pressure to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures.
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The results revealed that awareness of the location of evacuation facilities
(co-efficient=4.917, p=0.05> 0.267) showed the strongest relationship to Perceived
Behavioral Control (adjusted R-squared value = 0.014), which means respondents
who are aware of the location of evacuation centers, the more perceived control to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures and risk communication strategies should
have visual representation of the location of the evacuation centers.
156
Table 60. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3 , using observations 1-402: Province of Easter Samar
Constant 15.658 1.163 0.246 36.309 2.458 0.014 29.477 3.212 0.001
Age 0.235 2.039 0.042 (0.061) (0.485) 0.628 (0.088) (1.122) 0.263
Sex 5.450 2.006 0.046 (1.241) (0.417) 0.677 (4.874) (2.633) 0.009
Civil Status (0.758) (0.351) 0.726 (0.956) (0.404) 0.687 0.472 0.321 0.748
Income (2.064) (1.143) 0.254 (2.034) (1.027) 0.305 (1.138) (0.924) 0.356
Education 0.170 0.094 0.925 (2.048) (1.033) 0.302 0.531 0.431 0.666
Home Ownership (1.078) (1.180) 0.239 1.130 1.128 0.260 (0.592) (0.952) 0.342
Living 0.754 0.258 0.796 4.641 1.449 0.148 0.601 0.302 0.763
Arrangement
Awareness on the (5.119) (0.788) 0.431 28.546 4.007 0.000 4.917 1.111 0.267
Location of the
Evacuation
Location
Knowledge on 1.086 0.725 0.469 (0.529) (0.322) 0.748 (0.338) (0.331) 0.741
the Proximity of
the Evacuation
Location
R-squared 0.042 0.062 0.036

Adjusted R- 0.020 0.040 0.014
squared
P-value(F) 0.049 0.003 0.101
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For Eastern Samar Province, the researcher found no multicollinearity, which
means that there is no biased and have consistent result. Second, the researcher tested
for Normality of Residuals, which tests if the residuals’ errors are normally
distributed using Jarque-Bera. The residuals were normally distributed, which means
that the computed p-value for the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in
following pre-emptive evacuation procedures is 0.000, all lower than 0.05. Third, the
researcher tested if the estimates are biased using Ramsey RESET. There is no
functional form of misspecification, which means that the computed p-value for the
three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures are 0.723, 0.620, and 0.620, higher than 0.05. Fourth, the researcher tested
if the regression residuals have unequal variances using Breusch-Pagan –
heteroscedasticity. The p-value for Attitude and Subjective Norms are 0.288 and
0.769 which is lower than 0.05 which means does not have enough evidence to reject
the null hypothesis’ heteroscedasticity was not present on the model. Whereas,
Perceived Behavioral Control is 0.046) slightly lower than 0.05, which means that the
study does have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis’ and that
are presented in Appendix G.
Hypothesis Testing
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For attitude, the results showed that sex (p-value = 0.046 < 0.05) is
statistically significant at the 99% significance level, which means females are more
inclined to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Further, age (p-value = 042 <
0.05) is statistically significant at the 99% significance level, which means younger
respondents tend to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The t-ratio of the
Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect to Attitude, which means
other items in socio-demographic determinants have no significant effect on Attitude.
For Subjective Norm, that results showed that awareness on the location of
evacuation (p-value = 0.001 < 0.05) is statistically significant at the 99% significance
level, which means respondents who are aware of the location of evacuation centers
are more likely to feel social pressure to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
The t-ratio of the remaining attributes shows that there is no statistical evidence to
reject the Null Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect to
Subjective Norms, which means other items in socio-demographic determinants have
no significant effect in Subjective Norms.
For Perceived Behavioral Control, the results showed sex (p-value = 0.009 <
0.10) is statistically significant at the 95% significance level, which means females
have stronger perceived control to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The t-
ratio of the remaining attributes shows that there is no statistical evidence to reject the
Null Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect to Perceived
Behavioral Control, which means that other socio-demographic determinants have no
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significant effect to Perceived Behavioral Control. Details on the outcomes of these
tests are presented in Appendix H.
Table 61 provides the regressions result for Eastern Samar’s Behavioral
Intentions attributes as the dependent variables and the relation to other variables
including Attitude Score, Subjective Norm Score, Perceived Behavioral Control
Score, and number of times respondents experienced evacuation.
respondents Attitude scores will have an effect of an increase by 0.000
with respect to their difficulty in making a decision to follow. On the
other hand, willingness to follow will increase by 0.001. Therefore, the
estimates suggest that increase in the attitude scores of the participants
reflects more difficulty in making decisions to follow evacuation orders
but more willing to follow evacuation orders.
respondents Subjective Norm Score scores will have an effect of a
follow. On the other hand, willingness to follow will decrease by 0.001.
of the participants reflects less difficulty in making decisions to follow
evacuation orders but less willingness to follow evacuation orders.
respondents Perceived Behavioral Control scores will have an effect of an
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increase by 0.019 with respect to their difficulty in making a decision to
Respondents appeared to be in control of their behavior. Therefore, the
estimates suggest that the increase in the Perceived Behavioral Control
score reflects more difficulty in making decisions to follow evacuation
orders and less willingness to follow evacuation orders.
respondents Number of Times have Experienced Evacuation will have an
effect of an increase by 0.044 with respect to their Difficulty in making a
decision to follow. On the other hand, Willingness to follow will decrease
by 0.034. Therefore, the estimates suggest that the increase in the number
of times respondents experienced evacuation reflects more difficult to
follow evacuation orders and less willingness to follow evacuation orders.
increase in the scores of Attitude, Perceived Behavioral Control, and the number of
times he/she experienced evacuation. The results revealed that respondents are less
willing to follow evacuation for every increase in the scores of Attitude and the
number of times he/she experienced evacuation. This may be attributed to the
negative experience of the respondents in evacuating and majority of the respondents
already experienced evacuating. This contradicts the study of RØd and colleagues
(2012b) describing how residents who already experienced disasters are willing to
follow the instructions to evacuate. Respondents identified government facilities such
as gym, barangay hall, municipal hall, and other community infrastructure as
evacuation centers. Since government facilities are not ready to handle evacuees, with
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the limited to spaces and amenities, the respondents may have undesirable
experiences in the evacuation center, which likely impedes their decision.
Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control. : Province of Easter Samar
Model 4 Model 5
Cultural and socio-demographic Difficulty in making a Willingness to Follow
Determinants Decision to follow
Eastern Samar
Attitude Score + +
Subjective Norm Score - -
PBC Score + -
Evacuation + +
Easter Samar
Model 4 Model 5
Decision to follow
value value
Constant 1.924 7.927 0.000 0.853 23.632 0.000
Attitude Score 0.000 0.146 0.884 0.001 3.025 0.003
Subjective Norm Score (0.001) (0.487) 0.627 (0.001) (1.731) 0.084
Perceived Behavioral Control 0.019 4.552 0.000 (0.000) (0.023) 0.982
Score
R-squared 0.055 0.046

P-value(F) 0.000 0.001
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For Eastern Samar Province, the researcher found no multicollinearity, which
means that there is no bias and have consistent result. Second, the researcher tested
0.017 and 0.013, which are lower than 0.05, which means does not have enough
model. Whereas, Perceived Behavioral Control is 0.560 slightly lower than 0.05,
which means that the study does have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis
and that heteroscedasticity was present on the model. Details on the outcomes of
these tests are presented in Appendix I.
Hypothesis Testing
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Control towards pre-emptive evacuation on their difficulty in making a decision to
Behavioral Control (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05) is statistically significant at the 95%
significance level, which mean the higher the Perceived Behavioral Control score, the
less difficult it is for a respondent to make a decision to follow evacuation orders. In
addition, the Attitude (p-value = 0.003 < 0.05), which mean the higher the Attitude
score the less difficult in making decision to follow evacuation.
The t-ratio of the remaining attributes shows that there is no statistical
effect to their difficulty in making a decision to follow and their willingness to follow
pre-emptive evacuation. Therefore, only Perceived Behavioral Control and Attitude
are significant in difficulty to make a decision to follow evacuation orders.
Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in Appendix J.
The results revealed that the family as a variable in Perceived Behavioral
Control has positive impact the decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
subjective norm. This result concurs with the findings of Lim and colleagues (2016)
that evacuation decisions can be determined by household characteristics. This
revealed that strong family ties, as a cultural indicator, should be considered in
designing risk communication strategies.
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Respondents also agreed that they have more perceived control because of
faith. This matches the findings of Güss and Panga (2004) describing the “bahala na”
(accepting a given situation) attitude of the respondents. The acknowledgement of the
Eastern Samar Province showed positive intention to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. However, there are nuances of factors affecting the intentions
and difficulty of the target populations to evacuate. The difficulty, at varying level of
the risk perception.
Risk communication strategies should be designed based on target population.
Results are not surprising since previous study (Zimmerman et al., 2010) described
that an effective risk communication should be specific for a group of people. In
Eastern Samar, sex showed the strongest relationship and awareness of the evacuation
facilities to Subjective Norm and Perceived Behavioral Control. This stresses the need
to focus more on gender-specific risk communication strategies and increasing the
awareness of the target audience to the location of evacuation facilities.
In terms of difficulty in following evacuation order for Eastern Samar, risk
communication strategies should improve the scores Attitude and Perceived
Behavioral Control. Therefore, risk communication strategies should focus more on
improving behavioral belief and improvement of the individual mastery towards
evacuation.
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In terms of willingness to follow evacuation orders, risk communication
strategies should improve the scores of Attitude. Therefore, risk communication
strategies should focus more on improving behavioral belief towards evacuation.
The results revealed that in Eastern Samar Province, the Subjective Norm is
the strongest factor that affects the decision to follow evacuation procedures. The
strong social pressure from local officials, experts, friends and media such as
television and radio reflects the importance of social ties in risk communication
process.
Davao Oriental Province
demographic and economic profile for respondents from Davao Oriental using eight
variables: sex, civil status, age, average monthly income, house ownership, living
arrangements, living companions, and educational attainment. Over half (207/387) of
the respondents were female. Out of the 387 respondents, over half (243) of the
disclose their status. About 26% (100/387) were in the 40-49 age bracket. Majority
(73%) of the respondents earned less than 1,000 (27%) pesos and between 1,001-
5,000 pesos (46%) monthly. Table 63 also shows that over half (61%) of the
respondents were house and lot owners, while the rest were sharers, renters,
caretakers, house owners and lot owners. Majority (82%) of the respondents were
living with their family, while the rest were living alone, with friends and with
extended family. Almost half (181/387) of the respondents were living with someone
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below 18 years old. Majority (71%) of the respondents finished high school (37%)
and elementary (34%).
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Table 63. Distribution of Respondents According to Sociodemographic and Economic Profile:

Province of Davao Oriental
Sex House Ownership
Female 207 53.5% Sharer 6 1.6%
243 62.8% lot 117 30.2%
38 9.8% house 1 0.3%
living 6 1.6%
20-29 50 12.9% Alone 11 2.8%
30-39 80 20.7% With my friends 6 1.6%
40-49 100 25.8% With my family 337 87.1%
10,001 to 50,000 6 1.6% Elementary 131 33.9%
50,001 to 100,000 1 0.3% High School 144 37.2%
More than College
100,000 1 0.3% 62 16.0%
Post-Grad 29 7.5%
evacuation center and its location. Nearly all (87%) respondents, with very few
exceptions, were aware of the evacuation center. Over half (222/387) of the
a policy of the Department of Education. Aside from the disruption of students’
education, the schools cannot provide adequate shelter to the evacuees due to limited
space and f acilities.

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Variables N=387 %
Yes 336 86.8%
No 15 3.9%
Relatives 19 4.9%
Others 78 20.2%
Examination of Behavioral Intention: Davao Oriental Province.
Behavioral Intention. Table 65 shows an overwhelming majority (96%) who
answered affirmatively in their intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
This matches findings from previous research (Tinker, 2013) that the increased
awareness of the target population would result to well-informed decision-making.
The results revealed that the participants strong intention to follow pre-emptive
evacuation and according to Ajzen (1985) desired actions are controlled by intention.

evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental
Variables N=387 %
Yes 371 95.9%
No 4 1.0%
Table 66 shows that respondents experienced neutral difficulty in making a
decision. However, a closer examination of the data showed that the most responses
respondents low difficulty (mean = 3.98) in making decision. The results revealed an
extremely diverse population with varying level of difficulty.
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N=387 Total Mean
Frequency 95.3% 78 60 49 22 28 29 103 369 3.98
21.1% 16.3% 13.3% 6.0% 7.6% 7.9% 27.9% 100.0% Neutral
Davao Oriental Province.
Respondents’ Attitude towards Pre-emptive Evacuation. Table 67 shows how
respondents would likely feel about evacuating. The feeling about evacuating includes
variable such as feeling safe, comfortable, secure, and acceptability of being called an
evacuee. Table 25 shows the mean value of five items under subjective norm ranging
from 4.77 – 5.37. Overall, respondents appeared to have a positive attitude to all
variables; however, closer examination of the data shows that the level of likelihood
was widely dispersed. This revealed that some of the respondents treated the situation
in the evacuation facility as insignificant.
evacuate for fear of safety. Results revealed the positive risk perception of the
respondents towards evacuation center that can contribute in improving the risk
evacuating: Province of Davao Oriental
7 d d Mean
Total
If I evacuate, 97.9 24 14 36 47 27 66 165 379 5.37
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evacuating: Province of Davao Oriental
7 d d Mean
Total
I will feel % 6.3 3.7 9.5 12.4 7.1% 17.4 43.5 100.0 Likely
that I am safe % % % % % % %
in the
evacuation
center.
I will be 96.1 33 36 44 50 34 45 130 372 4.80

comfortable % 8.9 9.7 11.8 13.4 9.1% 12.1 34.9 100.0 Slightly
in the % % % % % % % Likely
evacuation
center
I will feel 96.9 33 44 41 43 36 52 126 375 4.77

secure in the % 8.8 11.7 10.9 11.5 9.6% 13.9 33.6 100.0 Slightly
evacuation % % % % % % % Likely
center
I am okay 95.9 27 31 27 31 46 55 154 371 5.21

with being % 7.3 8.4 7.3 8.4 12.4 14.8 41.5 100.0 Slightly
called an % % % % % % % % Likely
“evacuee”

Table 68 shows how respondents would desire about evacuating. The feeling
about evacuating includes variable such as feeling safe, comfortable, secure, and
acceptability of being called an evacuee. Table 68 shows the mean value of five items
under subjective norm ranged from 0.87 – 1.20. Overall, respondents appeared to
have a positive attitude to all variables; however, closer examination of the data
shows that the level of desirability was widely dispersed.
Respondents mostly favored being called an “evacuee”. Previous research
(Misha et al., 2011) cited individual’s sense of value or worth affects the overall
intention. This parallels the study of Kure and colleagues (2016) and Esteban and
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colleagues (2016) lack of knowledge of the terminologies. Previous studies (Esteban
et al., 2016) suggested improving the communication process to local residents would
enhance their behavior. Results revealed the positive risk perception of the
respondents towards evacuation center could contribute in improving the risk
Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental
d d Mean
Total
Staying safe 100.0 27 49 20 28 37 90 136 387 1.10
in the % 7.0 12.7 5.2 7.2 9.6% 23.3 35.1 100.0 Slightly
evacuation % % % % % % % desirable
center is.
Being 100.0 35 46 23 34 28 89 132 387 0.99

comfortable % 9.0 11.9 5.9 8.8 7.2% 23.0 34.1 100.0 Slightly
in the % % % % % % % desirable
evacuation
center is
Having 100.0 37 51 25 30 33 90 121 387 0.87

security in % 9.6 13.2 6.5 7.8 8.5% 23.3 31.3 100.0 Slightly
the % % % % % % % desirable
evacuation
center is
Being called 100.0 32 43 19 21 39 74 159 387 1.20

an % 8.3 11.1 4.9 5.4 10.1 19.1 41.1 100.0 Slightly
“evacuee” is % % % % % % % % desirable

Extremely Desirable
shows distribution of the responses to the perceived social pressure to perform or not
to perform pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Social pressure includes variables
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Almost all respondents appeared to experience social pressure to all variables.
Previous studies (Fei et al., 2011; Wood et al., 2012) explained the power influence of
items under subjective norm ranging from 1.17 – 2.34.
The estimates suggest that respondents experienced strong social pressure on
local officials, experts and radio and television announcements unlike the weak social
pressure with friends. Therefore, people in Davao Oriental provinces tended to rely
most on local officials and radio and television announcements but not the friends.
Results revealed that the respondents experienced strong social pressure from
local officials. This also matches the findings of (Kure et al., 2016) about the
importance of local officials in giving orders to evacuate.
Results revealed that respondents experienced strong social pressure from
radio announcements. This result coincides with the findings of Ahmad (2011) about
the media dependency of the audience. Previous researchers (Ahmad et al., 2011;
Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010) described the importance of
media in risk communication process.
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relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental
D d d Mean
Total
I am 100.0 2 0 6 17 48 72 242 387 2.34
expected to % 0.5 0.0 1.6 4.4 12.4 18.6 62.5 100.0 Strongly
evacuate % % % % % % % % Agree
when asked
by our local
official
When I hear 100.0 4 0 3 15 49 77 239 387 2.34

pre-emptive % 1.0 0.0 0.8 3.9 12.7 19.9 61.8 100.0 Strongly
evacuation % % % % % % % % Agree
announceme
nt on the
radio, I will
evacuate.
When I 100.0 6 1 4 16 46 91 223 387 2.26

watch pre- % 1.6 0.3 1.0 4.1 11.9 23.5 57.6 100.0 Strongly
emptive % % % % % % % % Agree
evacuation
announceme
nt on
television, I
will
evacuate.
When 100.0 44 21 10 43 39 91 139 387 1.17

advised by % 11.4 5.4 2.6 11.1 10.1 23.5 35.9 100.0 Somewh
friends, I % % % % % % % % at Agree
will
evacuate
When 100.0 4 2 4 20 40 80 237 387 2.30

advised by % 1.0 0.5 1.0 5.2 10.3 20.7 61.2 100.0 Strongly
experts, I % % % % % % % % Agree
will
evacuate
Table 70 shows importance of advice from local officials, experts and
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PROCEDURES
subjective norm ranged from 5.82 – 6.84. Respondents experienced strongest social
pressure from local officials and television announcements. This result concurs the
findings of Haimes (2012) and Rosenkeotter (2007) in establishing trust and
confidence in officials and Ahmad (2011) about the media dependency of the
audience. The influence of local chief executives or local officials and traditional
media is very important since specific actions of the population were based on the
information gathered by the local officials that was normally delivered by media.
Previous researchers (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein
et al., 2010) described the importance of media in the risk communication process.
Respondents acknowledged the importance of television announcement when it
comes to making a decision to evacuate.
The estimates suggest that respondents experienced strong social pressure on
local officials, friends and radio and television announcements unlike the weak social
pressure with experts. Therefore, people in Davao Oriental provinces tended to rely
most on local officials and radio and television announcements but not the experts.

when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation: Province of Davao
Oriental
d d Mean
Total
Advice from 100.0 0 0 0 15 7 2 363 387 6.84
me t
Radio 100.0 0 0 0 15 9 1 362 387 6.83
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when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation: Province of Davao
Oriental
d d Mean
Total
nt is % % % % % % y
me t
Television 100.0 0 0 0 15 7 2 363 387 6.84

nt is % % % % % % y
me t
What my 100.0 0 0 0 17 40 8 322 387 6.64

friends think % 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.4 10.3 2.1% 83.2 100.0 Extremel
I should do % % % % % % % y
matters to Importan
me t
What 100.0 0 0 0 16 10 2 359 387 5.82

experts % 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.1 2.6% 0.5% 92.8 100.0 Very
important to t
me
Extremely Important
Evacuation. Table 71 shows the distribution of responses regarding the respondents’
difficulty in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Previous research (Misha
et al., 2011) described the importance of individual mastery as motivation to act.
Results revealed that the respondents experienced difficulty (mean = 4.18) to follow
evacuation. This result is not surprising because of the dispersed answers in the Commented [r14]: Good! This should have been
mentioned earlier.
intention to perform evacuation procedures. This result shows that there is a limitation
of a participant’s control over the behavior (Ajzen, 1985). The result may be affected
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by the living arrangement of the respondents. Majority of the respondents were living
with their family and strong family ties hindered their individual decision to follow
emptive Evacuation procedure: Province of Davao Oriental
N=387 Total Mean
Frequency 96.4% 56 63 49 30 41 34 100 373 4.18
15.0% 16.9% 13.1% 8.0% 11.0% 9.1% 26.8% 100.0% Neutral
Table 72 shows respondents’ expectation towards evacuation and items related
making decisions include encouragement from the government and family and faith.
The mean value of three items under perceived behavioral control ranged from 3.99 –
4.31. Results revealed that the even though most respondents scored “extremely
likely”, it was followed by remarkable scores of “unlikely”. This revealed that some
respondents have strong control over the behavior and already showed mastery of
following evacuation procedures; however, other respondents expressed no concern in
the desired behavior.
Overall, respondents weighted encouragement from government the highest as
a requirement in performing the evacuation procures. Previous studies (Haimes, 2012;
Rosenkeotter, 2007) described the importance of officials in strengthening the

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intention to perform evacuation process. This stresses the importance of establishing
systems of the local and national government to strengthen people’s control of
performing evacuation (Haimes, 2012).
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emptive evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental
Total d Mean
I expect that 95.6% 55 69 49 23 21 13 140 370 4.31
government 14.9 18.6 13.2 6.2% 5.7% 3.5% 37.8 100.0 Neutral
should % % % % %
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
I expect that 95.9% 60 78 58 31 14 14 116 371 3.99

family 16.2 21.0 15.6 8.4% 3.8% 3.8% 31.3 100.0 Neutral
should % % % % %
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
My faith 95.9% 53 65 48 38 23 13 131 371 4.28

will 14.3 17.5 12.9 10.2 6.2% 3.5% 35.3 100.0 Slightly
determine % % % % % % Likely
my decision
to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedures

to perform evacuation procedures. The results revealed the positive self-worth that
can help respondents to improve their risk perception.
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confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Province of Davao Oriental
N=387 Total Mean
Frequency 100.% 24 12 12 35 32 71 201 387.00 1.73
6.2% 3.1% 3.1% 9.0% 8.3% 18.3% 51.9% 100.0% Agree
Items related to making decisions include encouragement from the government, and
of three items ranging from 1.94 – 2.12. The results revealed that the respondents
acknowledged the importance of encouragement from government. This further put
emphasis to the importance of local officials in contributing to the over-all risk
perception of the respondents.
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relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental
D d d Mean
Total
Having 100.% 13 7 6 21 41 58 241 387 2.12
government 3.4 1.8 1.6 5.4 10.6 15.0 62.3 100.0 Agree
encouragem % % % % % % % %
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
Having 100.% 12 6 12 29 53 68 207 387 1.94

family 3.1 1.6 3.1 7.5 13.7 17.6 53.5 100.0 Agree
encouragem % % % % % % % %
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedure
Having faith 100.% 11 7 10 40 39 68 212 387 1.95

would 2.8 1.8 2.6 10.3 10.1 17.6 54.8 100.0 1.95
enable me to % % % % % % % %
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedures

Respondents’ Media Usage and Evacuation Experience: Davao Oriental

Province.
distribution of the respondents on information sources and evacuation experience.
Items include information sources such as media platforms, announcement from
Local Government, word-of-mouth from neighbors, experience about evacuation its
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circumstances, and number of times and willingness to follow. Majority of the
responses indicate that participants use television (91%) and radio (71%) as a source
of information before and during emergencies. These results concur with the findings
of Ahmad (2011) which described the vital role of media in providing early warning
and dissemination of information. Only few people were using the Internet as
platform to access information before and during emergency. These results are
surprising: most of the participants are middle-aged, and middle-aged persons in a
previous study (Piotrwoski, 2015) prefer looking online for disaster information. This
contradicts previous research (Nyathi, 2013) on the strong exposure to modern
technology.
information. Disaster managers should maintain strong relationships with to deliver
disaster information to the local community. Previous studies (Esteban et al., 2016)
described the importance of creating multi-layer safety strategies and improving the
communication process to local residents.
experienced evacuating during an actual tropical storm. Majority (89%) of the
respondents experienced evacuating once or more than once. Previous studies
(Leonard et al., 2012; Nyathi, 2013) acknowledged the importance of past experiences
in building intention.
An overwhelming majority (90%) was willing to follow evacuation order.
This matches previous studies of Eisenman and colleagues (2007) and RØd and
colleagues (2012b) that describe that the lack of experience may impede the decision
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to evacuate or those who already experienced disasters are willing to follow the
instructions to evacuate.
Table 75. Frequency Distribution of the Respondents om Information as Regards Media

Usage and Evacuation Experience: Province of Davao Oriental: Davao Oriental Province
7

Internet 50 12.9% Yes 350 90.4%
Television 351 90.7% No 21 5.4%
Announcement from 249 Evacuation Drill 14 3.6%
Local Government 64.3%
Word-of-Mouth from 57 Tropical Cyclone 328 84.8%
Neighbors 14.7%
One 179 46.3% Yes 350 90.4%
Two 123 31.8% No 1 0.3%
Three 28 7.2%
More than 3 14 3.6%
Behavioral Control: Davao Oriental Province
Table 76 shows the overall score index on Attitude, Subjective Norms and
Perceived Behavioral Control of Davao Oriental Province. Subjective Norms showed
the strongest factor (mean = 68, range = 105) on building the intention to follow pre-
Perceived Behavioral Control (mean = 19.4, range = ± 84). Previous studies (Foss &
positively affect the intention to evacuate. This result concurs with findings from the
study of Fei and colleagues (2011) on the influence of societal factors on people’s
opinions about risk. Disaster managers should focus on building relationships with the
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community. Previous studies (Tinker, 2013) cited the importance of building and
maintaining trust and encouraging multi-sectoral cooperation amongst stakeholders,
which will result to well-informed decision making of the community in an
emergency situation.
Control: Province of Davao Oriental
Scale Attitude Subjective Norm Perceived
Behavioral
Control
Highly Strong (-) 118 0.30 22 0.06 53 0.14
Strong (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Moderate (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Neutral 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (+) 37 0.10 28 0.07 117 0.30
Weak (+) 34 0.09 34 0.09 112 0.29
Moderate (+) 65 0.17 65 0.17 58 0.15
Strong (+) 39 0.10 82 0.21 15 0.04
Highly Strong (+) 94 0.24 156 0.40 32 0.08
Grand Total 387 1.00 387 1.00 387 1.00
Index Score 35.5 Moderate 67.6 Strong 19.4 Weak
Factor Analysis
and internal consistency of the data. Previous study (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011)
explained that the acceptable values of alpha should range from 0.70 to 0.95. Francis
and colleagues (2004) recommended to use an index of internal consistency because
people can hold have both positive and negative beliefs. In this study, the researcher
reason for the Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation. Prior to the factor analysis,
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PROCEDURES
Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of
Sphericity were applied to test the fitness of data. The KMO was found to be 0.891
and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was found to be 2,563.57 with a significance lower
than 0.001. The results of both tests supported the use of factor analysis.
Table 77 shows the final scale of Attitude towards following pre-emptive
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Evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental

Positive Attitude
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe
0.893
in the evacuation center.
0.806
evacuation center
0.770
center
0.739
“evacuee”
Staying safe in the evacuation center
0.862
is
0.903
center is
0.907
center is

= 0.891
Sampling Adequacy
shows two factors or dimensions were labeled in order of decreasing explained
variance.
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Evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental
Component
Attributes
1 2
0.039 0.893
center.
I will be comfortable in the evacuation center 0.455 0.806
Being comfortable in the evacuation center is 0.903 0.289
Having security in the evacuation center is 0.907 0.249
There are two primary reasons why the respondents prioritize evacuation -
factor 1, which is primarily concerned with respondents’ realization of their attitude
(self-esteem or the confidence) found when in evacuation center, and factor 2 which
are the advantages in evacuation centers that include comfort and security issues. The
variable security has a correlation of 0.87 with factor 1 since factor loadings can be
interpreted like standardized regression coefficients. The results revealed a strong
association for a factor analysis.
Based on the variables loading highly onto factor 1, the researcher labelled it
as “Positive Attitude.” The variable being comfortable in the evacuation center is has
a high factor loading on factor 2. The results revealed the overall desirability within
the evacuation center, the researcher labeled it as Factor 2 “Desirability in Evacuation
center.”
The variable with the strongest association to the underlying latent variable in
Factor 1 is the respondents feeling of security in the evacuation center, with a factor
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PROCEDURES
loading of 0.89. Previous research (Smillie et al., 2010) described the importance of
the situation in evacuation centers in providing foundation in building intentions. This
of people in influencing their behavior.
Table 79 shows the values that can also be considered as multiple R-
regression of the respondents’ feeling of security against the two common factors, the
results obtained an R-squared = 0. 862, indicating that about 86.2% of the variation in
the respondents’ feeling of security is explained by the factor model. The results
revealed that the factor analysis explained the variation in all the attributes.
Table 79. Communalities of factors: Province of Davao Oriental

Communalities
Initial Extraction
1.000 .799
center.
I will be comfortable in the evacuation center 1.000 .856
I will feel secure in the evacuation center 1.000 .862
I am okay with being called an “evacuee” 1.000 .716
Being comfortable in the evacuation center is 1.000 .899
Having security in the evacuation center is 1.000 .885
identify the reason for the respondents’ Subjective Norm towards Evacuation. The
Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of
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1,675.06 with significance lower than 0.001. Both statistical tests supported the use of
factor analysis.
Table 80 shows the final scale of Subjective Norms towards following pre-
emptive evacuation procedures had an excellent value of Cronbach Alpha of 0.769.
reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.633 (“Television
announcement is important to me.”) and no item was discarded. Table 81 shows that
rules resulted in ten statements measured in two dimensions or factors.
were computed as the summation or total of the square of the factor loading. The three
factors or dimensions were labelled in order of decreasing explained variance.
There are three primary reasons why the respondents follow preemptive
evacuation - factor 1, which is primarily concerned with respondents’ perception of
the government and experts’ opinion, factor 2, which is the influence of media and
authorities, and factor 3, which is the influence of friends.
The results revealed that the respondents gave high importance to radio and
advice from local officials. This result concurs the findings of Haimes (2012) and
Rosenkeotter (2007) in establishing trust and confidence in officials. This result
audience. The influence of local chief executives or local officials and media is very
important since specific actions of the population were based on the information
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PROCEDURES
gathered by the local officials and media. These matches the findings of (Kure et al.,
2016) about the importance of local officials in giving orders to evacuate. Previous
researchers (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al.,
2010) described the importance of media in the risk communication process.

of Davao Oriental

4.552 45.517 0.769

0.800
announcement on the radio, I will 0.858
evacuate.
announcement on television, I will 0.803
evacuate.
Influence of Media and Authorities

Radio announcement is important to
0.751
me
0.633
important to me
0.758
me
0.892
evacuate
0.858
matters to me
= 0.883
Sampling Adequacy
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PROCEDURES
Table 81. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective

Norms towards Preemptive Evacuation: Province of Davao Oriental
Component
Attributes
1 2 3
I am expected to evacuate when asked by
0.800 0.131 0.045
our local official
announcement on the radio, I will 0.858 0.174 0.113
evacuate.
announcement on television, I will 0.803 0.116 0.243
evacuate.
When advised by friends, I will evacuate 0.230 0.007 0.892
When advised by experts, I will evacuate 0.641 0.300 0.227
0.424 0.745 0.032
important to me
Radio announcement is important to me 0.395 0.751 0.166
Television announcement is important to
-0.108 0.633 0.069
me
What my friends think I should do matters
0.121 0.294 0.858
to me
What experts advise is important to me 0.351 0.758 0.182
Tabe 82 shows regression models in predicting the variables of interest from
the two factors. The communality for a given variable can be interpreted as the
proportion of variance in that variable explained by the two factors. If we perform
multiple regression of the importance of the advice from the local official to the
respondents against the two common factors, the results obtained an R-squared = 0.
848, indicating that about 84.8% of the variation in the importance of advice is
explained by the factor model. The results revealed that the factor analysis explained
the variance in advice from government, experts, and friends.
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Table 82. Communalities of factors: Province of Davao Oriental

Communalities
Initial Extraction
When I watch pre-emptive evacuation announcement
1.000 .660
on television, I will evacuate.
Advice from our local official is important to me
1.000 .848
What my friends think I should do matters to me
1.000 .748
1.000 .837
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
1.000 .731
Normalization.
to be 1,439.44 with significance lower than 0.001. The results of both tests supported
the use of factor analysis.
Table 83 shows the final scale of Subjective Norm towards following pre-
emptive evacuation procedures had a good value of Cronbach Alpha of 0.744.
reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.640 (“I am confident that I
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can follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures”) and no item was discarded. The
rules resulted in eight statements measured in one dimension or factor.
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Dimension
2.980 37.254 0.744

Positive Attitude
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation
0.604
procedure is difficult
encourage me to follow pre-emptive 0.886
encourage me to follow pre-emptive 0.882
My faith will determine my decision
to follow pre-emptive evacuation 0.852
procedures

0.777
emptive evacuation
procedures

= .710
Sampling Adequacy
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Table 84. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral

Control: Province of Davao Oriental
Component
Attributes
1 2
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation procedure is difficult 0.066 0.604

I expect that government should encourage me to follow
0.069 0.886
I expect that family should encourage me to follow pre-

0.005 0.882

-0.020 0.852
I am confident that I can follow pre-emptive evacuation
0.777 0.047
procedures
Having government encouragement would enable me to
0.860 0.060
follow pre-emptive evacuation

0.883 0.039

0.846 -0.006
The values in Table 85 can also be considered as multiple R-squared values
for regression models predicting the variables of interest from the two factors. The
communality for a given variable can be interpreted as the proportion of variation in
that variable explained by the two factors. In other words, if we perform multiple
regression of the statement “Having family encouragement would enable me to follow
pre-emptive evacuation procedure” against the factor, the results obtained an R-
squared= 0.778, indicating that about 77.8% of the variation in having family
encouragement is explained by the factor model.
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Communalities
Initial Extraction
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation procedure is
1.000 .369
difficult
1.000 .789
1.000 .778
1.000 .726
1.000 .606
1.000 .743
1.000 .781
1.000 .715
Estimation of Parameters: Davao Oriental Province
Table 87 provides the estimated true relationship between socio-demographic
determinants and the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior towards
of the socio-demographic determinants affecting the three predictors of Theory of
Planned Behavior towards following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The model,
for example, indicates that:
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PROCEDURES
respondents age indicates that Attitude scores will decrease by 0.130,
the stronger the intention to follow evacuation procedure. This result
contradicts the study of Kellens and colleagues (2012), which claims that
behavior is enhanced when respondents are older residents. However, this
matches the findings from previous research (Eisenman et al., 2007) that
explained old age could cause people not to evacuate. Risk communication
strategies should be age specific and more focus on older people.
number of women respondents indicates that Attitude scores will decrease
by 9.047, Subjective Norm will increase by 3.739, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will decrease by 3.667, which means women less
favour and have less perceived control over evacuation. This matches the
findings of previous research (Lim et al., 2016) that sex can determine the
evacuation decision. This revealed that risk communication strategies
should also be gender specific.
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3. Relative to the effect of civil status, we can expect Attitude and Subjective
respondents who are married indicates that Attitude scores will decrease
Behavioral Control will decrease by 0.663, which means married
respondents tend to have less intention to follow evacuation procedures..
This revealed that married persons have less intention over the desired
behavior because their decision is affected by his/her companion. This
revealed that to improve risk communication strategies, increasing
intention to follow evacuation procedures should be developed through
disaster preparedness activities for married couples.
income of the respondents indicates that Attitude scores will increase by
Control will increase by 2.283, which means high income respondents tend
to follow evacuation. This matches previous studies (Lim et al., 2016) that
household income can determine the evacuation decision. In the
Philippines, evacuation is a government driven practice or is catered
toward those in need. Families with high income tend to be more resilient
compared to low-income households and are normally not displaced; thus,
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PROCEDURES
they are not normally directly affected by evacuation. This revealed to
improve risk communication strategies, programs should focus more on
low-income households.
5. Moreover, on the effect of educational attainment, we can expect Attitude
and Subjective Norms to yield negative scores; however, the Perceived
that Attitude scores will decrease by 3.574, Subjective Norm will decrease
by 7.802, and Perceived Behavioral Control will decrease by 2.525, which
means that respondents with high educational attainment tend not to follow
evacuation procedures. The results concur with the findings of Lim and
colleagues (2016) that educational attainment can determine evacuation
decision. This revealed the need to mainstream disaster risk in the
education system to improve risk perception of the respondents.
increase by 1.220, Subjective Norm will decrease by 0.415, and Perceived
Behavioral Control will increase by 1.429, which means house and lot
owners tend to feel less social pressure to follow evacuation procedures.
This concurs with the findings of a previous study (Lim et al., 2016) that
claimed that house ownership can determine evacuation decisions. House
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and lot owners have an assurance that they can return to their house after
the emergency, unlike those who do not own their house. This stress of the
need to prioritize personal safety and security in risk communication
strategies over house being damaged and looted.
procedures to yield positive scores among living with family. The
Control will decrease by 2.587, which means respondents living with
family tend to feel less perceived control. This matches findings from
previous studies (Misha et al., 2011; Tsujiuchi et al, 2016) on the
importance of social ties and individual response efficacy that is affected
by family. The also matches the finding of Eisenman and colleagues
(2007) that explained individual’s decision initiates a chain reaction that
affects the entire family. The results revealed the importance of activities
in building positive perception towards pre-emptive evacuation of the
whole members of the family to improve risk communication.
pre-emptive evacuation procedures to yield negative scores to those do not
know the location of the evacuation center. The corresponding magnitude
of the effect for every unit increase in the number of respondents who are
aware of the location of the evacuation center indicates that Attitude scores
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will increase by 0.239, Subjective Norm will increase by 14.133, and
Perceived Behavioral Control will decrease by 1.098, which means
respondents who are aware of evacuation centers tend to have less
perceived control. In terms in terms of awareness of the proximity of the
scores to those who know the location of the evacuation center. The
Evacuation Location indicates that Attitude scores will decrease by 5.714,
Control will increase by 0.066, which means respondents who are aware of
the location of evacuation centers tend to less favour and perceived control
over evacuation. Previous study (Kolens, 2012) described the importance
of moving to a safe place such as shelter or a safe haven can reduce
vulnerability. This revealed the importance of evacuation maps to increase
the awareness of the location of the evacuation in risk communication
process.
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Determinants and Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and
Perceived Behavioral Control. : Province of Davao Oriental
Determinants Norms
Davao Oriental
Age - - -
Sex - + -
Civil Status - - -
Income + + +
Education - - -
Home Ownership + - +
Living Arrangement + + -
Evacuation Location + + -
Evacuation Location - - +
Table 87 provides the regressions result for Davao Oriental Province’s Socio-
Demographic Determinants and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior.
The results revealed that income (co-efficient=1.383, p=0.05> 0.520) showed
the strongest relationship to Attitude (adjusted R-squared value = 0.065), which
means that high-income respondents are more inclined to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Therefore, risk communication strategies should focus on low-
income families.
The results show that awareness on the location of the evacuation center (co-
efficient = 14.133, p=0.05> 0.005) showed the strongest relationship to Subjective
Norm (adjusted R-squared value = 0.039), which means respondents who are aware
of the location of the evacuation center are more likely to feel social pressure to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Therefore, risk communication strategies
should focus on increasing awareness on the location of evacuation center through
visual representation such as maps.
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The results revealed that income (co-efficient=2.283, p=0.05> 0.078) showed
the strongest relationship to Perceived Behavioral Control (adjusted R-squared value
= 0. 030), which means the higher the income of the respondents, the more perceived
control to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Therefore, risk communication
strategies should focus on low-income families.
203
Table 87. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3 , using observations 1-387: Province of Davao Oriental
Constant 64.399 4.761 0.000 81.900 7.196 0.000 39.665 4.880 0.000
Age (0.130) (0.908) 0.364 (0.153) (1.269) 0.205 (0.043) (0.504) 0.614
Sex (9.047) (2.943) 0.003 3.739 1.445 0.149 (3.667) (1.985) 0.048
Civil Status (2.181) (0.724) 0.470 (1.265) (0.499) 0.618 (0.663) (0.366) 0.714
Income 1.383 0.644 0.520 0.683 0.378 0.706 2.283 1.769 0.078
Education (3.574) (1.589) 0.113 (7.802) (4.122) 0.000 (2.525) (1.868) 0.063
Home Ownership 1.220 1.122 0.262 (0.415) (0.453) 0.651 1.429 2.188 0.029
Living 0.504 0.150 0.881 0.862 0.305 0.761 (2.587) (1.281) 0.201
Arrangement
Awareness on the 0.239 0.041 0.968 14.133 2.857 0.005 (1.098) (0.311) 0.756
Location of the
Evacuation
Location
Knowledge on (5.714) (3.495) 0.001 (1.648) (1.198) 0.232 0.066 0.067 0.946
the Proximity of
the Evacuation
Location
R-squared 0.087 0.061 0.053

Adjusted R- 0.065 0.039 0.030
squared
P-value(F) 0.000 0.004 0.014
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PROCEDURES
could preclude factor analysis; and for normality of residuals, to see if the errors are
For Davao Oriental Province, the researcher found no multicollinearity, which
heteroscedasticity. The computed p-value for Attitude, Subjective Norms, and
Perceived Behavioral Control are 0.298, 0.477, and 0.148 which is lower than 0.05
which means there is not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis that
heteroscedasticity was not present on the model. Commented [r15]: Meaning… does this mean that your
variables have no statistically significant effect? Or that your
model is faulty?
As mentioned earlier, the presence of heteroscedasticity implies that the
variance of the error terms differs across observations. Heteroskedasticity arises more
frequently in cross-sectional data. These are data where observations are all for the
same time period (e.g., a particular month, day, or year) but are from different entities
(e.g., people, firms, provinces, countries, etc.).
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PROCEDURES
The presence of heteroscedasticity is a main issue in the use of regression
analysis, as it can invalidate statistical tests of significance that suppose that the
modelling errors are uncorrelated and uniform - consequently that their variances do
not vary with the effects being modeled. For instance, while the ordinary least squares
estimator is still unbiased in the presence of heteroscedasticity, it is inefficient
because the true variance and covariance are underestimated. Despite this violation,
however, OLS Coefficients are still unbiased and consistent for true value. This only
means that the observed linear effect of the independent variables to the dependent
variables is suspected to produced varying relationships among specific groups.
Thus, we cannot always expect that the standard tests will always assume that
variances within groups are equal.
Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in Appendix K.
Hypothesis Testing
For attitude, sex (p-value = 0.003 < 0.05) is statistically significant at 95%
significance level, which means females are more inclined to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Further, knowledge on the proximity of the evacuation center
(p-value = 0.001 < 0.05), which means the near the respondents to the evacuation
center the more inclined to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The t-ratio of
the remaining attributes shows that there is no statistical evidence to reject the Null
Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect on Attitude.
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PROCEDURES
For Subjective Norm, educational attainment (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05) is
statistically significant at the 95% significance level, which means the higher the
educational attainment, the more likely to feel social pressure to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Moreover, awareness n the location of the evacuation center
(p-value = 0.005 < 0.05) is statistically significant at the 95% significance level,
which means that respondents who are aware of the location of evacuation centers are
more likely to feel social pressure to follow evacuation procedures.The t-ratio of the
Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect to Subjective Norms.
For Perceived Behavioral Control, sex (p-value = 0.048 < 0.05) is statistically
significant at the 95% significance level, which means females have stronger
perceived control to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The t-ratio of the
Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect to Perceived Behavioral
Control. Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in Appendix L
Table 88 provides the regressions result for Davao Oriental’s Behavioral
Intentions attributes as the dependent variables and the relation to other variables
including Attitude Score, Subjective Norm Score, Perceived Behavioral Control
Score, and number of times respondents experienced evacuation.
respondents Attitude scores will have an effect of a decrease by 0.023 with
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PROCEDURES
respect to their difficulty in making a decision to follow. On the other
hand, willingness to follow will increase by 0.001. Therefore, the estimates
suggest that increase in the attitude scores of the participants reflects less
difficulty in making decisions and more willingness to follow evacuation
orders.
respondents Subjective Norm Score scores will have an effect of an
of the participants reflects the more difficulty in making decisions and less
willingness to follow evacuation orders.
Therefore, the estimate suggest that the increase in Perceived Behavioral
Control score reflects more difficulty in making decision but more
respondents number of times that the respondents experienced evacuation
will have an effect of an increase by 0.004 with respect to their difficulty
in making a decision to follow. On the other hand, willingness to follow
will increase by 0056. Therefore, the estimates suggest that the increase in
the number of times respondents experienced evacuation reflects more
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PROCEDURES
difficulty in making decisions but more willing to follow evacuation
orders.
The results revealed that the respondents experienced less difficulty in making
a decision to follow evacuation orders for every increase in the scores Subjective
Norm, Perceived Behavioral Control, and number of times the respondents
experienced evacuation. Previous studies (Ajzen, 2002; Foss & Littlejon, 2009) cited
that the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior are conceptually independent
that can add to the development of intention.
increase of the number of times he/she experienced evacuating. This contradicts the
study of RØd and colleagues (2012b), which claimed that residents who already
experienced disasters are willing to follow the instructions to evacuate. Respondents
identified government facilities such as gym, barangay hall, municipal hall, and other
community infrastructure as evacuation centers. However, government facilities are
not equipped to handle evacuees.
The results revealed that the respondents are less willing to follow evacuation
orders for every increase of scores of Attitude, Perceived Behavioral Control, and
number of times that respondents experienced evacuating. This study revealed the
importance of safe, secured and comfortable evacuation facility. Previous studies
(Kolens, 2012) acknowledged that moving to a safe place such as could reduce
vulnerability and risk of loss of lives.
Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control. :
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PROCEDURES
Model 4 Model 5
Davao Oriental
Attitude Score - +
Subjective Norm Score + -
PBC Score + +
Evacuation + +
Davao Oriental
Model 4 Model 5
Decision to follow
value value
Constant 2.878 9.511 0.000 0.808 20.660 0.000
Attitude Score (0.023) (7.259) 0.000 0.001 1.370 0.172
Subjective 7Norm Score 0.014 3.455 0.001 (0.000) (0.366) 0.714
PBC Score 0.025 4.655 0.000 0.001 0.948 0.344
R-squared 0.169 0.043

P-value(F) 0.000 0.002
For Davao Oriental Province, the researcher found no multicollinearity, which
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PROCEDURES
three predictors of the Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive
evacuation procedures are 0.298, 0.477, and 0.148, higher than 0.05. Fourth, the
researcher tested if the regression residuals have unequal variances using Breusch-
Pagan – heteroscedasticity. The computed p-value for Attitude and Subjective Norms
are 0.017and 0.013 lower than 0.05 which means that there is not enough evidence to
reject the null hypothesis’ heteroscedasticity was not present on the model. Perceived
Behavioral Control is 0.560 higher than 0.05, which means that the study does have
enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis’ and that heteroscedasticity was present
on the model. Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in Appendix M.
Hypothesis Testing
follow and their willingness to follow evacuation orders.
The three predictors (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05) are statistically significant at
95% significance level in difficulty in making a decision to follow evacuation, which
means the higher the scores of the three predictors the less difficulty in making
decision to follow evacuation.
The number of times that respondents experienced evacuating (p-value =
0.001 > 0.05) is statistically significant at the 95% significance level in willingness to
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PROCEDURES
follow evacuation, which means that the more experienced the respondents are, the
more willing they are to follow evacuation.
evacuation orders.
For willingness to follow evacuation, the Perceived Behavioral Control (p-
value = 0.016 < 0.05) is statistically significant at 95% significance level, which
means the higher the Perceived Behavioral Control score the more willing who to
follow evacuation orders. The t-ratio of the remaining attributes shows that there is no
statistical evidence to reject the Null Hypothesis that the said variables have no
significant effect to their difficulty in making a decision to follow and their
willingness to follow pre-emptive evacuation. Details on the outcomes of these tests
are presented in Appendix N.
The results revealed that the family, as external referent and faith, as perceived
control have positive impact on the decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures.
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PROCEDURES
revealed that the strong family ties, as a cultural indicator, should be considered in
Respondents also agreed to have more perceived control because of faith. This
matches the findings of Güss and Panga (2004) describing the “bahala na” (accepting
a given situation) attitude of the respondents. The acknowledgement of the
Davao Orietal Province showed positive intention to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. However, there are nuances of factors affecting the intentions
and difficulty of the target populations to evacuate. The difficulty, at varying level of
their risk perception.
Risk communication strategies should be designed based on the target
population. In Davao Oriental, income showed the strongest relationship to Attitude
and Perceived Behavioral Contorl. This stresses the need to focus risk communication
strategies to low-income household. Awareness of the location of the evacuation
facilities showed the strongest relationship to Subjective Norms. This revealed that
social pressure is strongest for those who are aware of the location of the evacuation
facilities.
In terms of respondents’ difficulty to follow evacuation orders, risk
communication strategies should improve the scores of Subjective Norm and
Perceived Behavioral Control. Therefore, risk communication strategies should focus
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PROCEDURES
more on establishing trust and building relationships and improvement of the
individual mastery towards evacuation.
In terms of respondents’ willingness to follow evacuation orders, risk
communication strategies should improve the scores of Attitude. Therefore, risk
communication strategies should focus on improving behavioral beliefs towards
evacuation.
The results revealed that Subjective Norm is the strongest factor that affects
the decision to follow evacuation procedures in Davao Oriental Province. The strong
social pressure from local officials, friends, experts and media such as television and
radio reflects the importance of social ties in risk communication process.
Aggregated Results
This study was conduct in three areas in the Philippines and treated as a
unique case; however, the aggregated results will look into results in a larger scale.
The researchers acknowledged the nuances unique to locations in the Philippines and
these nuances could be lost while data was treated as a whole; however, it is also
necessary to look into data as a whole to provide general recommendations in risk
Socio-demographic and Economic Profile. Table 90 compares the socio-
demographic and economic profile of all three provinces using eight variables: sex,
civil status, age, average monthly income, house ownership, living arrangements,
living companions, and educational attainment. Almost half (547/1,200) of all
respondents were female. Out of the 1,200 respondents, over half (697) of the
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PROCEDURES
disclose their status. Almost half (48%) were in 30-39 age bracket (22%) and 40-49
age bracket (27%). Almost half (587/1,200) of the respondents earned less than 1,000
monthly. Table 90 also shows that almost half (48%) of the respondents were house
and lot owners, while the rest were sharers, renters, caretakers, house owners and lot
owners. Majority (82%) of the respondents were living with their family, while the
rest were living alone, with friends and with extended family. Almost half (657/1,200)
of the respondents were living with someone below 18 years old. Majority (86%) of
the respondents finished high school (37%), elementary (20%), and college (29%).
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PROCEDURES

Aggregated Result
Variables N=1,200 % Variables N=1,200 %
Sex House Ownership
Female 547 45.6% Sharer 127 10.6%
697 58.1% lot 325 27.1%
91 7.6% house 6 0.5%
living 22 1.8%
20-29 129 10.8% Alone 43 3.6%
30-39 264 22.0% With my friends 53 4.4%
40-49 320 26.7% With my family 983 81.9%
None 104 5 0.4% 2 0.5%
Less than 1,000 208 1 0.1% 1 0.2%
10,001 to 50,000 30 2.5% Elementary 251 20.9%
50,001 to 100,000 3 0.3% High School 442 36.8%
More than College
100,000 4 0.3% 342 28.5%
Post-Grad 108 9.0%
exceptions, were aware of the evacuation center. Almost half (572/1,200) of the
a policy of the Department of Education. Aside from the disruption of students’
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PROCEDURES
education, the schools cannot provide adequate shelter to the evacuees due to limited
space and facilities.

Aggregated Result
Variables N=1,200 %
Yes 1097 91.4%
No 26 2.2%
Relatives 108 9.0%
Others 154 12.8%
Examination of Behavioral Intention: Overall Results.
Behavioral Intention. Table 92 shows the behavioral intention with an
overwhelming majority (99%) who answered affirmatively in their intention to follow
pre-emptive evacuation procedures. This matches findings from previous research
(Tinker, 2013) that the increased awareness of the target population would result to
well-informed decision-making. The results revealed that the participants strong
intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation and according to Ajzen (1985) desired
actions are controlled by intention.

evacuation: Total
Variables N=1,200 %
Yes 1157 98.72%
No 15 1.28%
Table 93 shows that respondents experienced low difficulty in making
decisions. However, a closer examination of the data showed that the most responses
were on the “not at all difficult” to “somewhat difficult”. Results revealed the
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PROCEDURES
respondents’ low difficulty (mean = 3.06) in making decision. The results revealed an
extremely diverse population with varying level of difficulty.
Aggregated Results
N=1200 Total Mean
Frequency 94.9% 367 242 157 76 78 66 153 1,139 3.06
32.2% 21.2% 13.8% 6.7% 6.8% 5.8% 13.4% 100.0% Somewhat
Difficult
Most of the responses were leaning toward not difficult; however, closer
examination of the data shows that the level of difficulty differ; for those in Aurora
and Eastern Samar, estimates suggest low difficulty, in contrast to Davao Oriental,
showed neutrality in difficulty level. These findings show nuances unique to locations
in the Philippines; these nuances could be lost had the data been treated as a whole.
The time of survey may affect the decision of the respondents. Data gathering
were conducted during the last quarter of 2016 wherein tracks of tropical cyclones
were focused on Luzon to Visayas.
decision, by Locality
Question Response Weighted Mean
Rate Aurora Davao Eastern Grand
Oriental Samar Total
On the scale of 1-7, 94.9% 2.69 3.98 2.54 3.06
how difficult was it for Low Neutral Low Somewhat
you to make a decision Difficult Difficult Difficult
on the scenario?
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PROCEDURES
Examination of Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral
Control: Aggregated Results.
Respondents’ Attitude towards Pre-emptive Evacuation. Table 95 shows Formatted: No page break before
distribution of the responses of how likely respondents would feel about evacuating.
The feeling about evacuating includes variables such as feeling safe, comfortable,
secure, and acceptability of being called an evacuee. Overall, respondents appeared
to have positive attitudes to all variables. Respondents mostly favored being called an
“evacuee”.
evacuating: Aggregated Result
00 d d Mean
Total
If I evacuate, 97.9 115 77 95 102 112 204 470 1,175 5.14
I will feel % 9.8 6.6 8.1 8.7 9.5% 17.4 40.0 100.0 Slightly
that I am safe % % % % % % % Likely
in the
evacuation
center.
I will be 96.7 117 95 108 124 118 201 397 1,160 4.92
comfortable % 10.1 8.2 9.3 10.7 10.2 17.3 34.2 100.0 Slightly
in the % % % % % % % % Likely
evacuation
center
I will feel 97.1 111 98 99 102 129 191 435 1,165 5.02
secure in the % 9.5 8.4 8.5 8.8 11.1 16.4 37.3 100.0 Slightly
evacuation % % % % % % % % Likely
center
I am okay 96.5 115 84 85 89 112 191 482 1,158 5.16

with being % 9.9 7.3 7.3 7.7 9.7% 16.5 41.6 100.0 Slightly
called an % % % % % % % Likely
“evacuee”

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PROCEDURES
In the aggregate, all participants appeared that they were comfortable with
being called an evacuee. However, closer examination of the data (as presented in
Table 96) shows that this level of comfort differs: for those in Aurora and Eastern
Samar, such a label was most favored; for those in Davao Oriental, on the other hand,
safety was most favored. These findings show nuances on labels unique to locations
in the Philippines; these nuances could be lost had the data been treated as a whole.
Table 96. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their Behavioral Beliefs

towards Evacuation Centers, by Locality
If I evacuate, I will feel 97.9% 5.60 5.37 4.42 5.14
that I am safe in the Likely Likely Neutral Slightly
evacuation center. Likely
I will be comfortable in 96.7% 5.57 4.80 4.33 4.92
the evacuation center Likely Slightly Neutral Slightly
Likely Likely
I will feel secure in the 97.1% 5.69 4.77 4.55 5.02
evacuation center Likely Slightly Slightly Slightly
Likely Likely Likely
I am okay with being 96.6% 5.62 5.21 4.63 5.16
called an “evacuee” Likely Slightly Slightly Slightly
Average Weighted 97.1% 5.62 5.04 4.48 5.06
Mean Likely Slightly Slightly Slightly
Table 97 shows the distribution of the responses of how likely respondents Formatted: No page break before
would feel about evacuating. The feeling about evacuating includes variables such as
feeling safe, comfortable, secure, and acceptability of being called an evacuee. Table
97 shows the mean value of five items under subjective norm ranging from 1.24 –
1.56. Almost all respondents appeared to have positive attitude to all variables.
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PROCEDURES
evacuate for fear of safety.
Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aggregated Result
0 d d Mean
Total
Staying safe 100.0 67 73 46 53 175 269 517 1,200 1.56
in the % 5.6 6.1 3.8 4.4 14.6 22.4 43.1 100.0 Desirabl
evacuation % % % % % % % % e
center is.
Being 100.0 86 84 53 72 146 285 474 1,200 1.38

comfortable % 7.2 7.0 4.4 6.0 12.2 23.8 39.5 100.0 Desirabl
in the % % % % % % % % e
evacuation
center is
Having 100.0 78 85 53 68 153 290 473 1,200 1.41

security in % 6.5 7.1 4.4 5.7 12.8 24.2 39.4 100.0 Desirabl
the % % % % % % % % e
evacuation
center is
Being called 100.0 114 79 65 76 148 244 474 1,200 1.24

an % 9.5 6.6 5.4 6.3 12.3 20.3 39.5 100.0 Slightly
“evacuee” is % % % % % % % % desirable

Extremely Desirable
In the aggregate, all participants appeared to have a positive response on the
desirability of safety, being comfortable, having security, and being called an
evacuee. However, closer examination of the data shows that this level of desirability
differs: for those in Aurora, attitude towards evacuation was extremely desirable; for
those in Eastern Samar and Davao, on the other hand, attitude towards evacuation was
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PROCEDURES
slightly desirable. These findings show that the degree of favor could be pulled by the
extreme desirable response of Aurora.
Respondents in Aurora and Eastern Samar Provinces desired the feeling of
safety in evacuation centers. This is in contrast to those in Davao Oriental, who also
desire safety in evacuation, however desired more being called an “evacuee”. These
findings show the acceptance of respondents from Davao Oriental on being tagged as
“evacuee” compared other provinces. These comparisons are presented in Table 98.
Table 98. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on Outcome Evaluation Towards

Evacuation, by Locality
Staying safe in the 100.0% 2.36 1.10 1.19 1.56
evacuation center is Extremely Slightly Slightly Desirable
Desirable desirable desirable
Being comfortable 100.0% 2.22 0.99 0.91 1.38
in the evacuation Extremely Slightly Slightly Desirable
center is Desirable desirable desirable
Having security in 100.0% 2.24 0.87 1.09 1.41
the evacuation Extremely Slightly Slightly Desirable
center is Desirable desirable desirable
Being called an 100.0% 2.05 1.20 0.46 1.24
“evacuee” is Desirable Slightly Neutral Slightly
desirable desirable
Mean Extremely Slightly Slightly Desirable
Desirable desirable desirable
shows the distribution of the responses to the perceived social pressure to perform or
not to perform pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Social pressure includes variables
Almost all respondents appeared to experience social pressure from all variables.
Previous studies (Fei et al. 2011; Wood et al., 2012) explained the power influence of
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PROCEDURES
items under subjective norm ranging from 1.51 – 2.31. Respondents experienced the
strongest social pressure from experts. This result concurs the findings of Takeuchi
and colleagues (2012) in establishing trust and confidence in experts. Previous
research (Rød et al., 2012a) claimed that respondents who already experienced a
dialogue with experts are likely to comply with evacuation procedures. Risk
Communication acknowledges the importance of science as a way of understanding
risks (Shi et al., 2011; Tuler et al., 2012) and improvement of the communication
process lies with building relationship with experts (Rød et al., 2012a; Smillie &
Blissett, 2010; Takeuchi et al., 2012). Based on the communication flow chart of the
NDRRMC, information used by local officials came solely from surveillance agencies
that include PAGASA, PHIVOLCS and other government agencies. This matches the
study of Tinker (2013) that the blend of change management and crisis
communication can increase awareness, build and maintain trust, encourage multi-
sectoral cooperation, and will result to well-informed decision making.
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PROCEDURES

relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aggregated Result
0 D d d Mean
Total
I am 100.0 5 13 12 46 172 215 737 1,200 2.30
expected to % 0.4 1.1 1.0 3.8 14.3 17.9 61.4 100.0 Strongly
evacuate % % % % % % % % Agree
when asked
by our local
official
When I hear 100.0 19 13 15 52 186 257 658 1,200 2.15

pre-emptive % 1.6 1.1 1.3 4.3 15.5 21.4 54.8 100.0 Agree
evacuation % % % % % % % %
announceme
nt on the
radio, I will
evacuate.
When I 100.0 21 20 18 45 174 280 642 1,200 2.12

watch pre- % 1.8 1.7 1.5 3.8 14.5 23.3 53.5 100.0 Agree
emptive % % % % % % % %
evacuation
announceme
nt on
television, I
will
evacuate.
When 100.0 95 38 43 93 166 243 522 1,200 1.51

advised by % 7.9 3.2 3.6 7.8 13.8 20.3 43.5 100.0 Agree
friends, I % % % % % % % %
will
evacuate
When 100.0 11 7 9 53 166 206 748 1,200 2.31

advised by % 0.9 0.6 0.8 4.4 13.8 17.2 62.3 100.0 Strongly
experts, I % % % % % % % % Agree
will
evacuate
In the aggregate, all participants appeared to feel most social pressure from
experts. However, closer examination of the data shows that those in Eastern Samar
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PROCEDURES
feel the most social pressure from experts, while those in Davao Oriental feel the most
social pressure from local officials and radio. These findings show nuances on the
social ties unique to locations in the Philippines; these nuances could be lost had the
data been treated as a whole. These responses are presented in Table 100.
Table 100. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on Social Pressure, by Locality

I am expected to 100.0% 2.44 2.34 2.11 2.30
evacuate when asked Strongly Strongly Agree Strongly
by our local official Agree Agree Agree
When I hear pre- 100.0% 2.09 2.34 2.02 2.16
emptive evacuation Agree Strongly Agree Agree
announcement on the Agree
When I watch pre- 100.0% 2.13 2.26 1.96 2.12
emptive evacuation Agree Strongly Agree Agree
announcement on Agree
television, I will
evacuate.
When advised by 100.0% 2.10 1.17 1.24 1.51
friends, I will evacuate Agree Agree Agree Agree
When advised by 100.0% 2.43 2.30 2.18 2.31
experts, I will evacuate Strongly Strongly Agree Strongly
Agree Agree Agree
Mean Strongly Agree Agree Agree
Agree
Table 101 shows distribution of the response to the perceived social pressure
to perform or not to perform pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Social pressure
includes variables such as local officials, friends, experts, and announcement from
television and radio. Almost all respondents appeared to experience social pressure to
all variables. Previous studies (Fei et al. 2011; Wood et al., 2012) explained the power
influence of social structures to individual behavior. Table 101 shows the mean value
of five items under subjective norm ranging from 5.74 – 6.84. Respondents
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PROCEDURES
experienced strongest social pressure from local officials and radio announcements.
This result concurs the findings of Haimes (2012) and Rosenkeotter (2007) in
establishing trust and confidence in officials. The influence of local chief executives
or local officials in the Philippines is very important since specific actions of the
population were based on the information gathered by the local officials. This also
matches the findings of (Kure et al., 2016) about the importance of local officials in
giving orders to evacuate. This result coincides with the findings of Ahmad (2011)
about the media dependency of the audience. Previous researchers (Ahmad et al.,
2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010) described the
importance of media in the risk communication process. Respondents acknowledged
the importance of radio announcement when it comes to making a decision to
evacuate. The NDRRMC acknowledged that local official media are strong forces to
increase the awareness of the public. The establishment of Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management Councils at the local level acknowledges establishing systems to
strengthen people’s control of performing evacuation (Haimes, 2012).
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PROCEDURES

when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation: Aggregated Result
0 d d Mean
Total
Advice from 100.0 0 0 0 39 33 15 1,113 1,200 6.84
me t
Radio 100.0 0 0 0 35 36 16 1,113 1,200 6.84

nt is % % % % % % y
me t
Television 100.0 0 0 0 39 36 13 1,112 1,200 6.83

nt is % % % % % % y
me t
What my 100.0 0 0 0 40 101 48 1,011 1,200 6.69

friends think % 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3 8.4% 4.0% 84.3 100.0 Extremel
I should do % % % % % % y
matters to Importan
me t
What 100.0 0 0 0 73 40 19 1,068 1,200 5.74

experts % 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.1 3.3% 1.6% 89.0 100.0 Very
important to t
me
Extremely Important
In all provinces, both the influence of local officials and announcement from
radio showed the strongest favor in determining the decision to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Previous research explained the importance of government
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PROCEDURES
(Haimes, 2012; Tinket, 2013; Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) and media (Ahmad et al.,
2011; Egner et al., 2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010) in influencing behavior.
Respondents in Aurora Province tended to rely most on the announcement on
radio. This is in contrast to those in Davao Oriental, who did not rely on radio, but
instead waited for advice of the government and announcement from the television.
Across the board, all respondents did not wait for advice from experts. This shows
varying media usage ties in the provinces. These responses are tabulated in Table 102.
Table 102. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their Motivation to Comply,

by Locality
Advice from our local 100.0% 6.89 6.84 6.78 6.84
official is important to Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely
me Important Important Important Important
Radio announcement 100.0% 6.91 6.83 6.78 6.84
is important to me Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely
Important Important Important Important
Television 100.0% 6.90 6.84 6.75 6.83
announcement is Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely
important to me Important Important Important Important
What my friends think 100.0% 6.86 6.64 6.57 6.69

I should do matters to Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely
me Important Important Important Important
What experts advise is 100.0% 5.62 5.82 5.77 5.74
important to me Very Very Very Very
Mean Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely
Evacuation. Table 103 shows the distribution of responses of respondents’ difficulty
in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Previous research (Misha et al.,
2011) described the importance of individual mastery as motivation to act. Results

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PROCEDURES
revealed that the respondents experienced difficulty (mean = 3.47) to follow
evacuation. This result is surprising because of the overwhelming positive scores in
the intention to perform evacuation procedures. This result shows that there is a
limitation of a participant’s control over the behavior (Ajzen, 1985). The result may
be affected due to respondents’ living arrangements with family. This result concurs
the findings of Lim and colleagues (2016) that evacuation decisions can be
determined by household characteristics. Majority of the respondents were living with
their family and strong family ties hindered their individual decision to follow
emptive Evacuation procedure: Aggregated Result
N=1200 Total Mean
Frequency 95.8% 296 222 144 98 115 70 204 1,149 3.47
25.8% 19.3% 12.5% 8.5% 10.0% 6.1% 17.8% 100.0% Somewhat
Difficult
Table 104 shows that respondents in Davao Oriental Provinces showed the
highest difficulty compared to Aurora and Eastern Samar Provinces. Most of the
responses were dispersed throughout the difficulty level. The results revealed that the
population is dispersed.
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PROCEDURES
Table 104. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents Difficulty to Follow Pre-

Emptive Evacuation Procedure, by Locality
Rate Aurora Davao Eastern Grand Total
Oriental Samar
For me, the pre- 95.8% 3.34 4.18 2.91 3.47
emptive Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Somewhat
evacuation Difficult Difficult Difficult
procedure is
Table 105 shows respondents’ expectation towards evacuation and items
related to making decisions including encouragement from the government and family
and faith. The mean value of three items under perceived behavioral control ranged
from 4.34 – 4.74. Results revealed that the even though most respondents scored
“extremely likely”, it was followed by remarkable scores of “extremely unlikely” and
“unlikely”. This revealed that some respondents have strong control over the behavior
and already showed mastery of following evacuation procedures and other expressed
no concern on the behavior. Since it is assumed that the perceived behavioral control
also reflects past experiences, this result matches the findings of Cadag and Gaillard
(2011) and Lagmay and Arcilla (n.d.) on the importance of building mastery through
conduct of regular drills.
Based on aggregated results, respondents weighted encouragement from
government as a requirement in performing the evacuation procures. Previous studies
(Haimes, 2012; Rosenkeotter, 2007) described the importance of officials to
contribute in respondents’ risk perception of difficulty to perform evacuation process.
This revealed the importance of establishing systems of the local and national
government is deemed necessary to strengthen people’s control of performing
evacuation (Haimes, 2012).
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emptive evacuation: Aggregated Result
0 Total d Mean
I expect that 95.7% 130 185 134 60 51 70 518 1,148 4.74
government 11.3 16.1 11.7 5.2% 4.4% 6.1% 45.1 100.0 Slightly
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
I expect that 95.6% 164 211 151 77 57 67 420 1,147 4.34

family 14.3 18.4 13.2 6.7% 5.0% 5.8% 36.6 100.0 Neutral
should % % % % %
encourage
me to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedure
My faith 95.8% 138 196 128 80 70 40 497 1,149 4.62

will 12.0 17.1 11.1 7.0% 6.1% 3.5% 43.3 100.0 Slightly
determine % % % % % Likely
my decision
to follow
pre-emptive
evacuation
procedures

Table 106 shows the difficulty level of the respondents in making decisions
to follow evacuation procedures. All provinces showed the highest importance of
encouragement coming from the government and family. Previous study (Haimes,
2012) described the importance of an established system by the local or national
government that people follow during pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
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Table 106. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on how difficult was it to make
a decision, by Locality
I expect that 95.7% 4.95 4.31 4.94 4.74
government should Slightly Neutral Slightly Slightly
encourage me to follow Likely Likely Likely
pre-emptive evacuation
procedure
I expect that family 95.6% 4.81 3.99 4.18 4.34
should encourage me to Slightly Neutral Neutral Neutral
follow pre-emptive Likely
My faith will determine 95.8% 4.89 4.28 4.65 4.62
my decision to follow Slightly Neutral Slightly Slightly
pre-emptive evacuation Likely Likely Likely
procedures
Mean Slightly Neutral Slightly Slightly
to perform evacuation procedures. This result concurs the findings of Misha and
colleagues (2011) that the higher the self-esteem, the more sense of worth feels in
protecting himself or herself from a threatening situation.
confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Aggregated Result
N=402 Total Mean
Frequency 100.0% 69 28 50 88 92 218 655 1,200.00 1.82
5.8% 2.3% 4.2% 7.3% 7.7% 18.2% 54.6% 100.0% Agree
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PROCEDURES
Table 108 shows the respondents’ confidence in following evacuation
procedures. Results revealed that all provinces showed strong confidence in following
pre-emptive evacuation procedures as an indication of individual mastery for
preparedness as motivation to act (Misha et al., 2011). Commented [r16]: Refer to the table
Table 108. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their agreement relative to

their confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures
I am confident that I can 100.0% 1.73 1.73 1.99 1.82
follow pre-emptive Agree Agree Agree Agree
Items related to making decisions include encouragement from the government and
of three items ranging from 1.84 – 1.93. The respondents acknowledged the
importance of encouragement from government. Previous studies (Haimes, 2012;
Rosenkeotter, 2007) described the importance of officials in contributing to the
overall intention.
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relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aggregated Result
0 D d d Mean
Total
Having 100.% 61 26 33 92 98 181 709 1,200 1.93
government 5.1 2.2 2.8 7.7 8.2% 15.1 59.1 100.0 Agree
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
Having 100.% 56 37 31 93 114 219 650 1,200 1.86

family 4.7 3.1 2.6 7.8 9.5% 18.3 54.2 100.0 Agree
ent would
enable me to
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedure
Having faith 100.% 58 26 46 107 97 216 650 1,200 1.84

would 4.8 2.2 3.8 8.9 8.1% 18.0 54.2 100.0 Agree
enable me to % % % % % % %
follow pre-
emptive
evacuation
procedures

Table 110 shows that respondents in all provinces agreed that having
encouragement from government would help them to follow pre-emptive evacuation.
This revealed the importance of establishing systems of the local and national
government is necessary to strengthen people’s control of performing evacuation
(Haimes, 2012).
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PROCEDURES
Table 110. Weighted Mean Response of Respondents on their agreement on the

influence of encouragement on their decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures, by Locality
Having government 100.0% 1.76 2.12 1.93 1.93
encouragement would enable Agree Agree Agree Agree
me to follow pre-emptive
evacuation
Having family encouragement 100.0% 1.73 1.94 1.91 1.86

would enable me to follow Agree Agree Agree Agree
procedure
Having faith would enable me 100.0% 1.66 1.95 1.92 1.84

to follow pre-emptive Agree Agree Agree Agree
Average Weighted Mean 100.0% 1.72 2.00 1.92 1.88
Agree Agree Agree Agree
Overall Scores: Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral
Control: Aggregated Results
Table 111 shows the overall score index on Attitude, Subjective Norms, and
Perceived Behavioral Control of all the provinces. Subjective Norms showed the
strongest factor (mean = 68, range = 105) on building the intention to follow pre-
Perceived Behavioral Control (mean = 19, range = ± 84). Previous studies (Foss &
Littlejohn, 2009) explained that societal factors strongly affect their behavior and
positively affecting the intention. This result concurs with findings from the study of
Fei and colleagues (2011) on the influence of societal factors on people’s opinion
about risk. Disaster managers should focus on building relationships with the
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PROCEDURES
community. Previous studies (Tinker, 2013) cited the importance of building and
maintaining trust and encouraging multi-sectoral cooperation amongst stakeholders,
which will result to well-informed decision making of the community in an
emergency situation.
Control: Aggregated Result
Scale Attitude Subjective Norms Perceived
Behavioral
Control
Highly Strong (-) 253 0.21 74 0.06 199 0.17
Strong (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Moderate (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (-) 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Neutral 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
Highly Weak (+) 165 0.14 93 0.08 387 0.32
Weak (+) 144 0.12 140 0.12 384 0.32
Moderate (+) 192 0.16 224 0.19 126 0.11
Strong (+) 136 0.11 179 0.15 53 0.04
Highly Strong (+) 310 0.26 490 0.41 51 0.04
Grand Total 1,200 1.00 1,200 1.00 1,200 1.00
Index Score 35.5 Moderate 67.6 Strong 19.4 Weak
Subjective Norms showed the strongest factor in building the intention to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedure in the over-all score of the three provinces.
The strong social structures showed the powerful influence of government, friends,
and experts and announcement from television and radio on people’s opinion about
risk (Fei et al. 2011).
These results revealed the focus on risk communication strategies of every
province. Risk communication strategies for Eastern Samar should focus on
improving their attitude towards evacuation facilities, while for Aurora and Davao
Oriental on increasing their control towards evacuation and more motivation to the
participants. These results are shown in Table 112.
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PROCEDURES
Table 112. Overall Scores: Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral
Control, by locality
Dimensions Response Scores Index
Rate Aurora Eastern Davao Grand Total
Samar Oriental
Attitude 100.0% 53.10 22.90 30.01 35.54
Strong Weak Weak Moderate
Positive Positive Positive Positive
Subjective Norm 100.0% 72.31 60.71 69.84 67.63
Highly Strong Highly Strong
Strong Positive Strong Positive
Positive Positive
Perceived Behavioral 100.0% 10.48 23.09 25.02 19.39
Control Highly Weak Weak Weak
Weak Positive Positive Positive
Positive
Overall Scores Index 100.0% 45.31 35.56 41.61 40.85

Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Positive Positive Positive Positive
Respondents’ Media Usage and Evacuation Experience.
distribution of the respondents on information sources and evacuation experience.
Items include information sources such as media platforms, announcement from
Local Government, word-of-mouth from neighbors, experience about evacuation, its
circumstances, and number of times and willingness to follow. Majority of the
participants used television (77%) and radio (67%) as sources of information before
and during emergencies. These results concur with the findings of Ahmad (2011)
which described the vital role of media in providing early warning and dissemination
of information. Only few people used the Internet as platform to access information
before and during emergencies. These results are surprising: most of the participants
are middle-aged, and middle-aged persons in previous study (Piotrwoski, 2015) prefer
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PROCEDURES
looking online for disaster information. This contradicts previous research (Nyathi,
2013) on the strong exposure to modern technology. The result is not surprising since
most of the respondents have access to television and radio and gives up-to-date
information compared to other items. Risk communication plan should be delivered
through traditional media the primary source of disaster information of the
participants were television and radio.
Stein et al., 2010) described the importance of media in risk communication process.
Respondents acknowledged that they rely on traditional media for disaster
information. Disaster managers should maintain strong relationship with media in
able to deliver disaster information to the local community. Previous study (Esteban
et al., 2016) described the importance of creating a multi-layer safety strategies and
experienced evacuating during actual tropical storm. Majority (82%) experienced
evacuating once or more than once. Previous studies (Leonard et al., 2012; Nyathi,
2013) acknowledged the importance of past experiences in building intention.
An overwhelming majority (88%) of participants was willing to follow
evacuation. This matches previous studies of Eisenman and colleagues (2007) and
RØd and colleagues (2012b) that claimed that the lack of experience may impede the
decision to evacuate or those who already experienced disasters are willing to follow
the instructions to evacuate.
Table 113. Frequency Distribution of the Respondents on Information as Regards Media Usage
and Evacuation Experience: Aggregated Result
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Internet 223 18.6% Yes 993 82.8%

Television 921 76.8% No 160 13.3%
Announcement from 673 56.1% Evacuation Drill 102 8.5%
Local Government
Word-of-Mouth from 119 9.9% Tropical Cyclone 909 75.8%
Neighbors
One 321 26.8% Yes 1060 88.3%
Two 313 26.1% No 6 0.5%
Three 160 13.3%
More than 3 190 15.8%
Factor Analysis
Reliability. Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency, that is, how
directly correlated a set of items are as a group. In other words, the reliability of any
given measurement refers to the extent to which it is a consistent measure of a
concept, and Cronbach’s alpha is one way of measuring the strength of that
consistency. The researcher used the analysis of Cronbach Alpha using factor loading
in evaluating reliability and internal consistency of the data using the three predictors
of Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral
Control). Previous studies (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011) explained that the acceptable
values of alpha should range from 0.70 to 0.95. The use an index of internal
consistency is therefore recommended because people can hold has both positive and
negative beliefs (Francis et al., 2004). In this study, the researcher used both indirect
and direct measures.
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PROCEDURES
reason for the respondents’ Attitude towards evacuation. Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO)
0.001. The results of both tests supported the use of factor analysis.
evacuation procedures had an excellent value of Cronbach Alpha of 0.912.

Evacuation
Likeliness of a Positive Attitude
If I evacuate, I will feel that I .755
am safe in the evacuation
center.
I will be comfortable in the .841
evacuation center
I will feel secure in the .855
evacuation center
I am okay with being called .707
an “evacuee”
Desirability of Evacuation center
Staying safe in the evacuation .802
center is
Being comfortable in the .878
Having security in the .869
Being called an “evacuee” is .670
Kaiser-Mayer Olkin Measure = 0.881

of Sampling Adequacy
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity = 7204.014
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PROCEDURES
Discarding factor loadings and communalities that are less than 0.40 was done
to reduce the number of items. The lowest was 0.646 (“If I evacuate, I will feel that I
am safe in the evacuation center”) thus, no item was discarded in this instance. The
rules resulted in eight statements measured in two dimensions or factors.
were computed as the summation or total of the square of the factor loading. The two
factors or dimensions were labelled in order of decreasing explained variance.

Evacuation
Attributes Component
1 2
If I evacuate, I will feel that I am safe in the .082 .865
evacuation center.
I will be comfortable in the evacuation .367 .840
center
I will feel secure in the evacuation center .399 .834
I am okay with being called an “evacuee” .276 .795
Staying safe in the evacuation center is .859 .254
Being comfortable in the evacuation center .904 .249
is
Having security in the evacuation center is .899 .246
Being called an “evacuee” is .776 .260
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. Commented [r17]: Will you do the same with factor
analysis as you did with the other parts of the research?
That is, sa previous part, you first reported in aggregate,
then showed comparisons ng factors. Will you do that here
There are two primary reasons why the respondents prioritize evacuation - too?
factor 1 which is primarily concerned with respondents realization of their
attitude (self-esteem or the confidence) found when in evacuation center and factor 2
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PROCEDURES
which are the advantages in evacuation centers that include comfort and security
issues.
The variable security has a correlation of 0.82 with factor 1 since factor
loadings can be interpreted like standardized regression coefficients. The results
revealed a strong association for a factor analysis. The other variables – comfort,
security and self-worth - are also associated with factor 1. Based on the variables
loading highly onto factor 1, the researcher labelled it as “Likeliness of a Positive
Attitude.” The variable being comfortable in the evacuation center is has a high factor
loading on factor 2. The results revealed the overall desirability within the evacuation
center; the researcher labelled it as factor 2 “Desirability of Evacuation center.”
The factor analysis shows a very significant finding. Respondents prioritize
comfort and security of the evacuation centers employment for the realization of their
self-worth (“I am okay with being called an “evacuee”). They reason that one of the
ways of realizing to follow evacuation is attributed to the quality of the evacuation
center. Previous study (Misha et al., 2011) claimed that individual’s sense of value
or worth affects the evaluation as either positive or negative attitude results in
intention. The individual’s Attitude (Ajzen, 1985) toward the evacuation process and
also the evacuation centers will determine the intention to evacuate. This revealed that
the attitude of the respondents resulted to generally favorable intention, which means
positive risk perception.
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PROCEDURES
KMO was found to be 0. 834 and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was found to be
4,357.75 with a significance lower than 0.001. The results of both tests supported the
use of factor analysis.
pre-emptive evacuation procedures had an excellent value of Cronbach Alpha of
to reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.470 (“when advised by
friends, I will evacuate”) and no item was discarded. The rules resulted in eight
statements measured in two dimensions or factors.
were computed as the summation or total of the square of the factor loading.
There are three primary reasons why the respondents follow pre-emptive
evacuation; Factor 1, “Confidence in Sources of Information relative to pre-emptive
evacuation”, is primarily concerned with respondent’s perception of the government
and experts’ opinion. Factor 2 is the influence of Radio and Television. Finally,
Factor 3 is the influence of friends.
Respondents gave high importance to radio and advice from local officials.
Previous studies (Fei et al. 2011 & Wood et al., 2012) described the powerful
influence of the variables affects the overall evaluation of risk towards stronger
intention in evacuation. In terms of high importance to local government officials, this
matches with previous studies (Haimes, 2012; Tinker, 2013 & Rosenkeotter et al.,
2007) describing the importance of established systems by government agencies. This
also concurs with findings from previous studies (Ahmad et al., 2011; Egner et al.,
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PROCEDURES
2012; Piotrowski, 2015; Stein et al., 2010) related to the influence of media on the
desired behavior.
Table 116. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms

4.222 42.223 0.82
Confidence in Sources of Information relative to pre-emptive evacuation
Radio announcement is important 0.800
to me
Advice from our local official is 0.735
important to me
What experts advise is important to 0.709
me
I am expected to evacuate when 0.627
I am expected to evacuate when 0.627
Television announcement is 0.469
important to me
Influence of Media
When I hear pre-emptive 0.715
evacuation announcement on the
When I watch pre-emptive 0.629
evacuation announcement on
What my friends think I should do 0.797
matters to me
When advised by friends, I will 0.797
evacuate
= 0.834
Sampling Adequacy
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PROCEDURES
Table 117. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms

towards Pre-emptive Evacuation
Component
1 2 3
I am expected to evacuate when .666 .229 -.363
When I hear pre-emptive .648 .494 -.225
evacuation announcement on the
When I watch pre-emptive .581 .506 -.187
evacuation announcement on
When advised by friends, I will .507 .457 .576
evacuate
I am expected to evacuate when .683 .299 -.099
Advice from our local official is .718 -.427 -.193
important to me
Radio announcement is important .793 -.413 .015
to me
Television announcement is .539 -.419 .055
important to me
What my friends think I should do .611 -.025 .650
matters to me
What experts advise is important to .699 -.468 -.040
me
a. 3 components extracted.
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PROCEDURES
to be 4,828.67 with significance lower than 0.001. The results of both tests supported
the use of factor analysis.
Table 118 shows that the final scale of Perceived Behavioral Control towards
following pre-emptive evacuation procedures had a good value of Cronbach Alpha of
to reduce the number of items. However, the lowest was 0.400 (“For me, the pre-
emptive evacuation procedure is”) and no item was discarded. The rules resulted in
eight statements measured in one dimension or factor.
The results revealed that there are two primary reasons why the respondents
follow preemptive evacuation - factor 1 (Encouragement Expectations), refers to the
respondents’ expectations from government, and family and faith to encourage them
to follow evacuation orders; and factor 2 (Encouragement as Enabler), which refers to
the respondents’ perceptions that their ability to making decisions as regards
following evacuation orders is attributed to the encouragement from the government,
and family and faith.
. Respondents feel that the government’s encouragement will enable them to
observe pre-emptive evacuation. Previous studies (Haimes, 2012; Tinker, 2013 &
Rosenkeotter et al., 2007) cited the importance of established systems by government
agencies.
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PROCEDURES
Table 118. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral

Control
4.093 51.167 0.851
Encouragement Expectations
For me, the pre-emptive .400
evacuation procedure is
I expect that government should .695
encourage me to follow pre-
I expect that family should .630
encourage me to follow pre-
My faith will determine my .640
decision to follow pre-emptive
Encouragement as Enabler
I am confident that I can follow .746
procedures
Having government .846
encouragement would enable me
to follow pre-emptive
evacuation
Having family encouragement .848
would enable me to follow pre-
Having faith would enable me to .824
follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures
Kaiser-Mayer Olkin Measure of = 0.840
Sampling Adequacy
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Evacuation
Attributes Component
1 2
For me, the pre-emptive evacuation -.318 .501
procedure is
I expect that government should encourage -.431 .714
me to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedure
I expect that family should encourage me to -.383 .695
My faith will determine my decision to -.456 .657
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures
I am confident that I can follow pre-emptive .806 .309
Having government encouragement would .864 .317
enable me to follow pre-emptive evacuation
Having family encouragement would enable .869 .306
me to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedure
Having faith would enable me to follow pre- .863 .283
Estimation of Parameters: Overall Result
Table 121 presents the OLS result using the aggregated survey data result
which provides the estimated true relationship between Socio-Demographic
Determinants and Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms, and
Perceived Behavioral Control.
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of the Socio-Demographic Determinants affecting Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation,
Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control that have been singled out. The
model, for example, indicates that:
Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude, Subjective Norm and Perceived
Behavioral Control) in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures to
yield positive scores (with range of ± 84 points for Attitude and PCB and ±
105 points for Subjective Norms) as age of the respondents’ decreases.
respondents’ age indicates that Attitude scores will decrease by 0.096,
Control will increase by 0.006, which means that younger the person is,
the stronger favor and social pressure but less perceived control in
evacuation. This result contradicts the study of Kellens and colleagues
(2012), which describes that behavior is enhanced when respondents are
older residents. However, this matches the findings from previous research
(Eisenman et al., 2007) that explained old age could cause people not to
evacuate. Risk communication strategies should be age specific.
predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude, Subjective Norm and
Perceived Behavioral Control) in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures to yield positive scores among women. The corresponding
magnitude of the effect for every unit increase in the number of women
respondents indicates that Attitude (range = ± 84) scores will increase by
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PROCEDURES
1.587, Subjective Norm (range = ± 105) will increase by 3.821, and
Perceived Behavioral Control (range = ± 84) will decrease by 1.786, which
means women tend to have less perceived control over the desired
behavior. This matches the findings of previous research (Lim et al., 2016)
that sex can determine the evacuation decision. This revealed that risk
communication strategies should also be gender specific.
3. Relative to the effect civil status, we can expect Attitude and Subjective
Norms to yield positive score; however, the Perceived Behavioral Control
respondents who are married indicates that Attitude (range = ± 84) scores
will decrease by 3.541, Subjective Norm (range = ± 105) will decrease by
2.017, and Perceived Behavioral Control (range = ± 84) will increase by
0.683, which means that married respondents tend to have less perceived
control over their behavior. This matches the findings from previous
studies (Misha et al., 2011; Tsujiuchi et al, 2016) on the importance of
social ties and individual response efficacy that is affected by family.
income of respondents indicates that Attitude (range = ± 84) scores will
increase by 4.291, Subjective Norm (range = ± 105) will increase by
1.582, and Perceived Behavioral Control (range = ± 84) will decrease by
1.644, which means that high income respondents tend to have less
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perceived control over evacuation. This matches the findings from
previous studies (Lim et al., 2016) that household income can determine
the evacuation decision. In the Philippines, evacuation is a government
driven practice or is catered toward those in need. Families with high
income tend to be more resilient compared to low-income household and
are normally not displaced; thus, they are not directly affected by
evacuation.
5. In the effect of educational attainment, we can expect Attitude and
Subjective Norms to yield negative scores; however, the Perceived
the respondents increases. The corresponding magnitude of the effect for
that Attitude (range = ± 84) scores will decrease by 3.928, Subjective
Norm (range = ± 105) will decrease by 5.626, and Perceived Behavioral
Control (range = ± 84) will increase by 0.570, which means that
respondents with high educational attainment tend to feel less favor social
pressure over the desired behavior. The results concur with findings from
the study of Lim and colleagues (2016) that educational attainment can
determine evacuation decision. This stresses the need to mainstream
disaster risk reduction into the education system.
procedures to yield positive scores among house and lot owners. The
corresponding magnitude of the effect of the perspective of the
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PROCEDURES
respondents who are home owners indicates that Attitude (range = ± 84)
scores will increase by 0.466, Subjective Norm (range = ± 105) will
increase by 0.468, and Perceived Behavioral Control (range = ± 84) will
increase by 0.180, which means that house and lot owners are more
inclined to follow evacuation orders. This concurs with the findings of
previous study (Lim et al., 2016) that claimed house ownership can
determine evacuation decisions. House and lot owners have an assurance
that they can return to their house after the emergency unlike those who do
not own their house. Results revealed that risk communication strategies
should focus more on personal safety and security rather than material
things.
Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude, Subjective Norm and Perceived
Behavioral Control) in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures to
yield positive scores among living with family. The corresponding
magnitude of the effect for every unit increase in the living arrangements
of respondents indicates that Attitude (range = ± 84) scores will increase
by 0.97,3 Subjective Norm will increase (range = ± 105) by 2.980, and
Perceived Behavioral Control (range = ± 84) will decrease by 0.049, which
means respondents living with family tend to have less perceived control.
This matches previous studies (Misha et al., 2011; Tsujiuchi et al, 2016)
on the importance of social ties and individual response efficacy that is
affected by family. The also matches the finding of Eisenman and
colleagues (2007) that explained individual’s decision initiates a chain
reaction that affects the entire family. The results revealed the importance
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of activities in building positive perception towards pre-emptive
evacuation of the whole members of the family to improve risk
communication.
8. With regard to the effect of awareness of location of evacuation centers,
we can expect the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior
(Attitude, Subjective Norm and Perceived Behavioral Control) in
following pre-emptive evacuation procedures to yield negative scores to
those do not know the location of evacuation center. The corresponding
respondents who are aware of the location of the evacuation center
indicates that Attitude (range = ± 84) scores will decrease by 3.886,
Subjective Norm (range = ± 105) will increase by 13.008, and Perceived
Behavioral Control (range = ± 84) will decrease by 0.556, which means
respondents who are aware of the location of evacuation centers tend to
feel less favour and less perceived control in evacuating. In terms in terms
of awareness of proximity of evacuation center, we can expect the three
procedures to yield positive scores to those who know the location of
evacuation center. The corresponding magnitude of the effect for every
unit increase in the number of respondents who have knowledge on the
proximity of the evacuation location indicates that Attitude (range = ± 84)
scores will decrease by 3.884, Subjective Norm (range = ± 105) will
decrease by 1.374, and Perceived Behavioral Control (range = ± 84) will
increase by 0.170, which means respondents who are near the evacuation
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tend not to evacuate. Most of the respondents already experienced
evacuation that may gain undesirable experience towards evacuation
centers. Respondents identified schools and government facilities such as
gym, barangay hall, municipal hall, and other community infrastructure as
evacuation centers, which are not appropriate as shelters. This contradicts
the study of RØd and colleagues (2012b) which claimed that residents who
already experienced disasters are willing to follow the instructions to
evacuate

Determinants and Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and
Perceived Behavioral Control.
Determinants Norms
Aurora
Age - - +
Sex + + -
Civil Status - - +
Income + + -
Education - - +
Home Ownership + + +
Living Arrangement + + -
Evacuation Location - + -
Evacuation Location - - +
Table 121 provides the regressions result for all provinces’ socio-demographic
determinants and three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior.
The aggregated results revealed that income (co-efficient=4.291, p=0.05>
0.000) showed the strongest relationship for Attitude (adjusted R-squared value =
0.041), which means the higher the income the stronger the favor towards evacuation.
This matches previous studies (Lim et al., 2016) that claimed that household income
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could determine the evacuation decision. Therefore, the risk communication strategies
should focus on low-income household.
The aggregated results revealed that awareness on the location of evacuation
facilities (co-efficient=13.008, p=0.05> 0.000) showed strongest relationship to
Subjective Norm (adjusted R-squared value of 0.038), which means respondents who
are aware of the location of evacuation facilities were more likely to feel social
pressure. The aggregated results revealed that knowledge on the proximity of the
evacuation center (co-efficient=0.923, p=0.05> 0.177) showed strongest relationship
to Perceived Behavioral Control (adjusted R-squared value of 0.001), which means
respondents who have the knowledge on the location of evacuation facilities tend to
have more perceived control. Therefore, risk communication strategies should focus
on increasing awareness on the location of evacuation center through visual
representation such as maps.
255
Table 121. OLS for Econometric Models 1, 2 and 3 using observations 1-1200: Aggregated Result
Constant 49.577 6.594 0.000 65.099 8.928 0.000 21.875 4.277 0.000
Age (0.096) (1.461) 0.144 (0.156) (2.451) 0.014 0.006 0.127 0.899
Sex 1.587 0.995 0.320 3.821 2.472 0.014 (1.786) (1.646) 0.100
Civil Status (3.541) (2.561) 0.011 (2.017) (1.504) 0.133 0.683 0.726 0.468
Income 4.291 4.092 0.000 1.582 1.556 0.120 (1.644) (2.304) 0.021
Education (3.928) (3.599) 0.000 (5.626) (5.317) 0.000 0.570 0.767 0.443
Home Ownership 0.466 0.792 0.428 0.468 0.820 0.412 0.180 0.449 0.654
Living 0.973 0.574 0.566 2.980 1.814 0.070 (0.049) (0.043) 0.966
Arrangement
Awareness on the (3.886) (1.040) 0.298 13.008 3.591 0.000 (0.556) (0.219) 0.827
Location of the
Evacuation
Location
Knowledge on (3.884) (3.864) 0.000 (1.340) (1.374) 0.170 0.923 1.350 0.177
the Proximity of
the Evacuation
Location
R-squared 0.049 0.046 0.008

Adjusted R- 0.041 0.038 0.001
squared
P-value(F) 0.000 0.000 0.363
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PROCEDURES
For aggregated results, the researcher found no multicollinearity, which means
that there is no biased and have consistent result. Second, the researcher tested for
0.017 and 0.013 which is lower than 0.05 which means does not have enough
model. Whereas, Perceived Behavioral Control is 0.560 higher than 0.05, which
means that the study does have enough evidence to reject the null hypotheses and that
are presented in Appendix O.
Hypothesis Testing
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PROCEDURES
For attitude, the results revealed that civil status (p-value = 0.011 < 0.05),
income (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05), education (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05), and knowledge
on the proximity of the evacuation location (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05) are statistically
significant at 95% significance level, which respondents who are single and with high
income and educational attainment and reside near the evacuation facilities
respondents were more inclined to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The t-
Null Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect to Attitude.
For Subjective Norm, the results revealed that age (p-value = 0.014 < 0.05),
sex (p-value = 0.014 < 0.05), education (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05), and awareness of
the location of evacuation center (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05) are statistically significant
at 95% significance level, which means respondents who are older, female and with
higher education attainment and those who are aware of the location of evacuation
centers were more inclined to feel social pressure follow pre-emptive evacuation
effect to Subjective Norms.
For Perceived Behavioral Control, the results revealed that sex (p-value =
0.010 < 0.10) and income (p-value = 0.021 < 0.05) are statistically significant at 90%
and 95% significance level, respectively, which means females and with high income
have stronger perceived control to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The t-
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PROCEDURES
Null Hypothesis that the said variables have no significant effect to Perceived
Behavioral Control. Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in Appendix
P.
Statistical Analysis of the Factors that Significantly Affect the Intentions of
Table 122 provides the regressions’ aggregate result for Behavioral Intentions
attributes (Difficulty in making a decision to follow and Willingness to follow) as the
dependent variables and the relation to other variables, namely: Attitude Score,
Subjective Norm
respondents’ Attitude scores will have an effect of an increase by 0.000
with respect to their difficulty in making a decision to follow. On the
other hand, willingness to follow will increase by 0.001. Therefore, the
estimates suggest that increase in the attitude scores of the participants
reflects more difficulty in making decisions but more willingness to follow
evacuation orders.
respondents Subjective Norm Score scores will have an effect of a
of the participants reflects the less difficulty in making decisions but less
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PROCEDURES
Therefore, the estimate suggest that the increase in Perceived Behavioral
Control score reflects more difficulty in making decision but more
respondents number of times have experienced evacuation will have an
effect of an increase by 0.055 with respect to their difficulty in making a
decision to follow. On the other hand, willingness to follow will increase
by 0034. Therefore, the estimates suggest that the increase in the number
of times respondents experienced evacuation reflects more difficulty in
making decisions but more willingness to follow evacuation orders.
increase in the scores of Attitude, Perceived Behavioral Control, and the number of
times he/she experienced evacuation. The results revealed that respondents are less
willing to follow evacuation for every increase in the scores of Attitude and the
number of times he/she experienced evacuation. This may be attributed to the
negative experience of the respondents in evacuating and majority of the respondents
already experienced evacuating. This contradicts the study of RØd and colleagues
(2012b) describing how residents who already experienced disasters are willing to
follow the instructions to evacuate. Respondents identified government facilities such
as gym, barangay hall, municipal hall, and other community infrastructure as
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PROCEDURES
evacuation centers. Since government facilities are not ready to handle evacuees, with
the limited to spaces and amenities, the respondents may have undesirable
experiences in the evacuation center, which likely impedes their decision.
Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral Control.
Model 4 Model 5
Attitude Score + +
Subjective Norm Score - -
PBC Score + -
Evacuation + +
Table 123. OLS for Econometric Models 4 and 5, using observations 1-411
(Aggregate Result)
Model 4 Model 5
Decision to follow
value value
Constant 1.924 7.927 0.000 0.853 23.632 0.000
Attitude Score 0.000 0.146 0.884 0.001 3.025 0.003
Subjective Norm Score (0.001) (0.487) 0.627 (0.001) (1.731) 0.084
PBC Score 0.019 4.552 0.000 (0.000) (0.023) 0.982
R-squared 0.055 0.046

P-value(F) 0.000 0.001
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PROCEDURES
The researcher found no multicollinearity, which means that there is no biased
and have consistent result. Second, the researcher tested for Normality of Residuals,
which tests if the residuals’ errors are normally distributed using Jarque-Bera. The
residuals were normally distributed, which means that the computed p-value for the
procedures is 0.000, all lower than 0.05. Third, the researcher tested if the estimates
are biased using Ramsey RESET. There is no functional form of misspecification,
which means that the computed p-value for the three predictors of Theory of Planned
Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures are 0.298, 0.477, and 0.148,
higher than 0.05. Fourth, the researcher tested if the regression residuals have unequal
variances using Breusch-Pagan – heteroscedasticity. The computed p-value for
Attitude and Subjective Norms are 0.017 and 0.013, which is lower than 0.05 which
means does not have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis’ heteroscedasticity
was not present on the model. Whereas, Perceived Behavioral Control is 0.560
slightly higher than 0.05, which means that the study does have enough evidence to
reject the null hypothesis’ and that heteroscedasticity was present on the model.
Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in Appendix Q.
Hypothesis Testing.
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PROCEDURES
Behavioral Control (p-value = 0.000 < 0.05) is statistically significant at the 95%
significance level, which mean the higher the Perceived Behavioral Control score of
the respondents will feel less difficult in making decision to follow evacuation.
For willingness to follow evacuation, Attitude (p-value = 0.003 < 0.05) and
number of times respondents experienced evacuation (p-value = 0.001 < 0.05) are
statistically significant at 95% significance level, which means the higher the attitude
scores of the respondents and the increase in the number of times respondents
experienced evacuation the more willing to follow evacuation orders.
pre-emptive evacuation. Details on the outcomes of these tests are presented in
Appendix R.
Based on the results, the researcher found that family and faith affect the
decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
revealed that the strong family ties, as a cultural indicator, should be considered in
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Respondents also agreed to have more perceived control because of faith. This
matches the findings of Güss and Panga (2004) describing the “bahala na” (accepting
a given situation) attitude of the respondents. The acknowledgement of the
Implications for Risk Communication
All provinces showed positive intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures; however, there are factors affecting the intentions and difficulty of the
target populations to evacuate. The difficulty, at varying level, of the respondents to
follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures affects the risk perception.
In all provinces including the aggregated results, Subjective Norms showed
the strongest factor in building the intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedure. Previous study (Fei et al. 2011) explained that strong social structures
showed the powerful influence of government, friends, and experts and announcement
from television and radio on people’s opinion about risk.
The aggreagated results revealed of a moderate positive attitude towards
evacuation. The importance of individual’s assessment (Zimmerman et al., 2010)
towards comfort, safe, secured evacuation facility and being okay to be called evacuee
showed favorable Attitude to all provinces; however, results showed significant
number in highly strong negative. The results revealed that while overall results
revealed positive results towards evacuation some of the respondents expressed no
concern towards towards comfort, safe, secured evacuation facility and being okay to
be called evacuee.
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The agregated results revealed that the respondents feel in control of desired
behavior; however, results showed varying level of control over desired behavior.
This results revealed weak mastery of the respondents over the desired behavior
(Misha et al., 2011).
The aggregate results all participants appeared to have less perceived control
over the desired behavior. However, closer examination of data shows differences: for
those in Aurora and Davao Oriental, perceived behavioral control showed the least
effect on participants’ intention to follow evacuation procedures; for those in Eastern
Samar, on the other hand, attitude towards evacuation showed the least effect to their
intention to follow evacuation procedures. These findings show nuances on the three
predictors of the Theory of Planned Behavior unique to locations in the Philippines;
these nuances could be lost had the data been treated as a whole.
The aggregated results showed strongest relationship of income, awareness of
the evacuation center and knowledge on the proximity of the evacuation center to the
three predictors of the Theory of Planned Behavior. However, for those in Aurora
Province, sex and knowledge on the proximity of the evacuation center showed the
strongest relationship to the three predictors, on the other hand, for those in the
Eastern Samar, sex and awareness of the evacuation center showed the strongest
relationship to the three predictors, and for those who are in Davao Oriental, income
and awareness of the evacuation center showed the strongest relationship to the three
predictors. These findings show nuances on labels unique to locations in the
Philippines; these nuances were lost in the generalization.
The aggregated results in revealed that the respondents experienced more
difficulty in making decision to follow evacuation orders for every increase in
Attitude scores. However, for those in Aurora and Davao Oriental Provinces, increase
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in Attitude scores respondents experienced less difficulty in making decision to
follow evacuation. This finding shows differences in designing risk communication
strategies that is unique to locations in the Philippines that could be lost in
generalization. Therefore, Eastern Samar should focus more on improving
respondents’ attitude towards evacuation.
The aggregated results revealed that the respondents experienced less
difficulty in making decision to follow evacuation orders for every increase in the
score of Subjective Norms. However, for those in Davao Oriental, increase in the
score of Subjective Norms means more difficulty in making decision to follow
evacuation orders. Therefore, Aurora and Eastern Samar Provinces should focus more
on building trust with local officials, friends and media.
The aggregated results revealed that the respondents experienced more
difficulty in making decision to follow evacuation orders for every increase in
Perceived Behavioral Control score. However, for those in Aurora Province, increase
in the score of Perceived Behavioral Control means less difficulty to follow
evacuation orders. Therefore, Eastern Samar and Davao Oriental should focus more
on individual mastery towards evacuation.
Across the board including aggregated results, respondents experienced more
difficulty but more willingness in making decision to follow evacuation orders for
every increase in the number of times that the respondents experienced evacuating.
This contradicts the study of RØd and colleagues (2012b) describing that residents
who already experienced disasters are willing to follow the instructions to evacuate.
Respondents identified government facilities such as gym, barangay hall, municipal
hall and other community infrastructure as evacuation centers. However, government
facilities are not equipped to handle evacuees.
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PROCEDURES
The aggregated results revealed that the respondents are less willing to follow
evacuation orders for every increase in the score of Subjective Norms. However, for
those in Aurora Province, increase in Subjective Norms means more willingness to
follow evacuation orders. Therefore, Eastern Samar and Davao Oriental Province
should focus more on building trust with local officials, friends and media.
The aggregated results revealed that the respondents are less willing to follow
evacuation orders for every increase in the score of Perceived Behavioral Control.
However, for those in Aurora and Davao Oriental Provinces, increase in the score of
Perceived Behavioral Control means more willingness to follow evacuation orders.
Therefore, Eastern Samar should focus on building individual mastery towards
evacuation.
The aggregated results revealed that the respondents are more willing to
follow evacuation orders for every increase of Attitude scores. However, for those in
Aurora Province, increase in Attitude scores means less willingness to follow
evacuation orders. Therefore, Aurora Province should focus more on improving
respondent’s attitude towards evacuation.
These results revealed the importance of the three predictors of the Theory of
Planned Behavior in designing risk communication strategies. This stresses the need
to identify specific predictor to become the focus to have more willingness and less
difficulty to follow evacuation.
The results revealed that Subjective Norms showed the strongest factor in
building the intention and risk perception to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. This revealed that there is already an established trust and relations of
local officials, friends and media including television and radio across all the
provinces. However, risk communication strategies should be context specific due to
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the differences in the significance of socio-demographic determinants to the three
predictors of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Further, each location revealed
different magnitude of effect of the three predictors of the Theory of Planned
Behavior to the difficulty and willingness to follow evacuation order. Therefore, risk
communication strategies should be designed based on the uniqueness of the socio-
demographic profile of the target location and to look into the magnitude of effect of
the Attitude, Subjective Norm and Perceived Behavioral Control.
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Chapter 6:
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
Summary of the Study
The Philippines is considered as one of the countries most prone to natural.
With recent mega disasters, such as Typhoon Pablo (international name: Bopha) in
2012, Super Typhoon Yolanda (international name: Haiyan) in 2013 and Typhoon
Lando (international name: Haima) in 2015, the Philippines is needs to improve its
disaster preparedness systems and processes.
The purpose of this study is to analyze variables affecting the intention of
Filipinos living in high-risk areas to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures using
the Theory of Planned Behavior and Risk Communication process. This study
analyzed factors that form part of the risk perception that lead to the intention and risk
apprraisal of following pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
The three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior (Attitude, Subjective
Norm, and Perceived Behavioral Control) were examined to provide data in
supporting government and non-government’ actions in developing policies, plans
and programs..
The Theory of Planned Behavior will help in examining the formation of
intention in following pre-emptive evacuation procedures. The three predictors, as
affected by socio-demographic determinants, were individually examined and
measured in connection with the formation of behavioral intention to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures. A questionnaire was developed based on a manual for
health services researchers in constructing questionnaires based on the Theory of
Planned Behavior as presented by Francis and colleagues (2004). The questionnaire
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PROCEDURES
was divided into socio-economic determinants, intention simulation, measuring
Attitudes, measuring Subjective Norms, measuring Perceived Behavioral Control,
media usage, and experience in evacuation.
The researcher recruited 1,200 respondents from three areas in the Philippines
– Casiguran, Aurora, Guiuan, Eastern Samar and Baganga, Davao Oriental. The
researcher used scoring procedures, factor analysis, data reliability test, and Ordinary
Least Squares (OLS) to examine the validity and relationships of factors. The
researcher examined the factors using 5 models – socio-demographic determinants
and Attitude, socio-demographic determinants and Subjective Norm, socio-
demographic determinants and Perceived Behavioral Control, three predictors and
number of times respondents experienced evacuation and difficulty in following pre-
emptive evacuation procedures, and three predictors and number of times respondents
experienced evacuation and willingness to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
Results revealed the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior that form
part of risk perception were found to have positive impact to the intention and showed
strong behavioral intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures. Subjective
Norms have the strongest positive impact to the desired behavior. This shows that the
respondents experienced strong social pressure and motivation from external
referents. Socio-demographic determinants have a direct relationship to the three
predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior.
The main sources of disaster information of the all the areas are television and
radio. This matches the study of Ahmad and colleagues (2011) about media
dependency of the population during emergencies and disasters. The three predictors
of Theory of Planned Behavior and the number of times experienced evacuation could
contribute to the difficulty and willingness to follow evacuation.
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PROCEDURES
Conclusion
Research Question 1: What is the highest factor that influences the

intentions of Filipinos to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures as
focus in improving risk communication?
Aggregated results revealed that the three predictors were found to have
positive impact to the intention and showed strong behavioral intention to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures. Subjective Norms have the strongest positive impact
to the desired behavior. This revealed that the respondents still experienced social
pressure and motivation from external referents.
The respondents experienced the highest social pressure from the local
officials. However, while statistics of aggregated data showed the importance of local
officials, it must be noted that studies of each province showed different results.
The results showed that respondents still wait for their local officials to issue
the call for evacuation, to be on alert, and to make evacuation decisions. This stresses
the need for government to establish pre-emptive evacuation systems to help improve
the risk communication process.
Research Question 1a. What is the highest factor that influences the
intentions of residents of Casiguran, Aurora to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures as focus in improving risk communication?
The three predictors were found to have positive impact on the intention and
showed strong behavioral intention of Casiguran residents to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Subjective Norms have the strongest positive impact to the
desired behavior. This revealed that the respondents still experienced social pressure
and motivation from external referents.
The respondents experienced the highest social pressure to the local officials.
The results showed that respondents still wait for their local officials to issue the call
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for evacuation, to be on alert, and to make evacuation decisions. This stresses the
need for government to establish pre-emptive evacuation systems to help improve the
risk communication process. However, closer examination of the data shows that the
level of importance of external referent differs: radio announcement is more important
compared to local advice. Therefore, in order to achieve a higher level of success in
the risk communication process, disaster managers should also pay more attention to
delivering disaster information through radio announcements.
These results reveal that residents of Aurora Province would follow pre-
emptive evacuation if local official will give orders to evacuate. Moreover, orders
should be delivered through radio.
Research Question 1b. What is the highest factor that influences the
intentions of residents of Guiuan, Eastern Samar to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures as focus in improving risk
communication?
showed strong behavioral intention of Guiuan residents to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Subjective Norms have the strongest positive impact on the
The respondents experienced the highest social pressure from the local
officials. The results showed that respondents still wait for their local officials to issue
the call for evacuation, to be on alert, and to make evacuation decisions. This stresses
the need for government to establish pre-emptive evacuation systems to help improve
the risk communication process. However, closer examination of the data shows that
the level of social pressure differs: participants from Eastern Samar agreed more on
advice by experts compared to the advice of local officials. The radio announcement
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is equally important to the advice from local officials. These results revealed that in
order to achieve a higher level of success in risk communication process, disaster
managers should establish harmonized layers of delivering disaster information -
science-based facts from the experts, specific actions to be decided by the local
officials, and radio as effective way to communicate with the target participants.
These results reveal that residents of Eastern Samar would follow pre-emptive
evacuation if local official will give orders to evacuate. However, the local official
should reference the evacuation order to the experts. Moreover, information to
evacuate should be delivered through radio.
Research Question 1c. What is the highest factor that influences the
intentions of residents of Baganga, Davao Oriental to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures as focus in improving risk
communication?
showed strong behavioral intention of residents of Baganga to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. Subjective Norms have the strongest positive impact on the
The respondents experienced the highest social pressure from local officials.
The results showed that respondents still wait for their local officials to issue the call
for evacuation, to be on alert, and to make evacuation decisions. This stresses the
need for government to establish pre-emptive evacuation systems to help improve the
risk communication process. However, closer examination of the data shows that the
level of importance of external referents differs: local official advice is equally
important as announcements from television and radio. These results revealed that in
order to achieve a higher level of success in risk communication process, disaster
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managers should establish harmonized layers of delivering disaster information
through television and radio.
These results reveal that residents of Eastern Samar would follow pre-emptive
evacuation if local official will give orders to evacuate. Moreover, information to
evacuate should be delivered through television and radio.
Research Question 2: What are the relationships of factors affecting

the intentions of Filipinos to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures for improving risk communication?
The researcher used the socio-demographic determinants to measure the
magnitude with the three predictors. The aggregated results revealed that income
showed the highest magnitude of effect to Attitude and Perceived Behavioral Control
and awareness of the location of evacuation center to Subjective Norm. These results
revealed that the scores of the three predictors would increase if the person has more
income and have knowledge on the location of evacuation center. This stresses the
importance of socio-demographic profiles in designing risk communication strategies.
The researcher used the three predictors and the number of times that the
respondents experienced evacuation to measure the magnitude of effect of difficulty
in making decision and willingness to follow evacuation. The aggregated results
revealed that the respondents tend to have less difficulty in following evacuation
orders if there will be an increase in the scores Subjective Norms. In addition, that the
respondents tend to be more willing to follow evacuation orders if there will be an
increase in the scores of Attitude and number of times that the respondents
experienced evacuation.
Research Question 2a: What are the relationships of factors affecting

the intentions of residents of Casiguran, Aurora to follow pre-emptive
evacuation procedures for improving risk communication?
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magnitude with the three predictors. The results revealed that in Aurora Province sex
showed the highest magnitude of effect to Attitude and Subjective Norm and
knowledge to the proximity of the evacuation center to Perceived Behavioral Control.
These results revealed that the scores of the three predictors would increase if the
person is female and aware the location of evacuation center. This stresses the
in making decision and willingness to follow evacuation. The results revealed that
respondents from Aurora Province tend to have less difficulty in following evacuation
orders if there will be an increase in the scores of the three predictors of Theory of
Planned Behavior. In addition, that the respondents from Aurora Province tend to be
more willing to follow evacuation orders if there will be an increase in the scores of
Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavior and number of times that the respondents
experienced evacuation.
Research Question 2b: What are the relationships of factors affecting

the intentions of residents of Guiuan, Eastern Samar to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures for improving risk communication?
magnitude with the three predictors. The results revealed that in Eastern Samar
Province sex showed the highest magnitude of effect to Attitude and awareness of the
location of the evacuation center to Subjective Norm and Perceived Behavioral
Control. These results revealed that the scores of the three predictors would increase if
the person is female and aware of the location of evacuation center. This stresses the
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PROCEDURES
respondents from Eastern Samar Province tend to have less difficulty in following
evacuation orders if there will be an increase in the scores Subjective Norm. In
addition, that the respondents from Eastern Samar Province tend to be more willing to
follow evacuation orders if there will be an increase in the scores of Attitude and
number of times that the respondents experienced evacuation.
Research Question 2b: What are the relationships of factors affecting

the intentions of residents of Baganga, Davao Oriental to follow pre-
emptive evacuation procedures for improving risk communication?
magnitude with the three predictors. The results revealed that in Davao Oriental
Province income showed the highest magnitude of effect to Attitude and Perceived
Behavioral Control and awareness of the location of the evacuation center to
Subjective Norm. These results revealed that the scores of the three predictors would
increase if the person has more income and aware of the location of evacuation center.
This stresses the importance of socio-demographic profiles in designing risk
communication strategies.
respondents from Davao Oriental Province tend to have less difficulty in following
evacuation orders if there will be an increase in the scores Attitude. In addition, that
the respondents from Davao Oriental Province tend to be more willing to follow
evacuation orders if there will be an increase in the scores of Subjective Norm,
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Perceived Behavioral Control and number of times that the respondents experienced
evacuation.
Research Question 3: How can these findings be used to create

disaster communication plans unique to the needs and profile of each
location?
This study represents significant findings of the importance of the three
predictors and socio-demographic profiles of the population in following pre-emptive
evacuation procedures. The results revealed that while this study identified Subjective
Norm as the highest predictor in the intention to follow pre-emptive evacuation
procedures, this study suggests distinctions of each province and the overall results.
These distinctions may be used in creating disaster communication plans that are
unique in every study area. For example, the importance of either television or radio
as source of disaster information must be considered in the communication process.
This also stresses the importance of the roles of socio-demographic determinants in
the risk perception.
The current communication plan of the government is focused more on
building awareness of the population. In the desire to have behavioral change to move
out population at risk out of danger areas, risk communication strategies must be
improved. The identification of context of the target population and areas should be
done prior to designing communication plans. For instance, based on the aggregated
results, risk communication strategies should focused on low-income household since
income significantly affects the Attitude and Perceived Behavioral Control.
Disaster communication plan of the Philippines is multi-layered due to
established Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council at all levels. However,
due to poor feedback mechanism information were normally lost due to too many
players in the communication process. The study revealed that while most
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PROCEDURES
respondents acknowledged the importance of local officials, establishing systems of
delivering information from national to local government should be strengthened.
In able to improve the communication process so that target audiences will
follow evacuation procedures, disaster communication plans should include clear
authority in giving orders and platforms in the delivery of the disaster information.
Further, results revealed on the importance of focusing on the objective of personal
safety and security rather. Moreover, disaster communication plans should have clear
representation of the location of the evacuation centers.
Implications
The results of this study explored risk perception and its attribute relative to
pre-emptive evacuation. This study used Ajzen’ (1988) model in predicting the
occurrence of an individual’s behavioral intentions called the Theory of Planned
Behavior. The Theory of Planned Behaviors(1988) explained that there are three
predictors of intention – Attitude, Subjective Norm and Perceived Behavioral Control.
In this study, the desired behavior is to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures.
Consistent with the Theory of Planned Behavior, this study adapted the role of
three predictors; however, the role of socio-demographic determinants was used also
in examining the factors affecting the intention in following pre-emptive evacuation
procedures. Given the limitation of the Theory of Planned Behavior, the role of socio-
demographic determinants was added in the conceptual framework as dependent
variables.
Although some studies (Eisenman et al., 2007; Kellens et al., 2012; Lim et.al,
2016; Stein et al, 2010; Stein et al, 2014; RØd et al., 2012b;) used socio-demographic
determinants in affecting decisions to follow evacuation procedures, the Theory of
Planned Behavior was not used extensively due to the established three predictors.
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PROCEDURES
Thus, it is recommended in the future studies that socio-demographic shall be
gathered to identify its role towards the desired behavior.
It was acknowledged in this study that there is no guarantee that the desired
behavior will be performed; however, this study will help understand the formation of
the intention based on the three predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen,
1988). In addition, several variables were also considered to strengthen the findings of
this study including the adding of difficulty in making decisions, willingness to follow
evacuation and number of the respondents experienced evacuating.
This study was conducted in three areas in the Philippines and treated as a
whole. However, while statistics of aggregated data show specific results, it must be
noted that studies of each province showed different results. This revealed that risk
communication should be area specific.
Data gathering was conducted during the last quarter of 2016 wherein tracks
of tropical cyclones were focused on Luzon to Visayas. This may affect the decision
of the respondents living in Mindanao. In addition, references to major disaster can
also affect the decision of the respondents; wherein, the most recent reference was
only Typhoon Lando in Casiguran, Aurora that did not or with minimal effect to
Visayas and Mindanao compared to Typhoon Yolanda and Typhoon Pablo that
happened 4 and 5years ago, respectively.
Another important implication of this study came from the results of exploring
the individual resiliency or individual’s assessment of resiliency. Some of the factors
were not significant due to the developed individual resilience of the respondents.
Accordingly, Perceived Behavioral Control may be considered in individual
resiliency; however, even without perceived control an individual can change his/her
behavior.
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PROCEDURES
Finally, given the scant studies, the researcher can not fully explore the current
situation of the risk communication in the Philippines. However, based on the current
practices of the Philippines, the focus of the related disaster activities is on the local
level. The conduct of community-based disaster risk reduction and management
practices of the Office of Civil Defense may help the residents to fully understand the
importance of risk communication. However, given the results of these study a prior
study on the target area must be done in able to improve risk communication
strategies.
Recommendations
The data-gathering instrument used in this study was based on the manual for
health services in constructing questionnaires based on the Theory of Planned
Behavior (Francis et al., 2004). This study adopted some concepts that fit with
behavior during emergencies and disasters; however, the instrument should be further
refined to include additional variables based on observational research of who?.
This study was conducted in three (3) areas in the Philippines that represent
the three (3) major islands and tropical cyclones’ landfall areas. The same study
should be replicated in major cities of the Philippines that include Metro Manila,
Davao City and Cebu City since there is an additional lead-time in pre-emptive
evacuation procedures that can affect the results.
Evacuation, as a practice in disaster risk reduction specifically disaster
preparedness, must also be further studied including its economic benefit. In the
Philippines, people still living in high-risk areas are normally affected by evacuation;
however, as a long-term solution, some Local Government Units applied resettlement
and relocation. A study on its economic impact shall be conducted against losses
280
PROCEDURES
during evacuation. It is also necessary to understand individual resiliency towards
disaster – its components, description and how it was formed.
Finally, the results revealed that risk communication strategies in the
Philippines should be area specific. This study explored the formation of intention or
risk appraisal of different areas in the Philippine using risk perception. Based on the
results, risk communication strategy should be designed based on context of target
population and area.
281

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RUNNING HEAD: : COMMUNICATING RISKS

Communicating Risks: Factors Influencing Filipinos Living in High-Risk Areas to

Follow Pre-Emptive Evacuation Procedures

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Ateneo de Manila University

demographic determinants were significant in following pre-emptive evacuation

aggregated results showed strongest relationship of income, awareness of the evacuation

socio-demographic determinants unique to locations in the provinces. Results revealed

on building awareness that helped in building the intention to follow pre-emptive

evacuation procedures. Risk communication strategies should be designed context

Keywords: Pre-emptive; Evacuation; Risk Communication

Management Operations Center (2016) .............................................................................. 3

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework .................................................................................... 50

Table 1. Number of affected persons ................................................................................ 13

Table 2. Number of Casualties during Typhoon Pablo..................................................... 13

Table 3. Number of Affected Population during Typhoon Yolanda ................................ 15

Table 4. Number of Casualties during Typhoon Yolanda ................................................ 16

Table 5. Number of Affected Population during Typhoon Lando.................................... 18

Table 6. Number of Affected Population Casualties during Typhoon Lando .................. 19

Table 7. Sample Size......................................................................................................... 53

Table 9. Distribution of Respondents According to Socio-demographic and Economic

Table 10. Distribution of Respondents According to Awareness to Evacuation Facility 72

Table 11. Distribution of Respondents According to Behavioral Intention ..................... 73

about evacuating: Aurora Province ................................................................................... 75

Desirability of Pre-emptive Evacuation ............................................................................ 76

Table 15. Distribution of the Response of Respondents Agreement on Subjective Norms

relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation ................................................................................... 78

Table 16. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on the importance of

announcements when it comes to making a decision to follow pre-emptive evacuation . 80

following pre-emptive Evacuation procedure: Aurora Province ...................................... 81

Table 18. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their expectations relative to

pre-emptive evacuation: Aurora Province ........................................................................ 83

Table 19. Distribution of the Response of Respondents on their agreement relative to

their confidence to follow pre-emptive evacuation procedures: Aurora Province ........... 84

Table 20. Distribution of the Response of Respondents Agreement on Perceived

Behavioral Control relative to Pre-emptive Evacuation: Aurora Province ...................... 85

Table 21. Frequency Distribution of the Respondents on Information as Regards Media

Usage and Evacuation Experience: Aurora Province ....................................................... 87

Control: Aurora Province.................................................................................................. 88

Table 24. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation 92

Table 25. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Attitude towards Evacuation:

Table 26. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms .................... 95

Table 27. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Subjective Norms towards

Preemptive Evacuation ..................................................................................................... 96

Table 28. Communalities of factors .................................................................................. 97

Table 29. Exploratory Factor Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control . 99

Table 30. Principal Component Analysis of Respondents’ Perceived Behavioral Control

Table 32. Summary of estimated relationship between Socio-Demographic Determinants

and Three Predictors of Theory of Planned Behavior in following pre-emptive evacuation

procedures. ...................................................................................................................... 107

Province .......................................................................................................................... 109

Table 34. Summary of estimated relationship between Behavioral Intentions attributes

and Attitude in pre-emptive evacuation, Subjective Norms and Perceived Behavioral

Control. ........................................................................................................................... 114

Table 36. Distribution of Respondents According to Socio-demographic and Economic

Profile: Eastern Samar Province ..................................................................................... 119

Table 37. Distribution of Respondents According to Awareness and Behavioral Intention:

Eastern Samar Province .................................................................................................. 120

Table 38. Distribution of Respondents According to their Intention to Follow pre-emptive

evacuation: Province of Easter Samar ............................................................................ 120

decision: Eastern Samar Province ................................................................................... 121

about evacuating: Eastern Samar Province ..................................................................... 122