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Statistical Modeling of Hydraulic and Mechanical Properties of Pervious

Concrete Using Nondestructive Tests

Article  in  Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering · March 2018

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002268.

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 Statistical Modeling of Hydraulic and Mechanical
Properties of Pervious Concrete Using
Nondestructive Tests
Kamran Amini, S.M.ASCE 1; Xuhao Wang, Ph.D. 2; and Norbert Delatte, P.E., F.ASCE 3

Abstract: Because of its lower mechanical properties and durability compared to normal concrete, pervious concrete demands better quality
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Kamran Amini on 03/16/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

control and greater inspection efforts to remain functional. Nondestructive tests (NDTs), ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) in particular, were
used to increase the effectiveness of the quality assurance of pervious pavements. Predictive models for hydraulic conductivity (main feature)
and compressive strength (main concern) of pervious specimens were derived using only UPV combined with total void ratio. The results
confirm that UPV offers a technique for rapid assessment of in-place properties of pervious concrete, either to supplement or replace core
testing in some cases. Combined use of UPV and void ratio was found to outperform the models based on a single test result. Based on the
obtained results, statistical models were put forward for predictions of pervious concrete’s hydraulic conductivity and compressive strength.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002268. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Pervious concrete; Hydraulic conductivity; Compressive strength; Nondestructive tests; Predictive modeling.

Introduction In this direction, nondestructive test (NDT) methods are ad-

Pervious concrete is recognized as a stormwater runoff manage-
ment tool mainly because of its potential to infiltrate large
quantities of water through its connected porous media. It is com-
posed of a relatively uniform size of coarse aggregate with little or
no fine aggregate in the concrete mixture, leading to a more porous
structure. Depending on the application, the porous media consists
of 11–35% of the volume of the concrete (Schaefer et al. 2006;
Tennis et al. 2004). This high porosity is necessary to allow for
water infiltration through pervious concrete. However, it leads to
lower strength and durability than those of conventional concrete
(Beeldens et al. 2003). Consequently, the majority of research con-
ducted on pervious concrete has focused on its pore system
(Kayhanian et al. 2012; Luck et al. 2006; Neithalath et al. 2006,
2010), improvements in its strength (Chindaprasirt et al. 2008;
Deo and Neithalath 2010, 2011; Lian et al. 2011), its flow proper-
ties (Kayhanian et al. 2012; Luck et al. 2006), and mixture propor-
tioning (Ćosić et al. 2015; Güneyisi et al. 2016; Gupta 2014; Huang
et al. 2010; Jo et al. 2015; Martin et al. 2014; Shu et al. 2011). Less
attention has been paid to monitoring the durability and in-place
performance quality of pervious concrete, where estimating the
in situ hydraulic conductivity (HC) and compressive strength (CS)
is crucial for assessing the existing pervious concrete pavements
during their service lives.
1
Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Civil, Construction and Environmental
Engineering, Iowa State Univ., 427 Town Engineering Bldg., Ames,
IA 50011 (corresponding author). E-mail: kamini@iastate.edu
2
Project Manager, National Concrete Pavement Technology Center,
Iowa State Univ., 2711 South Loop 4700, Ames, IA 50010.
3
Professor and Head, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Oklahoma State Univ., 207 Engineering South, Stillwater, OK 74078.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 9, 2017; approved on
November 7, 2017; published online on March 16, 2018. Discussion period
open until August 16, 2018; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
equate tools to predict the in situ properties of concrete without
the need for in situ sampling. Although many research studies
can be found regarding the application of NDT on conventional
concrete (Amini et al. 2016; Jin and Li 2001; Malhotra and
Carino 2004; Washer and Fuchs 2004) and self-consolidating con-
crete (Calabrese et al. 2015; El Mir and Nehme 2015; Wang et al.
2015), to date, there has been little research on the suitability of
NDT methods to pervious concrete. Some previous similar, but
limited tests were conducted by Delatte et al. (2009) and Amini
et al. (2014). Their research found the application of ultrasonic
pulse velocity (UPV) suitable for the evaluation of pervious
concrete structural and hydrological properties. In addition, they
reported an exponential relationship between void ratio and HC.
Chandrappa and Biligiri (2016) applied UPV to investigate the
effect of mix parameters on the pore properties and modulus of
pervious concrete. According to their results, they reported the suit-
ability of the UPV application in pervious concrete pavements for
the periodic assessment of structural and hydrological properties.
In addition, in another study (Chandrappa and Biligiri 2017), they
showed that UPV can be used to assess the tortuosity of pervious
concrete.
UPV has been widely used as a nondestructive tool to evaluate
the mechanical properties and monitor the in situ performance of
cement-based materials (Amini 2015; Ng et al. 2014; Popovics
2005). This test relies on the fact that the velocity of a compression
wave through a solid material is a function of the material’s density/
void ratio, modulus of elasticity, and Poisson’s ratio [BS 1881-203
(BSI 1986); (Bungey et al. 2006; Malhotra and Carino 2004)]. That
being said, considering the correlation of void ratio with hydraulic
conductivity and UPV, the UPV test can exhibit a strong relation-
ship with hydraulic and hardened properties of pervious concrete.
The main objective of the present article is to use statistical mod-
eling to investigate the application of UPV to enhance the feasibil-
ity of quality control and inspection of pervious pavements.
Therefore, predictive models for the HC and CS of pervious spec-
imens are derived using only UPV combined with total void ratio.
The proposed models can provide an approach for more accurate

© ASCE 04018077-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(6): 04018077


and simpler prediction of hydraulic and mechanical properties of
pervious concrete. UPV and void ratio were found to be statistically
significant variables. Therefore, multivariate regression analyses
based on a combination of these tests results were conducted,
and corresponding models were proposed. The accuracy of the
models was verified through the prediction of independent data.
Experimental Procedure
With no prior knowledge of their expected hydraulic and mechani-
cal properties and no information about their background (e.g., age,
mixing proportions, and so on), 25 concrete cylinders were gath-
ered from several field installations (parking lot, sidewalk, and so
on) by coring throughout the northern United States (Amini et al.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Kamran Amini on 03/16/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
2014). They were then tested for ultrasonic pulse velocity,
hydraulic conductivity (HC), compressive strength (CS), total
void ratio, and density. A 10-cm coring drill was used to core
the pervious specimens with various heights ranging from 15
to 20 cm.
The HC, also known as the coefficient of permeability, of the
specimens was evaluated through a falling-head method, compat-
ible with ASTM D5084 Method C [ASTM D5084 (ASTM 2016)]
for porous materials. The details of the falling head permeability
test setup is shown in Fig. 1. All specimens were kept in a water
tank for 3 days to be fully saturated prior to the HC test. The spec-
imens were then wrapped in duct tape. Since the diameter of the
specimens was smaller than the diameter of the standpipe, speci-
mens were wrapped using a flexible foam material to adjust their
size to the standpipe. To ensure accuracy, the HC test was repeated
three times for each specimen, and the average was then calculated.
The HC was determined using Eq. (1) (Das and Sobhan 2013)
Fig. 1. Falling head permeability test setup (reprinted from Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 36, N. Neithalath, J. Weiss, and J. Olek,
“Characterizing Enhanced Porosity Concrete using electrical impe-
dance to predict acoustic and hydraulic performance,” 2074–2085, with
permission from Elsevier)
© ASCE 04018077-2
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(6): 04018077
 
aL h
k ¼ 2.3 log 1 ð1Þ
At h2
where k = HC coefficient of permeability (cm=h); a = cross-
sectional area of the standpipe (cm2 ); L = length of the sample
(cm); A = cross-sectional area of the specimen (cm2 ); t = time
for the water to drop from h1 to h2 (hr); h1 and h2 = initial and
final water levels (cm), respectively; and log = base 10 logarithm.
The density of all the specimens was first determined by calcu-
lating the ratio of the measured dry weight of the specimens to their
volume. The void ratio was then measured by calculating the differ-
ence in weight between air-dried samples and those saturated with
water using Eq. (2) below (Park and Tia 2004)
  
W2 − W1
Vr ¼ 1 − × 100 ð2Þ
ρw × Vol
where V r = total void ratio (%); W 1 and W 2 = weight under water
and dry weight (kg), respectively; Vol = volume of sample (mm3 );
and ρw = density of water (kg=mm3 ).
The UPV test was performed in accordance with ASTM C597
(ASTM 1989). The test is used to estimate the uniformity, quality,
and strength of the tested specimens through a direct, semidirect, or
indirect method. The direct method is the most accurate method,
but impractical in the field, and the indirect method is normally
applied instead. The UPV test determines the required time for
an ultrasound vibration pulse to travel through a specimen. The
changes in the wave speed indicate the variability of the material
properties (i.e., density and dynamic modulus of elasticity).
All the specimens were kept at 105°C for 3 days prior to the
UPV test. A direct UPV test was carried out three times on each
core, and the average values were reported. The rough surfaces of
the specimens were trimmed using sandpaper to ease the coupling
of UPV transducers.
Eventually, after all the NDTs were performed, the CS of the
cores was evaluated based on ASTM C39 (ASTM 2015).
Data Modeling
The analysis began with a univariate linear regression analysis. The
regression model is presented as follows [Eq. (3)]:
y ¼ Xβ þ ϵ ð3Þ
where y = response variable; X = independent variable; β = unknown
parameters; and ϵ = residuals. In this study, HC and CS are the re-
sponse variables, while UPV, total void ratio, density and an intercept
(constant) term are the dependent variables or predictors.
Linear regression makes several key assumptions that need to be
validated. The key assumptions are about the residuals (random
distribution and zero-mean value) and the normal distribution.
Based on this assumption, the residuals from any fitted model
should be randomly distributed with no sign of an identifiable
structure (Draper and Smith 1981; Hjorth 1993). If the assumption
is met, the model can predict the expected values. Therefore,
residual analysis is necessary before making inferences using
the regression models.
Four different forms of the most widely used models proposed
to predict the HC and CS, as a function of UPV and/or void ratio,
in this study are (1) the simple linear, (2) the second-order
polynomial, (3) power, and (4) exponential models. For the case
of HC, these models are expressed respectively as follows
[Eqs. (4)–(7)]:
E½HCjUPV ¼ β 0 þ β 1 UPV ð4Þ
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 E½HCjUPV ¼ β 0 þ β 1 UPV þ β 2 UPV2 ð5Þ

E½HCjUPV ¼ β 0 UPVβ 1 ð6Þ

E½HCjUPV ¼ β 0 eβ1 UPV ð7Þ

where HC = hydraulic conductivity; E½: = expected value of HC as

a function of UPV; UPV = reported velocity of ultrasonic waves;
and β i = coefficients estimated from the data using the maximum
likelihood estimation method (MLE). For the case of CS, the equa-
tions are similar. These models were fitted to the experimental data,
and then the residuals were assessed. As well as these models, a
fivefold cross-validation scheme was used in order to build a series
of predictive multiple regression models.
For this purpose, initially, the data were randomly partitioned
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into five equal-sized samples (with five data points in each sample).
One of these samples was retained as the test set (or validation set),
and the remaining samples (four samples) were used as training sets
for fitting a regression model. This cross-validation process was
repeated four times, with each sample used exactly once as the test
set. This part of the study was also used to evaluate the predictive
contribution of predictors, their powers, and their interactions using
stepwise regression analysis (Krzanowski 2000). This means that
the statistical significance of the following exogenous variables was
tested: UPV, VR, and density.
Further, to measure the quality of the models and to confirm the
results obtained by cross-validation methodology, the Akaike infor-
mation criterion (AIC) and Bayesian information criterion (BIC)
methodologies were used. The model fit was optimized by mini-
mizing AIC and BIC. These criteria were selected because they
provide a trade-off between the model complexity and the quality
of the fit of the data, and they also highly penalize for overfitting
(Dziak et al. 2012).
Experimental Results and Discussion
Univariate Models Using Individual NDT Results
Fig. 2 demonstrates the correlations between the variables and the
responses; the diagonal squares show the names of the investigated
properties, squares above the diagonal present the correlation co-
efficients between the properties, and squares below the diagonal
show the relationship between the variables and responses. From
the shaded squares, it can be observed that UPV is highly correlated
with other investigated properties in this study. Given basic knowl-
edge of science, HC is known to increase with increasing void ratio
[ACI Committee 522R-10 (ACI 2010)]. Previous research con-
ducted by Delatte et. al (2009) and Amini et. al (2016) demon-
strates an exponential relationship between the HC and void
ratio. According to their results, Eqs. (8) and (9) can be derived:
HC ¼ 1E þ 08e−0.0012 Void Ratio
Fig. 2. Correlation among different responses
elastic modulus (E) falls as density decreases and void ratio in-
creases and also because of the longer path around the voids that
the acoustic wave needs to take. On the other hand, the effect of the
aforementioned factors on the strength of the concrete is observ-
able. The lower the void ratio is, the higher the density, and the
faster the ultrasonic pulse velocity is, the higher the value of CS
obtained. However, the relationship between these factors with
the HC and/or CS of previous concrete is not well understood,
while it can highly improve the engineers’ judgments for quality
control.
Fig. 3 shows two regions of quality as a function of void ratio.
The figure shows that all the pervious specimens exhibited a void
ratio higher than 18%. The regions correspond to Region I, which
has a HC between 1,000 and 4,000 cm=h and CS between 10 and
22 MPa, and Region 2, which has a HC between 4,000 and
8,000 cm=h and CS between 4 and 10 MPa. As expected, regres-
sion analysis of the results shows that there is a close relationship
between UPV and porosity of the mixtures. UPV is normally used
to predict the total porosity of the cementitious materials. However,
the relationship between the porosity and permeability of pervious
ð8Þ

HC ¼ 0.0211e0.1056 Void Ratio ð9Þ

The reported R2 values using the above equations are 0.62 and
0.6 for Eqs. (8) and (9), respectively. It is clear that higher statistical
adequacy and model validation should be provided to generalize a
model. This paper attempts to increase the accuracy of the previous
models and predictability of the pervious concrete properties
through univariate and multivariate regression analysis.
For this research, it was hypothesized that the UPV would be
Fig. 3. Concrete quality classification results and relationship between
related to in-place density and void ratio, with velocity decreasing
UPV and void ratio
as density decreases and void ratio increases. This was because the

© ASCE 04018077-3 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(6): 04018077

 Table 1. Univariate Regression Models to Estimate HC and CS from UPV
R2 Ftest
Model HC as a function of UPV CS as a function of UPV HC CS HC CS
1 HC ¼ −8.663UPV þ 30707 CS ¼ 0.0161UPV − 38.38 0.72 0.70 0.98 0.22
2 HC ¼ 0.0077UPV2 − 55.49UPV þ 101925 CS ¼ −1E − 06UPV2 þ 0.024UPV-49.95 0.75 0.70 0.82 0.24
3 HC ¼ 2E þ 27UPV−6.787 CS ¼ 1E − 16UPV4.8518 0.73 0.73 0.28 0.04
4 HC ¼ 2E þ 06e−0.00214UPV CS ¼ 0.0819e0.0016UPV 0.73 0.73 0.89 0.25

concrete has been discussed in several studies (Kevern 2006; Low
et al. 2008; Mehta and Monteiro 2005; Schaefer et al. 2006). In
other words, it has been shown that higher interconnectivity would
generally exist in the porous media of the mixtures, with a higher
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of higher than 3,000 cm=s correspond to mixtures in Region I with
a void ratio between about 18 and 28% and comparatively adequate
CS. This classification is expected to be useful for researchers and
field engineers to estimate the strength and HC of pervious concrete

total porosity resulting in higher HC (Ong et al. 2016). That being
said, according to the results obtained in this study, application of
UPV can provide an adequate estimation of the porous media,
which can directly point to the hydraulic properties (permeability)
of the pervious concrete. The results show that when the mixtures
have a void ratio higher than 30%, the UPV is relatively constant
and less than 3,000 cm=s, and the concrete suffers from very low
CS (Region II, 4 < CS < 10 MPa). On the other hand, UPV values
based on UPV and/or void ratio values.
The statistical parameters found through the simple regression
analysis of all four univariate models [Eqs. (4)–(7)] to predict the
HC and CS are given in Table 1, and the respective regression lines
are plotted in Figs. 4(a and b). The statistical values in Table 1 show
that all four models are approximately similar. Before making in-
ferences using regression models, however, the validity of the mod-
els should be verified. Figs. 5 and 6 illustrate the residuals of these

Fig. 4. Accuracy assessment of the developed different univariate models to express the relationship between UPV results and (a) HC;
(b) CS

Fig. 5. Predicted HC versus residuals for different models based on UPV

© ASCE 04018077-4 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Kamran Amini on 03/16/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 6. Predicted CS versus residuals for different models based on UPV

models versus the predicted HC and CS, respectively. According to
the basic regression analysis assumption (mean = 0 and sd = 1),
Fig. 5 shows that the residuals plot of the exponential model seems
to meet the assumptions the most.
In the case of CS (Fig. 6), except for the polynomial model, all
the residual plots are almost similar and possibly adequate for stat-
istical prediction of CS. However, mean-square-error (MSE) analy-
sis may confirm which of the models can be the most adequate.
The MSE of Models 1 (linear), 3 (power), and 4 (exp.) are 170,
179, and 169, respectively. Although Models 1 and 4 are approx-
imately the same, the lower MSE value confirms that the equation
derived based on exponential regression is the most adequate model
for predicting the CS of pervious concrete based on UPV. Also, the
small coefficient found for the second-order-polynomial equation
suggests that the underlying physics of the problem can be ex-
plained by a first-order model.

Fig. 7. Cross-validation prediction results for multivariate model using combined variables to predict HC

© ASCE 04018077-5 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(6): 04018077

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Kamran Amini on 03/16/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 8. Cross-validation prediction results for multivariate model using combined variables to predict CS

Multiple Regression Model The results of multiple regression, AIC, and BIC are tabulated in
Tables 2 and 3 for HC and CS, respectively. When fitting a model,
Four multiple predictive regression models (Models 1–4) were in-
adding new variables can possibly increase the likelihood of the
vestigated through different statistical methodology to find the
model; however, this may result in overfitting. For this discussion,
most adequate model. Equations for the case of CS are similar.
BIC and AIC are used to resolve this problem by introducing a
• Model 1 (univariate model): Hydraulic conductivity ∼αUPV
penalty term for the number of parameters in the model. This pen-
• Model 2: Hydraulic conductivity ∼αUPV þ β Void Ratio
alty is larger in the BIC compared to the AIC. Results from Tables 2
• Model 3: Hydraulic conductivity ∼αUPV þ β Density
and 3 confirm the previous findings by cross-validation analysis.
• Model 4: Hydraulic conductivity ∼αUPV þ β Voids Ratio þγ
As expected, Models 2 and 4 show the highest and similar R2 val-
Density
ues. However, because of the lower number of the variables in
The cross-validation analysis was first carried out on all differ-
Model 2, as highlighted in Tables 2 and 3, Model 2 exhibited
ent models, and then AIC and BIC criteria were used to measure
the lowest BIC values for both HC and CS. Therefore, the results
the quality of the models to confirm the results obtained by cross-
indicate that the optimal model order is Model 2 for both HC and
validation methodology. The results show that both Models 2 and 4
CS, as the average test error was minimized at this model order.
produce a significantly better prediction of HC than the univariate
Finally, each model (developed by fitting to 4=5 of the data) was
model (1). Fig. 7 shows that Models 2 and 4 have lower dispersion
used to predict its corresponding test set of the data. The predictions
compared to Models 1 and 3.
are presented in Fig. 9. The best model is chosen as the average of
Therefore, based on the results obtained in this study, a combi-
the five and is presented as Eqs. (10) and (11):
nation of UPV and void ratio can improve predictions of the HC of
pervious concrete. In addition, backward elimination on this full
model showed that all variables should be retained. Similar infer- E½HCjUPV; VR ¼ −4.16 × UPV þ 239.909 × VR þ 10299.36
ences were obtained by fivefold cross-validation analysis. The in- ð10Þ
teraction variables (UPV × VR and UPV × Density) were not
significant in any of the partitions. Similar results were obtained
for CS prediction (Fig. 8). E½fc0 jUPV; VR ¼ 0.0082 × UPV − 0.5 × VR − 0.39 ð11Þ

Table 2. Statistical Results to Measure the Relative Quality of Different Table 3. Statistical Results to Measure the Relative Quality of Different
Models to Predict HC Models to Predict CS
Measures Measures
Model R2 AIC BIC MSE.CV Model R2 AIC BIC MSE.CV
1 0.73 425 429 1,305,996 1 0.71 368 371 135,806
2 0.81 418 423 1,052,755 2 0.79 360 366 105,959
3 0.72 427 432 1,427,247 3 0.69 363 368 119,929
4 0.81 418 424 1,135,642 4 0.79 361 367 103,348

© ASCE 04018077-6 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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 Fig. 9. Actual versus predicted values from (a) Eq. (10); (b) Eq. (11)
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Fig. 10. Residuals plot of the model proposed in (a) Eq. (10); (b) Eq. (11)

The average of the ratio between measured and predicted values
for HC and CS are 0.97 and 1.00, respectively, which confirm the
predictability of the models. There are, however, a few outliers.
Overall, the proposed models appear to predict HC and CS data
with suitable accuracy, and may be useful for the prediction of
new data within the range studied in this paper. Fig. 10 shows
the plot of the residuals corresponding to the developed multivari-
ate models using the UPV and void ratio. It is evident that the re-
siduals are randomly scattered around zero, indicating a good fit.
Therefore, the proposed models seem adequate for predictions and
inferences.
Conclusions
core testing in some cases. One difficulty is likely to be coupling
the UPV transducers to the rough surface of a pervious concrete
pavement. This can be eased by trimming the surface using
sandpaper.
Acknowledgments
This study is based on work supported in part by the National
Science Foundation through Grant No. IIP-0917994. The conclu-
sions expressed herein are the conclusions of the authors and not
necessarily those of the National Science Foundation. The authors
gratefully acknowledge this support.

This paper used the results of UPVand total void ratio to investigate
their suitability for the prediction of the HC and CS of pervious
concrete, with no need for information regarding the concrete’s
properties and mixture proportions. It was desired to provide mod-
els for in situ predictions of existing pervious pavements. Based on
the results reported herein, the following main conclusions can
be drawn:
• Fivefold cross-validation analysis indicated that combined use
of UPV and void ratio improves the predictions compared to
those based on only a single test result. This was also confirmed
through regression analysis, AIC, and BIC measures. Based on
this result, a multivariate regression model is proposed for the
predictions of HC and CS of pervious concrete.
• The results confirm that UPVoffers a technique for rapid assess-
ment of in-place properties of pervious concrete, especially
when combined with void ratio, either to supplement or replace
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