Asi 01 00042 PDF

Article
Smart Home Anti-Theft System: A Novel Approach

for Near Real-Time Monitoring and Smart Home
Security for Wellness Protocol
Sharnil Pandya 1 , Hemant Ghayvat 2, *, Ketan Kotecha 3 , Mohammed Awais 2 ,
Saeed Akbarzadeh 2 , Prosanta Gope 4 , Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay 5 and Wei Chen 2
1 Computer Science & Engineering Department, Navrachana University, Vadodara 391410, Gujarat, India;
sharnil.pandya84@gmail.com
2 Center for Intelligent Medical Electronics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China;
17110720061@fudan.edu.cn (M.A.); sd.akbarzadeh@gmail.com (S.A.); w_chen@fudan.edu.cn (W.C.)
3 Director, SIT, Symbiosis International University, Pune,411004, India; director@sitpune.edu.in
4 School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hull, Hull, HU1 1DB, UK; p.gope@hull.ac.uk
5 Mechanical/Electronics Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia;
subhas.mukhopadhyay@mq.edu.au
* Correspondence: ghayvat@gmail.com; Tel.: +86-132-6285-4329

Received: 19 September 2018; Accepted: 16 October 2018; Published: 23 October 2018
Abstract: The proposed research methodology aims to design a generally implementable framework
for providing a house owner/member with the immediate notification of an ongoing theft
(unauthorized access to their premises). For this purpose, a rigorous analysis of existing systems
was undertaken to identify research gaps. The problems found with existing systems were that they
can only identify the intruder after the theft, or cannot distinguish between human and non-human
objects. Wireless Sensors Networks (WSNs) combined with the use of Internet of Things (IoT)
and Cognitive Internet of Things are expanding smart home concepts and solutions, and their
applications. The present research proposes a novel smart home anti-theft system that can detect an
intruder, even if they have partially/fully hidden their face using clothing, leather, fiber, or plastic
materials. The proposed system can also detect an intruder in the dark using a CCTV camera without
night vision capability. The fundamental idea was to design a cost-effective and efficient system for
an individual to be able to detect any kind of theft in real-time and provide instant notification of the
theft to the house owner. The system also promises to implement home security with large video
data handling in real-time. The investigation results validate the success of the proposed system.
The system accuracy has been enhanced to 97.01%, 84.13, 78.19%, and 66.5%, in scenarios where a
detected intruder had not hidden his/her face, hidden his/her face partially, fully, and was detected
in the dark from 85%, 64.13%, 56.70%, and 44.01%.
Keywords: smart anti-theft system; intruder detection; unsupervised activity monitoring; smart home;
partially/fully covered faces
1. Introduction and Related Work

In the modern era, security and surveillance are important issues. Recent acts of theft/terrorism
have highlighted the urgent need for efficient video surveillance and on-the-spot notification of
ongoing thefts to house owners and other household members. A number of surveillance solutions
are currently available on the market, such as CCTV cameras and digital video recorders (DVRs) that
can record the unauthorized activities of a trespasser, but cannot distinguish between human and
non-human objects [1,2]. In recent times, the ratio of theft has increased tremendously due to a lack of
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 42; doi:10.3390/asi1040042 www.mdpi.com/journal/asi

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 42 2 of 22
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awareness and low availability of smart-gadgets. The task of face detection and the recognition of an
an intruder
intruder becomebecomeveryvery difficult
difficult when when the intruder
the intruder hideshides
theirtheir
faceface partially
partially or fully
or fully using
using somesometypetype
of
an intruder become very difficult when the intruder hides their face partially or fully using some type
of material, such as plastic, leather,
material, such as plastic, leather, or fabric. or fabric.
of material, such as plastic, leather, or fabric.
Legacysystems
Legacy systems cannot
cannot provide
provide real-time
real-time theft theft notification
notification to theowner
to the house housenor owner
detectnor detect
partially
Legacy systems cannot provide real-time theft notification to the house owner nor detect
ofpartially of fullyfaces.
fully obscured obscured faces.
It is also It is also challenging
challenging for old systems for old systems
to detect the to detect in
intruder the
theintruder
dark using in thea
partially of fully obscured faces. It is also challenging for old systems to detect the intruder in the
CCTV camera without night vision capability. The major flaw with this kind of arrangement is that itof
dark using a CCTV camera without night vision capability. The major flaw with this kind
dark using a CCTV camera without night vision capability. The major flaw with this kind of
arrangement
demands is that
the 24/7 it demands
availability of the 24/7 owner
a house availability of a house
or member, owner video
or manual or member, or manual
surveillance, which videois
arrangement is that it demands the 24/7 availability of a house owner or member, or manual video
surveillance, which is almost impossible [3–5]. In addition, it is a tedious
almost impossible [3–5]. In addition, it is a tedious task to go through all the recorded video clips after task to go through all the
surveillance, which is almost impossible [3–5]. In addition, it is a tedious task to go through all the
arecorded videohas
possible theft clips after aknown.
become possibleIt theft
mighthas be become
that the known.
storage It might
server be that athe
contains storage
large amount server
of
recorded video clips after a possible theft has become known. It might be that the storage server
contains
family a largefootage,
member amountwhich of family
is ofmember
no use infootage, which
identifying is of no use in identifying trespassers.
trespassers.
contains a large amount of family member footage, which is of no use in identifying trespassers.
Theproposed
The proposedapproach
approachcan canbe beapplied
appliedtotoan anIoT-based
IoT-basedsmart smarthome homemonitoring
monitoringsystem systemin innear
near
The proposed approach can be applied to an IoT-based smart home monitoring system in near
real-time. As
real-time. As shown
shown in in Figures
Figures 11 and and 2,2,aasmart
smarthome homewas wasdesigned
designedand anddeveloped
developedbased basedon onan an
real-time. As shown in Figures 1 and 2, a smart home was designed and developed based on an
integratedframework
integrated frameworkofofsensors,
sensors,cameras,
cameras,and andcustomized
customizedhardware
hardwareto toanalyze
analyzeunauthorized
unauthorizedaccess.access.
integrated framework of sensors, cameras, and customized hardware to analyze unauthorized access.
Thesystem
The systemoperates
operatesatattwo twodifferent
differentlevels:
levels:through
throughaahardware
hardwareinterface
interfaceand andthrough
throughaasoftware
software
The system operates at two different levels: through a hardware interface and through a software
interface. At
interface. At the
the hardware
hardware interface
interface level,
level, an anintelligent
intelligent sensing
sensing node node isisdeployed,
deployed,connected
connectedto toaa
interface. At the hardware interface level, an intelligent sensing node is deployed, connected to a
central sensing node which acknowledges the data and sends it
central sensing node which acknowledges the data and sends it to the storage server. The software to the storage server. The software
central sensing node which acknowledges the data and sends it to the storage server. The software
modulesare
modules are further
further subdivided
subdivided into intoseveral
severalfurther
furtherlevels,
levels,including
including data logging,
data logging, data retrieval,
data and
retrieval,
modules are further subdivided into several further levels, including data logging, data retrieval, and
storage.
and TheThe
storage. main objective
main of the
objective ofsoftware
the software is to is
detect and report
to detect and reportunsupervised
unsupervised human activity
human using
activity
storage. The main objective of the software is to detect and report unsupervised human activity using
large data handling techniques as close to real-time
using large data handling techniques as close to real-time as possible. as possible.
large data handling techniques as close to real-time as possible.
Thework
The workisispresented
presentedas asfollows.
follows.TheTheinitial
initialsection
sectionprovides
providesan anintroduction
introductionon onlegacy
legacysystems,
systems,
The work is presented as follows. The initial section provides an introduction on legacy systems,
potential issues, and their impact on society. Section 2 describes the necessity
potential issues, and their impact on society. Section 2 describes the necessity of the present research. of the present research.
potential issues, and their impact on society. Section 2 describes the necessity of the present research.
ItItalso
alsodescribes
describesthe theintelligent
intelligentfeatures
featuresofofthe thesystem
systemthat thatcan
candetect
detectobscured
obscuredfacesfacesusing
usinggraphical
graphical
It also describes the intelligent features of the system that can detect obscured faces using graphical
andstatistical
and statisticalmethods.
methods. Subsequently,
Subsequently,SectionSection33presentspresentsthe thedesign
designand andexperimental
experimentalsetup setupof ofthethe
and statistical methods. Subsequently, Section 3 presents the design and experimental setup of the
system. It also describes two critical features: (i) the detection of obscured
system. It also describes two critical features: (i) the detection of obscured faces and (ii) detection of an faces and (ii) detection of
system. It also describes two critical features: (i) the detection of obscured faces and (ii) detection of
an intruder in the dark. Section 4 presents the methodologies in three
intruder in the dark. Section 4 presents the methodologies in three different phases with graphical different phases with graphical
an intruder in the dark. Section 4 presents the methodologies in three different phases with graphical
analysisand
analysis andstatistical
statisticalresults.
results.TheThefinal
finalsection
section(Section
(Section5)5)discusses
discussesthe theresearch
researchoutcomes.
outcomes.
analysis and statistical results. The final section (Section 5) discusses the research outcomes.
Figure 1. Image of a smart building where a smart home monitoring and anti-theft system has been
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Image
Imageofofa smart building
a smart where
building a smart
where home
a smart monitoring
home and and
monitoring anti-theft system
anti-theft has been
system has
installed.
installed.
been installed.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Cont.
(c)
Figure Detailedworkflow
Figure 2. Detailed workflowof ofthethe system.
system. (a)Plus
(a) CP CP 850
Plustvl850 tvl camera;
analog analog camera; (b) customized
(b) customized hardware
hardware in which
in which the the research
proposed proposedmethodology
research methodology is coded;
is coded; and and (c) the
(c) the layered layered architecture
architecture of
of an anti-theft
an anti-theft
system for ansystem forofanThings
Internet Internet of Thingssmart
(IoT)-based (IoT)-based smart home solution.
home solution.
2. Necessity
2. Necessityof
of aa New
New IoT-Based
IoT-Based Theft
Theft System
System
Nowadays, intruders
Nowadays, intruders have
have become
becomemore more technologically
technologicallyaware awareand andhave
havecarried
carriedout
outburglaries
burglaries
usingsmart
using smartgadgets
gadgetslikelikegas-cutters,
gas-cutters,smart
smartanti-lock
anti-locksystems,
systems,and and many
many more.
more. ForFor such
such intruders,
intruders, it
it is straightforward to disconnect CCTV camera surveillance, which has
is straightforward to disconnect CCTV camera surveillance, which has an indirect connection to an indirect connection tothe
the
digital video
digital video recorder
recorder and
and aa database
database server
server residing
residing at at home.
home. Therefore,
Therefore,there
thereisisaa need
need to
to modify
modify
existing systems [5–27] and propose an intelligent approach that can not only
existing systems [5–27] and propose an intelligent approach that can not only provide unsupervised provide unsupervised
human activity
human activitymonitoring,
monitoring,but butcan
canalso
also stop
stop anan ongoing
ongoing theft
theft by by notifying
notifying the the house-owner
house-owner at
at the
the earliest
earliest opportunity.
opportunity. All All legacy
legacy systems
systems workwork onon thethe premiseofofobject
premise objectdetection,
detection,object
object motion
motion
detection, and tracking. Such systems are prone to false alerts or notifications,
detection, and tracking. Such systems are prone to false alerts or notifications, which might result in which might result in
sending false emergency notifications to the house owner/member, the escape
sending false emergency notifications to the house owner/member, the escape of the intruder after of the intruder after the
theft,
the andand
theft, unnecessary
unnecessary disruptions
disruptions totothetheresidents.
residents.To Toresolve
resolvethese
theseissues,
issues, aa novel human activity
novel human activity
monitoring detection, recognition, and home security approach is presented
monitoring detection, recognition, and home security approach is presented in the remaining in the remaining sections.
The list of
sections. used
The listterminologies is described
of used terminologies in Table 1.
is described in Table 1.
The overall arrangement of the sensing units is as follows. The smart home monitoring and
Table 1. List of used terminologies.
control framework is applied on two unique levels: equipment and programming. The equipment
framework containsNotations the sensor arrangements. This equipment Acronyms framework is further classified into
four areas: body sensor setup (BSS), Present ambient novel system for(ASS),
sensor setup crisis detection,
surveillance, sensor setup (CSS), and other
sensors setup (OSS). The A BSS is enabled with an impact sensor. A remote BSS provides observations
and instant notification of intrusion for preventing theft
of inhabitants in different I physiological states. Image TheCapturing Module
BSS framework incorporates physiological
M Identification Module
checking gadgets that are capable of recording the daily activities of the smart home residents
Me Eye and Face Detection
without disturbing their Mp
daily routine. Pixel Processing
The second equipment Mms system, ASS, containsMotion a temperature
Detection sensing unit, motion sensing unit,
and pressure sensing unit. Mc The CSS is equipped with numerous manual push buttons, for example
Comparison
there is a panic push button S for emergency situations Storage Module
such as a house fire which activates security
C Controller Module
and alarm systems. The final setup, OSS, offers the utilization checking and control of electrical home
Cp Processing Module
devices through the electrical T and electronic sensing unit. Module
Transmission
OSS additionally D incorporates the contact sensing Displayunit.
ModuleThe OSS framework is in charge of
information accumulation, mining, and storage into the database server. Finally, server information
is collected and handled by machine learning and information mining models to deliver helpful data
The overall arrangement of the sensing units is as follows. The smart home monitoring and
control framework is applied on two unique levels: equipment and programming. The equipment
framework contains the sensor arrangements. This equipment framework is further classified into
four areas: body sensor setup (BSS), ambient sensor setup (ASS), crisis sensor setup (CSS), and other
sensors setup (OSS). The BSS is enabled with an impact sensor. A remote BSS provides observations of
inhabitants in different physiological states. The BSS framework incorporates physiological checking
gadgets that are capable of recording the daily activities of the smart home residents without disturbing
their daily routine.
The second equipment system, ASS, contains a temperature sensing unit, motion sensing unit,
and pressure sensing unit. The CSS is equipped with numerous manual push buttons, for example
there is a panic push button for emergency situations such as a house fire which activates security
and alarm systems. The final setup, OSS, offers the utilization checking and control of electrical home
devices through the electrical and electronic sensing unit.
OSS additionally incorporates the contact sensing unit. The OSS framework is in charge of
information accumulation, mining, and storage into the database server. Finally, server information
is collected and handled by machine learning and information mining models to deliver helpful
data for website and output action. The arrangement of the wireless sensing units is reported in the
following section.
The smart home monitoring and control framework has been persistently run since May 2015 in a
vintage house, built in 1945. Figure 1 depicts the house where the smart home monitoring and control
framework is operating and the residents are living out their daily lives [12].
3. Design and Experimental Setup

As shown in Figure 2, a CP-PLUS analog camera model 850 tvl, a Wi-Fi- and Bluetooth-enabled
customized hardware with 1 GB RAM and a 256 GB memory card, and a Samsung Grand mobile
device were used. The camera was placed in each room of the smart home to protect the house
from intruders equipped with smart gadgets. Nowadays, intruders often understand that the camera
would be connected to a laptop/computer/tablet and can disconnect it to stop the system functioning.
The customized hardware used in the system has Bluetooth and Wi-Fi capability, which allows placing
the proposed system anywhere inside the smart home where Wi-Fi is available. Even in the case of
power failure, the proposed system can still function if it is connected to a laptop/tablet with a hotspot
internet connection. In addition, the customized hardware is covered by a plastic coating to protect it
from the water inside the electricity conceal lines.
As shown in Figure 3, the proposed system starts functioning when an intruder comes into the
monitored area. The movement of an intruder is captured by a face detection module, as shown
in Figure 4. The main function of the face detection module is to differentiate human objects from
non-human objects. When any human action is detected, the camera is activated at a rate of 15 frames
per second. After the initial frame has been captured, it is immediately sent to the house owner on a
specialized mobile app. The video processing module continues to capture the rest of the frames at
45 frames per second for up to 40 seconds and stores them in mp4 video format. The captured 40 s
mp4 video is then compressed to approximately 10 seconds of fast-forward format video. The reason
behind converting and compressing the video from 15 frames per second to 45 frames per second is to
enable the video to be received by a mobile phone with a slow internet connection. The compressed
video is also sent to the homeowner. This step allows the house owners to make a rapid decision about
whether to inform a neighbor or the police.
Appl.Syst.
Appl. Syst.Innov.
Innov.2018,
2018,2,1,x42
FOR PEER 55ofof23
22
Figure
Figure3.3.Projection
Projectionarea
areaofofthe
thesmart
smarthome
homeanti-theft
anti-theftsystem.
system.
Figure 3. Projection area of the smart home anti-theft system.
Figure
Figure4.4.Detailed
Detailedworkflow
workflowofofthe
thesystem.
system.
Figure 4. Detailed workflow of the system.
Thedetailed
The detailedtechnical
technicalproperties
propertiesofofthe
thecore
coremodules
modulesof ofthe
theproposed
proposedsystemsystemare areexplained
explainedin in
the following.
The
the following.detailed technical properties of the core modules of the proposed system are explained in
the following.
Functioning
I. I. Functioning Module/Processing
Module/Processing Module:
Module: Captures
Captures the the presence
presence of ofananintruder
intruderinin thethe
I. surveillance
Functioning
surveillance Module/Processing
areaarea as shown
as shown in Figure Module:
in Figure
3 at3 at
thethe Captures
rate
rate ofof the presence
1515frames
frames persecond.
per of After
second. an
Afterintruder
detecting
detecting inan
anthe
intruder, the functioning module sends the captured frames to the identification module (M) for an
surveillance
intruder, the area as shown
functioning in Figure
module sends3 at
thethe rate
captured of 15 frames
frames to per
the second. After
identification detecting
module (M)
intruder,
andthe
for detection
detection functioning
and intruder
intruder module sends the captured frames to the identification module (M) for
identification.
identification.
detection
II. II. Identification and
Identification intruder
Module:
Module: Whenidentification.
When an intruder
an intruder enters
enters thethe surveillance
surveillance area,
area, theidentification
the identificationmodule
module
II. (M)Identification
(M) detects
detects the the Module:
presence
presence When
andand an intruder
identifies
identifies enters
whether
whether the
it human
it is surveillance
is human oror area, the identification
non-humanbybyassessing
non-human module
assessingvarious
various
(M)
regions detects
regions
of the the
of face presence
the face
of the and
ofcapturedidentifies
the captured whether
intruder
intruder usingusingit is
the eye human
theand or
eyeface non-human
and detection by
face detection assessing
module (Me).various
module (Me).
The
regions of the
The identification
identification moduleface module
of the
(M) hascaptured
(M) has
four intruder using
four submodules,
submodules, as shownthe aseye and face
shown
in Figure detection
in5.Figure 5. module (Me). The
identification module (M) has four submodules, as shown in Figure 5.
a. a.Eye and FaceFace
Eye and Detection Module:
Detection Module:Captures
Captures thethe face of of
face thetheintruder
intruderby bydistinguishing
distinguishing
a.between
Eye andhuman Face Detection
and non-human Module: Captures
objects. If an the
intruder face
has of the
partially intruder
covered bytheir
distinguishing
face, face,
the
between human and non-human objects. If an intruder has partially covered their
module detects the brightest part of the intruder’s face or the region of interesttheir
between human and non-human objects. If an intruder has partially covered usingface,
the the
module detects the brightest part of the intruder’s face or the region of interest using the

the module detects the brightest part of the intruder’s face or the region of interest using
the pixel processing module (Mp). Following this process, the eye and face detection
pixel processing module (Mp). Following this process, the eye and face detection module
module sends the captured images to the pixel processing module for further processing.
sends the captured images to the pixel processing module for further processing.
b. Pixel Processing Module: First, if the intruder has partially covered their face,
b. Pixel Processing Module: First, if the intruder has partially covered their face, this module
this module detects the brightest region of the face such as the eyes, cheeks, or upper part
detects the brightest region of the face such as the eyes, cheeks, or upper part of the head
of the head [28,29]. Next, it detects the motion of the captured intruder using the motion
[28,29]. Next, it detects the motion of the captured intruder using the motion detection
detection module (Mm). This eliminates the risks of false alarms from photographs of
module (Mm). This eliminates the risks of false alarms from photographs of humans
humans printed on the walls, magazines or newspapers.
printed on the walls, magazines or newspapers.
c.
c. Motion Motion Detection
Detection Module:
Module: If a detected
If a detected intruderintruder is a human,
is a human, the motion
the motion detection detection
module
module
detects detects of
the motion theanmotion of an
intruder; it intruder; it captures
captures the the first
first frame of anframe of anfrom
intruder intruder
videofrom
at a
rate video at a rate
of 15 frames ofsecond
per 15 frames
andper secondthe
captures and capturesframes
following the following frames
at 45 frames peratsecond.
45 frames
The
main per second.
reason The main
behind reasonthe
increasing behind
speedincreasing the speed
of the captured of the
frames captured
from 15 to 45 frames from
is to allow
15 to 45 is to allow the house owner to access the captured video
the house owner to access the captured video sequences in slow internet access scenarios.sequences in slow
internet access scenarios. The video is then sent to the comparison
The video is then sent to the comparison module (Mc) to mitigate the possibility of false module (Mc) to
mitigate the possibility of false alarms.
alarms.
d. Comparison
d. Comparison Module:
Module: To mitigate
To mitigate the possibility
the possibility of falseofalarms,
false alarms, the comparison
the comparison module
module (Mc) distinguishes between human and non-human
(Mc) distinguishes between human and non-human objects using the modified Haar objects using the modified
Haar Cascade
Cascade algorithmalgorithm
[13,14] [13,14]
and sendsand sends
near near real-time
real-time notificationstoto the
notifications the house
house
owner/member.
owner/member.
III.III. Storage
Storage Module:
Module: This
This module
module storesthe
stores theimages
imagesofofall
allthe
thecaptured
captured intruders.
intruders. The
The detection
detection and
and
recognition of any unauthorized access in the smart home surveillance area is captured by the
recognition of any unauthorized access in the smart home surveillance area is captured by the
smart
smart home
home anti-theft
anti-theft system
system ininthree
threephases:
phases:(a)
(a)primary
primaryface
face detection
detection phase;
phase; (b)
(b) secondary
secondary
face
face detection
detection phase;
phase; and
and (c)(c)
a afinal
finalphase
phasewhere
wherean anintruder
intruderhas
has partially
partially or
or fully
fully hidden
hidden their
their
face or has been detected in the
face or has been detected in the dark. dark.
Figure 5. Communication
Figure 5. Communication block
block diagram
diagram of
of the
the smart
smarthome
homeanti-theft
anti-theftsystem.
system.
4. Methodologies and Results Analysis

4. Methodologies and Results Analysis
According to our rigorous and detailed literature survey [3–40], we have identified that to date,
According to our rigorous and detailed literature survey [3–40], we have identified that to date,
no feasible solutions are available which can detect intruders with partially or fully covered faces and
no feasible solutions are available which can detect intruders with partially or fully covered faces and
provide immediate notification to the house owner to stop the ongoing theft. Furthermore, it was
provide immediate notification to the house owner to stop the ongoing theft. Furthermore, it was also
identified that the main reason why such methodologies have not been introduced in the market is
due to the complexity, efficiency, accuracy, and the time-duration required to develop specialized
methodologies for the intrusion detection with partially or fully covered faces. To overcome the

also identified that the main reason why such methodologies have not been introduced in the market
is due to the
above complexity,
challenges weefficiency,
have proposedaccuracy, and the time-duration
a research methodologyrequiredthat aims to develop
to design specialized
a generally
methodologies
implementable for the intrusionfor
framework detection
providing witha partially or fully covered
house owner/member faces.
with the To overcomenotification
immediate the above of
challenges we have
an ongoing theftproposed
(unauthorized a research
accessmethodology that aims
to their premises). to research
The design a generally
methodology implementable
was classified
framework
into three stages with corresponding results: (a) primary phase; (b) secondary phase; and theft
for providing a house owner/member with the immediate notification of an ongoing (c) final
(unauthorized
phase. access to their premises). The research methodology was classified into three stages
with corresponding results: (a) primary phase; (b) secondary phase; and (c) final phase.
4.1. Primary Phase
4.1. Primary Phase
The eye and face detection module was programmed with the modified feature-based Haar
The
cascadeeyeface
anddetection
face detection module
classifier was programmed
algorithm with theThe
[13,22,26,28,31,32]. modified
modified feature-based
Haar cascade Haarface
cascade face detection classifier algorithm [13,22,26,28,31,32]. The modified Haar cascade
detection classifier algorithm detects an edge, line, and center-surround features of an intruder object. face detection
classifier algorithm
The variety detects
of Haar an edge,
cascade line, and
classifiers center-surround
is shown in Figure 6. features
As shownof aninintruder
Figuresobject.
6 and 7,Thethevariety
rectangle
of Haar cascade classifiers is shown in Figure 6. As shown in Figures 6 and
features can be captured and computed based on the intermediate representation of the captured 7, the rectangle features can
be captured and computed based on the intermediate representation of the
intruder’s image. The results of the face detection rate analysis of Haar Cascade classifier with captured intruder’s image.
Theexisting
results of the face detection
methodologies rate analysis
is represented of Haar
in Table 2, Cascade
which shows classifier
that with existingface
the accurate methodologies
detection rateis of
represented in Table 2, which shows that the accurate face detection rate
the modified Haar cascade classifier was very high when compared to previous methodologies forof the modified Haar cascade
classifier was very5000
approximately highfacewhen compared
samples to previous
in ordinary scenarios methodologies
where intruders forhave
approximately
not obscured 5000
theirface
faces.
samples in ordinary scenarios where intruders have not obscured their faces. This
This is the primary reason why the modified Haar cascade classifier was used in the present research is the primary reason
whyexperiments.
the modifiedThe Haar cascade
detected classifier
image of anwas used in
intruder at athe presenta,research
location b contains experiments.
the sum of The detected
the pixels above
image
andoftoan
theintruder
left of a,atb,aas
location
describeda, bincontains the sum
the following of the pixels above and to the left of a, b, as
equation.
described in the following equation.
ii(a, b)   i(a ', b ') (1)
ii ( a, b) = ∑ b ab0 ,' b 0 )
a ' ai,( (1)
a0 ≤ a,b≤b0
where ii(a, b) is the detected image of an intruder, i(a’, b’) is the original image, (a, b) represents x and
y coordinates
where ii(a, b) is theofdetected
the detected
imageimage, (a’, b’) represents
of an intruder, i(a’, b’) isxthe
and y coordinates
original of b)
image, (a, therepresents
original image,
x and yand
S represents
coordinates sum
of the of the pixels.
detected image, The initial
(a’, b’) condition
represents for yScoordinates
x and is set to zeroofwhen the proposed
the original image, system
and S is
in the idle
represents sumstate
of theorpixels.
has notThecaptured the trespasser
initial condition in the
for S is set smart
to zero whenhome using thesystem
the proposed following
is inpair
the of
recurrences.
idle state or has not captured the trespasser in the smart home using the following pair of recurrences.
S (a, b)  S (a, b 1)  i(a, b)
S( a, b) = S( a, b − 1) + i ( a, b) (2) (2)
ii ( a, ii
b)(a  bii−
=, bii)( a, (a1,)b+1)  bS)(a, b)
S( a, (3) (3)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e)
Figure
Figure 6. Haar
6. Haar cascade
cascade classifiers,
classifiers, (a)(a) edges
edges features
features; ; (b)
(b) lines
lines features
features; (c); (c)
fourfour rectangle
rectangle features;
features;
(d) center-surround
(d) center-surround features;
features; and and (e) face
(e) face classifiers.
classifiers.

Figure 7. Haar
Figure cascade
7. Haar image
cascade classifier
image classifiersamples (all of
samples (all of the
the shown
shown human
human faces
faces in conducted
in the the conducted
experiments required copyright permission obtained on 19 March
experiments required copyright permission obtained on 19 March 2017). 2017).
Table 2. Face Detection Rate Accuracy Analysis of the modified Haar Cascade Classifier with existing
methodologies in a scenario, where an intruder has not occluded their face.
methodologies in a scenario, where an intruder has not occluded their face.
Types of Face Detection Face Detection Rate Accuracy in an Ordinary Scenario (%)
Methodologies
Types of Face Detection [Total Sample Size = 5000]
Face Detection Rate Accuracy in an Ordinary Scenario (%)
Modified Haar Cascade
Methodologies 97.01
[Total Sample Size = 5000]
Neural Networks 75.4
Modified Haar Cascade
Skin Segmentation Template 52.397.01
Neural Networks
Matching Modified Haar Cascade 65.8775.4
Higher Order Statistics
Skin Segmentation Template 72 52.3
Two Step R-CNN Method 94
Matching Modified Haar Cascade 65.87
Higher Order Statistics 72
A cascade classifier calculates the centroid of the detected intruder’s face, and a radius is calculated
Two Step R‐CNN Method 94
based on a scale value. According to the geometrical face model [27], with the cropped mouth region
as the Region of Interest (ROI), we defined the top left coordinates as (x, y), the centroid point as
A
(cx,cascade classifier
cy), and the radius ascalculates the region
r. The mouth centroid
couldof the bedetected
then intruder’s
roughly obtained face, and a radius is
as follows
calculated based on a scale value. According to the geometrical face model [27], with the cropped
Fo
2r r
mouth region as the Region of Interest (ROI), we defined the top left coordinates as (x, y), the centroid
x = cx − and y = cy + (4)
5 3
point as (cx, cy), and the radius as r. The mouth region could then be roughly obtained as follows
Wm = r and Hm = r/2 where mouth height is Hm and mouth width is Wm.
 cascade 2r     r 
The main reason of the usage x of cx   classification
    cy  in Equation
and yrepresented which
 (4) in the conducted (4)
experiments is to allow the proposed   5 
system to detect 
multiple  3 
faces, includes detection of
overlapping face patterns by distinguishing strong and weak classifiers as shown in Figures 8 and
Wm = r and Hm = r/2 where mouth height is Hm and mouth width is Wm.
9a. Here, the feature value is defined as the total difference between sum of the pixels S in the
The
whitemain reason
rectangle and of the rectangle
black usage of cascade
as shown in classification represented
Figure 6. The algorithm in Equation
defines (4) in the
weak classifiers
by thresholding
conducted captured
experiments feature
is to allow values. The modified
the proposed Haarto
system Cascade
detect classification
multiple faces, algorithm
which trains
includes
strong classifiers to achieve very low false acceptance and false recognition rates. As
detection of overlapping face patterns by distinguishing strong and weak classifiers as shown shown in Figure 8, in
a positive result from the first classifier triggers the assessment of a second classifier
Figures 8 and 9a. Here, the feature value is defined as the total difference between sum of the pixels which in turn
triggers a third classifier, and so on. If during the whole process, a negative result is prompted, then it
S in the white rectangle and black rectangle as shown in Figure 6. The algorithm defines weak
results in the termination of the subwindow. In this phase, numerous classifier stages are built using
classifiers by thresholding captured feature values. The modified Haar Cascade classification
the modified Haar cascade to minimize false negatives.
algorithm trains strong classifiers to achieve very low false acceptance and false recognition rates. As
In comparison to the existing methodologies, this framework was 15 times faster than the
shown in Figure 8, a frameworks
other recognition positive result from
[31]. As the face
per the first classifier
location triggers
framework the assessment
portrayed by Rowley of eta al.,
second
classifier which in turn triggers a third classifier, and so on. If during the whole process, a negative
a Multiclassifier-based Near-Real-Time Face Detection System is the fastest algorithm in detecting
result human
is prompted, then it results
faces as compared in methodologies.
to existing the termination Theof the subwindow.
proposed system could In also
this phase,
capture numerous
a group
of faces captured in a single frame using modified Haar cascade crowd classifiers, as presented in
classifier stages are built using the modified Haar cascade to minimize false negatives.
Figure 9a. Figure 9b represents non-human object samples which were not captured by the smart
In comparison to the existing methodologies, this framework was 15 times faster than the other
home anti-theft system during the conducted experiments. To conduct non-human object detection
recognition frameworks [31]. As per the face location framework portrayed by Rowley et al., a Fo
experiments, samples of dogs, cats, sparrows, and parrots were used as described in Figure 9b.
Multiclassifier‐based Near‐Real‐Time Face Detection System is the fastest algorithm in detecting
human faces as compared to existing methodologies. The proposed system could also capture a
group of faces captured in a single frame using modified Haar cascade crowd classifiers, as presented
in Figure 9a. Figure 9b represents non‐human object samples which were not captured by the smart
home anti‐theft system during the conducted experiments. To conduct non‐human object detection
experiments, samples of dogs, cats, sparrows, and parrots were used as described in Figure 9b.

Figure 8. Schematic representation of cascade classifiers.
Figure 8. Schematic representation of cascade classifiers.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Schematic representation
representation of
of cascade
cascade classifiers.
classifiers.
(a)
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. (a)
Figure 9.Crowd
(a) (a) Crowd
Crowd Cascade
Cascade
Cascade Image
ImageClassifier
Image ClassifierSample
Classifier Sample (copyright
Sample(copyright permission
permission
(copyright for for
permission photograph
photograph
for obtained
obtained
photograph obtained
on on
on 11 April1 April
April 2017).
2017).2017).
(b)(b)
(b) Non-human
Non-human
Non-human objectssamples
objects
objects samples (copyright
samples (copyright
(copyrightpermission
permission
permissionforfor
photograph
for photograph
photograph obtained on on
obtained
obtained on
9 2017).
July 2017).
(b)
9 July
9 July 2017).
Figure 9. (a) Crowd Cascade Image Classifier Sample (copyright permission for photograph obtained
As shown in Figure 10a, rigorous research experiments were conducted with approximately
As
on 1shown in Figure
April 2017). (b) Non-human rigorous
10a, rigorous research
objects experiments
samplesexperiments were conducted
(copyright permission for photographwith obtained
approximately
on
10,000 diverse samples in scenarios where an intruder was detected in ordinary scenarios and where
10,0009 July
diverse
2017).samples in scenarios where an intruder was detected in ordinary scenarios and where
an intruder had not fully/partially covered his/her face. The ratio of accurate face detection was 100%
intruder
an intruder had
in more thannot
had not
97%fully/partially covered his/her
of cases for more than 10,000
his/herface
face.
face. The
Theratio
samples.ratio of
ofaccurate
Figure accurate
10b depicts
face
face detection
thedetection
was 100%
face detection
As than
in more
more shown
than 97% in Figure
of
97%ofof97% cases
cases 10a,
for rigorous
more
for more than
than research
10,000
10,000 experiments
face samples. were
Figure conducted
10b depictswith
the approximately
face detection
rate analysis accuracy cases in the formface samples.
of heat Figure 10b depicts the face detection
map representation. rate
10,000
rate diverse
analysis
analysis ofsamples
of 97% 97% incases
scenarios
accuracy
accuracy cases where
in thein anheat
the form
form of intruder
of heat was
map map detected in ordinary scenarios and where
representation.
representation.
an intruder had not fully/partially covered his/her face. The ratio of accurate face detection was 100%
in more than 97% of cases for more than 10,000 face samples. Figure 10b depicts the face detection
rate analysis of 97% accuracy cases in the form of heat map representation.
(a)
(a)
Figure 10. Cont.

(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure10.
10. (a)
(a)Face
Facedetection
detectionraterateanalysis
analysisofofthe
theproposed
proposedsystem
systemwith
with10,000
10,000face
facesamples
samplesininan an
ordinary
ordinaryscenario
scenariowhere
wherean anintruder
intruderhashasnot
notoccluded
occludedtheir
theirfaces
faces(b)
(b)Heat
Heatmap
maprepresentation
representationofofface
face
detection
detectionrate
rateanalysis
analysisofofthe
theproposed
proposedsystem
systemwith
with10,000
10,000face
facesamples
samplesininan
anordinary
ordinaryscenario
scenariowhere
where
anintruder
an intruderhashasnot
notoccluded
occludedtheir
theirface.
face.
4.2.Secondary
4.2. SecondaryPhase
Phase
Afterinitial
After initialface
facedetection
detectionisiscomplete,
complete, anan intelligent
intelligent secondary
secondary stagestage algorithm
algorithm waswas designed
designed to
to eliminate false positives which capture half-hidden human faces,
eliminate false positives which capture half-hidden human faces, based on the brightest featuresbased on the brightest features
of
of the
the faceface [26,27,33–38].
[26,27,33–38]. For For
eacheach positive
positive sample,
sample, a dynamic
a dynamic threshold
threshold (range
(range fromfrom 0.50.7)
0.5 to to 0.7)
was was
set
set to capture the brightest part of the intruders partially or fully covered
to capture the brightest part of the intruders partially or fully covered faces. After conducting faces. After conducting
numerousexperiments,
numerous experiments,itithas hasbeen
beenidentified
identifiedthat thatthetheproposed
proposedsystemsystemdoes doesnotnotrequire
requiredifferent
different
dynamicthreshold
dynamic thresholdvalues
valuesfor
forday-time
day-timeor ornight-time
night-timeintrusions.
intrusions.For Fordetecting
detectingthe theretinal
retinalpoint
pointand
and
other bright facial features, a modified Gabor filter was used [38]. The Gabor
other bright facial features, a modified Gabor filter was used [38]. The Gabor filter is a powerful tool filter is a powerful tool
for heterogeneous image feature extraction. The Gabor filter can extract
for heterogeneous image feature extraction. The Gabor filter can extract common features from common features from diverse
face images.
diverse Gabor filters
face images. Gabor make themake
filters use oftheGaborusewavelets
of Gaborwhich are very
wavelets whichpowerful
are veryin detecting
powerfuland in
discriminating image feature extraction. Gabor filters also possess
detecting and discriminating image feature extraction. Gabor filters also possess similar characteristics as those of a
similar
human visual as
characteristics system
those[19].
of a human visual system [19].
The nearby
The nearby power powerrange
rangeofofthe thepicture
picturewas wasinspected
inspectedatatevery everyretinal
retinalpoint
pointby bythe
thevector
vectorof of
Gabor channels that constituted the responsive field connected with that
Gabor channels that constituted the responsive field connected with that point. Gabor channels are point. Gabor channels are
idealas
ideal asthey
theyminimize
minimizethe thejoint
jointpicture
pictureandandfrequency
frequencyplane planespread.
spread.At Atthethepoint
pointwhen
whenonlyonlyaasmall
small
number of frequency channels are utilized, the Gaussian range of the channels
number of frequency channels are utilized, the Gaussian range of the channels results in over-dense results in over-dense
coveragenear
coverage nearthethestarting
startingpoint
pointofofthethefrequency
frequencyplane, plane,while
whilethe thehigh-frequency
high-frequencyregions regionsare arepoorly
poorly
covered.This
covered. Thisisisbecause
becauseeacheachGaussian
Gaussianweights
weightshigh highandandalsoalsolowlowfrequencies
frequenciesinina asymmetric
symmetricway, way,
while the disintegration is coarser at high frequencies. To counter this effect,
while the disintegration is coarser at high frequencies. To counter this effect, a set of changed Gabor a set of changed Gabor
channelswere
channels wereemployed,
employed,whichwhichare arecharacterized
characterizedasasGaussians
Gaussiansininthe thelog-polar
log-polarfrequency
frequencyplaneplane[20].
[20].
Figure 11a,b shows the modified Gabor filter in the Fourier domain and
Figure 11a,b shows the modified Gabor filter in the Fourier domain and a 2D plot of cross-sectional a 2D plot of cross-sectional
coordinates.Thus,
coordinates. Thus,aachannel
channeltuned
tunedto toangular
angularfrequency
frequencycan canbe bedefined
definedas asfollows
follows
00 = exp
ω exp((δ00))
   
n o  n o
2 2

A
 exp ( − )  − ( − ) 
G (ω, δ) =  A exp 2   0   × exp    20  
δ δ0 2 ϕ ϕ 0 2
(5)
G ( ,  )   2σ   exp  2σ ϕ 
   
δ
2  2
2  2
(5)
 and (δ, φ) are polar frequency
where A is a normalization constant  coordinates.
where A is a normalization constant and (𝛿,  ) are polar frequency coordinates.

Appl.Innov.
Appl. Syst. Syst. Innov.
2018,2018,
1, 422, x FOR PEER 11 of 23
11 of 22
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 11. Gabor
11. (a) (a) Gabor filters
filters ininthe
theFourier
Fourier domain,
domain, level
levelcurves,
curves,and (b)(b)
and cross-sectional plot.plot.
cross-sectional
Figure 11. (a) Gabor filters in the Fourier domain, level curves, and (b) cross-sectional plot.
Figure Figure 12 depicts
12 depicts various
various classifiersamples
classifier sampleswhere
where an
an intruder
intruderhas haspartially
partiallycovered his/her
covered face face
his/her
Figure
with 12 depicts
plain, black, various
shaded, classifier
framed, and samples
frameless where anItintruder
glasses. also shows hasscenarios
partiallywhere
covered
an his/her face
intruder
with plain, black, shaded, framed, and frameless glasses. It also shows scenarios where an intruder
withhas
plain, black,
partially shaded,
covered framed,
their face withand frameless solid,
transparent, glasses. It also
plastic, shows
and/or scenarios
leather where
materials. an intruder
In addition,
has partially covered their face with transparent, solid, plastic, and/or leather materials. In addition,
Figure 13acovered
has partially also presents
their aface
few with
classifier samples that
transparent, were
solid, captured
plastic, on a dark
and/or leathernight with an ordinary
materials. In addition,
Figure 13a also presents a few classifier samples that were captured on a dark night with an ordinary
analog
Figure camera.
13a also presents a few classifier samples that were captured on a dark night with an ordinary
analog camera.
Rigorous experiments were conducted with approximately 10,000 face samples in scenarios
analog camera.
Rigorous experiments
where a detected were
intruder hadconducted with approximately
partially covered 10,000 face samples in scenarios where
Rigorous experiments were conducted withhis/her face with
approximately some
10,000 type
faceof transparent,
samples in solid,
scenarios Formatted:
a detected intruder had partially covered his/her face with some type of
plastic, or leather material. Figure 13a reports the correct face detection rate analysis for transparent, solid, plastic,
10,000
where a detected intruder had partially covered his/her face with some type of transparent, solid,
or leather
humans material. Figure
under these 13a reports
conditions. Thethe correct
correct face
face detection
detection raterate analysis
accuracy for 10,000
achieved humans
was more thanunder
plastic, or leather material. Figure 13a reports the correct face detection rate analysis for 10,000
these84%, with similar
conditions. Therates achieved
correct when morerate
face detection thanaccuracy
10,000 images
achievedwere was
used.more
Figurethan
13b represents
84%, withthe similar
humans
face under these
detection rate conditions.
analysis of 84%The correctcases
accuracy faceindetection
the form rate
of a accuracy
heat map achieved was more than
representation.
rates achieved when more than 10,000 images were used. Figure 13b represents the face detection rate
84%, with similar rates achieved when more than 10,000 images were used. Figure 13b represents the
analysis of 84% accuracy cases in the form of a heat map representation.
face detection rate analysis of 84% accuracy cases in the form of a heat map representation.
Figure 12. Cont.

Appl. Syst.
Appl. Innov. 1, 422, x FOR PEER
2018,2018,
Syst. Innov. 12 of 22
12 of 23
Figure 12. Intermediate stage classifier samples where an intruder has worn plain/black glasses,
partially covered face with some type of transparent, solid, plastic, leather material, including the
Figure 12. Intermediate
12. Intermediate stagestage classifier
classifier samples
samples wherewhereintruder
an intruder worn
has worn plain/black glasses,
Figurefollowing, tinted glasses, plain-rimmed glasses, face an
covered withhas plain/black
a white cloth, glasses,
facial overlap partially
with
partially covered face with some type of transparent, solid, plastic, leather material, including the
covered face with some type of transparent, solid, plastic, leather material, including the
plastic, and face covered in a transparent cloth (copyright permission for images obtained on 21 May following,
following, tinted glasses, plain-rimmed glasses, face covered with a white cloth, facial overlap with
tinted2017).
glasses, plain-rimmed glasses, face covered with a white cloth, facial overlap with plastic, and face
plastic, and face covered in a transparent cloth (copyright permission for images obtained on 21 May
covered in a transparent cloth (copyright permission for images obtained on 21 May 2017).
2017).
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 13. (a) Face detection rate analysis of the proposed system with 10,000 face samples in scenarios
where an intruder has partially covered their face with some type of transparent, solid, plastic, or leather
material. (b) Heat map representation of face detection rate analysis of the proposed system with
10,000 face samples in scenarios where an intruder has partially covered their face with some type of
transparent, solid, plastic, or leather materials.
4.3. Final Phase

After the completion of the secondary phase, if the system has not been able to capture the facial
features of the trespasser, it will execute the final phase. In this phase, if a detected intruder is a human,
it will track the motion of the detected human object and notify the house owner about the presence
of a stranger in the house by sending the latest captured image and a compressed video (at 45 fps).
Furthermore, the system is intelligent enough to capture the intruder based on the variations of the face;
a dynamic threshold has been set to capture the brightest part of the face even if an intruder has fully
covered his/her face with some type of transparent, solid, plastic, and/or leather material. The system
can also detect intruders at night or in poor light conditions. This requires an ordinary analog camera,
which makes the system very economical. To detect the intruder’s motion, reference images (a, b)
and the captured video frames were obtained from the captured video sequence. A binary motion
detection mask M (a, b) can be calculated as follows
(
1, i f | It ( a, b) − B( a, b)|> T
M ( a, b) = (6)
0, i f | It ( a, b) − B( a, b)|≤ T
Here, T is the predefined threshold which captures the moving objects in a captured video frame.
If the outright contrast between a reference picture and an approaching video outline does not surpass
T, the pixels of the identification cover are named “0,” which implies that it contains background.
Generally, dynamic pixels are named “1”, which is assigned for moving objects. To capture complex
scenes, a simple statistical difference method was applied, using the mean value and the standard
deviation. This method computes the mean value for each and every pixel of the captured video
frames. The pixel value of each pixel µxy has been calculated from a collection of all the previously
captured frames in the given time interval (t0 , tk −1 ). For every computed pixel, the threshold is given
by a standard deviation σab as follows.
1 k −1
k k∑
µ ab = Ik ( a, b)
=0
!
1 k −1 n o1/2
σab = ∑
k k =0
( Ik ( a, b) − µ ab )2 (7)
In order to achieve object motion detection, the difference between the background of the image
and captured video frame was calculated. Here, the predefined parameter is λ. If the exact difference
between the captured video frame and image background is greater than λσxy or less than λσab ,
then the background pixel can be calculated as follows.
(
1, i f It ( a, b) − B( a, b)> λσxy
M ( a, b) = (8)
0, i f It ( a, b) − B( a, b)≤ λσxy
Figure 14 depicts various classifier images where an intruder has completely covered his/her face.
It also shows classifier samples which have been captured at night with an ordinary analog camera.
It is clear from the samples in Figure 14 that it is not necessary for an intruder to look directly at the
camera in order to be captured. Once an intruder is in the projected area of the system it will capture
the intruder even if he/she is not directly looking at the camera.
(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(d) (e)
(e)
Figure
Figure 14.14.
14. FinalStage
Final StageClassifier
ClassifierSamples
Samples where an an intruder
intruderhas
hasaafully
fullycovered
covered
covered face with
face with some
some
some typetype
of of transparent,solid,
transparent, solid,plastic,
plastic,leather
leather material
material and
and detection
detectionininthe
thedark
darknight.
night.Face
Facehidden
hidden withwith(a) (a)
black
black plastic,
plastic, (b)black
(b) blackplastic
plasticand
andin inmotion,
motion, (c)
(c) face
face captured
capturedononaadark
darknight,
night,(d) storage
(d) storage samples
samples of of
captured
captured intruder’s
captured intruder’s
intruder’simage image
imageand and a compressed
anda acompressed
compressed video
video
video with
with a timestamp,
a timestamp,
with a timestamp, and
andand (e) a
(e) a(e) customized
customized
a customized mobile
mobile app
mobile
appapp
with withsamples
samples
with samples ofofongoing
of ongoing ongoing theft notification
notification
theft notification
theft (copyright
(copyright permission
permission
(copyright was
wasobtained
was obtained
permission for allforof
obtained all
forthe ofhuman
all thethe
of
human
faces shownfaceson shown
11 May on2017).
11 May 2017).
human faces shown on 11 May 2017).
As As shownininFigure
Figure 15a,rigorous
rigorous research experiments
experiments were conducted with approximately
As shown
shown in Figure 15a, 15a, rigorous research
research experiments were were conducted
conducted withwith approximately
approximately
10,000
10,000 face samples in scenarios where a detected intruder had fully covered his/her face with some
10,000 face
face samples
samples in in scenarios
scenarios where
where aa detected
detected intruder
intruder had
had fully
fullycovered
coveredhis/her face
his/her face with
with some
some
type
type of of transparent,
transparent, solid,
solid, paper,
paper, plastic,
plastic, or or leather
leather material.
material. The The
above above
figure figure
depictsdepicts
the the
face face
detection
type of transparent, solid, paper, plastic, or leather material. The above figure depicts the face
detection
rate analysis rate analysis for 10,000 human samples
these with these variations.
wereFaces werewith
detected with of
detection ratefor 10,000 human
analysis samples
for 10,000 human with
samples variations.
with these Faces
variations. detected
Faces were accuracy
detected with
accuracy of approximately 78% as shown in Figure 15a. Figure 15b represents face detection rate
approximately
accuracy of 78% as shown
approximately in Figure
78% as shown15a. in
Figure 15b15a.
Figure represents
Figure face represents
15b detection rate
faceanalysis of 78%
detection rate
analysis of 78% accuracy cases in the form of the heat map representation.
accuracy cases in the form of the heat map representation.
analysis of 78% accuracy cases in the form of the heat map representation.
(a)
(a)
Figure 15. Cont.
(b)
Figure
Figure 15. (a)15. (a) Face
Face detection
detection raterate analysisof
analysis ofthe
the proposed
proposedsystem with
system 10,000
with face samples
10,000 in scenarios
face samples in scenarios
where an intruder has a fully covered face, as per Figure 9. (b) Heat map representation of face
where an intruder has a fully covered face, as per Figure 9. (b) Heat map representation of face detection
detection rate analysis of the proposed system with 10,000 face samples in scenarios where an intruder
rate analysis of the proposed system with 10,000 face samples in scenarios where an intruder has a fully
has a fully covered face.
covered face.
Figure 16a depicts the correct face detection rate analysis against 10,000 images of humans
Figure 16a at
detected depicts
night by theancorrect
ordinaryface detection
analog camera rate analysis
without against
night vision 10,000 images
capability. of humans
Faces were accuratelydetected
at nightdetected
by an ordinary analog 67%
in approximately camera without
of cases, night vision
with similar accuracycapability. Faces
achieved for high were accurately
numbers of images.detected
Figure 16b 67%
in approximately represents face with
of cases, detection rate accuracy
similar analysis ofachieved
detected for
67%high
casesnumbers
in form of ofthe heat map
images. Figure 16b
representation.
represents
Appl. face detection
Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, xrate analysis of detected 67% cases in form of the heat map representation.
FOR PEER 16 of 23
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 16. (a)16. (a) Face
Face detection
detection raterate analysisof
analysis ofthe
the proposed
proposedsystem with
system 10,000
with face samples
10,000 in scenarios
face samples in scenarios
where an intruder has been detected in the dark night. (b) Heat map representation of face detection
rate analysis of the proposed system with 10,000 face samples in scenarios where an intruder has been
detected in the dark night.
Analysis of the male and female ratio used in the conducted rigorous research experiments in
all the above-mentioned scenarios is presented in Figure 17, which depicts a variety of male and
female samples in the following scenarios: (a) face not obscured, (b) face partially covered, (c) face
fully covered, and (d) captured in the dark by an analog camera.The total sample size used for all the
research experiments was 10,000 images.
(b)
Figure 16. (a) Face detection rate analysis of the proposed system with 10,000 face samples in scenarios
Analysis of
Analysis of the
the male
male and
and female
female ratio
ratio used
used in
in the
the conducted
conducted rigorous
rigorous research
research experiments
experiments in in
all the
all the above-mentioned
above-mentioned scenarios
scenarios is presented
presented in Figure
Figure 17,
17, which
which depicts
depicts aa variety
variety of
of male
male andand
female samples
female samples in
in the
the following
following scenarios:
scenarios: (a) face
face not
not obscured,
obscured, (b)
(b) face
face partially
partially covered,
covered, (c)
(c) face
face
fully covered,
fully covered, and
and (d)
(d) captured
captured in in the
the dark
dark by
by an
an analog
analog camera.The
camera.The total
total sample
sample size
size used
used for
for all
all the
the
research experiments
research experiments waswas10,000
10,000images.
images.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 17. Cont.

(d)
(d)
Figure
Figure 17. 17.
17.
Figure Analysis
Analysis
Analysis ofofmale–female
of male–female ratio
male–female ratio wherethe
where
ratio where theface
the face
face is
is is (a)
(a)(a) face
face
face not
notnot obscured,
obscured,
obscured, (b) partially
(b)
(b) face face partially
face partially
covered,
covered, (c)face
covered,
(c) face
(c) fully
face covered,
fully
fully and
covered,and
covered, (d)captured
and(d) capturedin
captured ininthe
the
the dark
dark
darkbyby by
ananan analog
analog camera.
camera.
analog camera.
An An analysis
Ananalysis
analysis of of various
of various
various skintones:
skin
skin tones: dark,
tones: dark, whitish-brown,
dark, whitish-brown,
whitish-brown, whitish, fair,fair,
whitish,
whitish, very
fair, fair,fair,
very
very and and
fair,white is given
andwhite
white isisgiven
given
in in Figure 18. The proposed system achieved high accuracy for all varieties of
in Figure 18. The proposed system achieved high accuracy for all varieties of skin tones and forthe
Figure 18. The proposed system achieved high accuracy for all varieties of skin
skin tones
tones and
andfor
forallall all
the above-mentioned scenarios, as shown in Table 3. It clearly depicts that the conducted experiments
above-mentioned
the above-mentioned scenarios, as shown
scenarios, as shown in Table
in Table 3. It
3. clearly
It clearlydepicts
depictsthat thatthe
theconducted
conductedexperiments
experiments
on a variety of skin tones such as white, very fair, fair, wheatish-brown, wheatish, and dark achieved
on
onaa variety
variety ofof skin
skin tones
tones such
such as
as white,
white, very
very fair,
fair, fair,
fair,wheatish-brown,
wheatish-brown,wheatish,wheatish,and anddark
darkachieved
achieved
above 80% accuracy when an intruder has partially hidden their face, above 70% accuracy when an
above
above 80%
80% accuracy
intruder
when
has fully when
an
hiddenan
intruder
intruder
their
hassome
has
face with
partially
partially hiddentheir
typehidden
their
of plastic,
face,
face,
leather,
above
above
or paper,70%70%
and
accuracy
accuracy
above 60%when whenan
an intruder
intruder has has fully
fully hidden
hidden their
their face
face with
with some
some type
type of
of plastic,
plastic, leather,
leather,
accuracy when an intruder was captured in the dark night with an ordinary analog camera without or
or paper,
paper, and above 60%
60%
accuracy
night when
accuracy an
an intruder
intruder was
when capability.
vision was captured
captured in in the
the dark
dark night
night with
with an
anordinary
ordinaryanalog analogcamera
camerawithout
without
night
nightvision
visioncapability.
capability.
Figure 18. Detailed Analysis of various skin tones samples used in scenarios: face not obscured,
Figure 18. Detailed Analysis of various skin tones samples used in scenarios: face not obscured, face
face partially covered,face
partially covered, facefully
fully covered,
covered, andand captured
captured in theindark
the by
dark by an analog
an analog camera.camera.
Table 3. Accuracy analysis of variety of skin tones in different scenarios.

Skin Tones Accuracy % (Total Sample Size = 10,000)
Scenario 2: Intruder Has Scenario 3: Intruder Has Scenario 4: Intruder
Scenario 1:
Partially Covered Face with Fully Covered Face with is Captured in the
Instruder with
Some Type of Transparent, Some Type of Transparent, Dark Night or in
Face Not
Solid, Plastic, Leather Solid, Plastic, Leather Bad Light
Obscured
Table 3. Accuracy analysis of variety of skin tones in different scenarios.
Skin Tones Accuracy % (Total Sample Size = 10,000)

Scenario 1: Scenario 2: Intruder Has Scenario 3: Intruder Has Fully Scenario 4: Intruder is
Instruder with Partially Covered Face with Covered Face with Some Type Captured in the Dark
Face Not Some Type of Transparent, Solid, of Transparent, Solid, Plastic, Night or in Bad Light
Obscured Plastic, Leather Materials (%) Leather Materials (%) Conditions (%)
White 97.9 91.9 79.7 66.4
Very Fair 97.8 87.8 76.7 64.01
Fair 95.6 85.6 74.9 63.12
Wheatish 94.5 84.5 73.8 63.05
Wheatish
94.3 84.3 72.6 62.75
Brown
Dark 93.7 83.7 71.9 62.12
As shown in Figure 19, a comparison was carried out between all the scenarios mentioned in
Figure 12, Figure 13, Figure 15, and Figure 16 for the correct face detection rate of 10,000 face samples.
The comparison stated that the achieved correct face detection accuracy in scenarios where a detected
intruder had not hidden his/her face, hidden his/her face partially, fully, and was detected in the dark
were 97.01%, 84.13, 78.19%, and 66.5%, respectively. Figure 20 describes the age group analysis of
10,000 face samples captured in four scenarios: (a) face not obscured, (b) face partially covered, (c) face
fully covered, and 2018,
Appl. Syst. Innov. (d) captured in the dark by an analog camera.
2, x FOR PEER 19 of 23
19. Comparison
Figure Figure 19. Comparisonof face detection
of face detection rate in various
rate in variousscenarios
scenarios
withwith
2000 2000 face samples:
face samples: face not face not
obscured;
obscured; face partially
face partially covered;
covered; facefully
face fullycovered;
covered; and
andcaptured in the
captured darkdark
in the by anby
analog camera.camera.
an analog
Analysis of the various age groups used in the conducted rigorous research experiments in all
the above-mentioned scenarios is presented in Figure 20, which depicts a variety of age group
samples: (i) <10 years, (ii) between (10–15 years), (iii) between (15–20 years), (iv) between (20–35
years), (v) between (35–45 years), (vi) between (45–55 years), (vii) between (55–60 years), and (viii)
>60 against corresponding face detection rate and face samples. The total sample size used for all the
research experiments was 10,000 images.
Figure 20.
Figure 20. Comparision
Comparision Analysis
Analysis of
of face
face detection
detection for
for various
various age
age groups
groups in
in four
four scenarios:
scenarios: face
facenot
not
obscured; face
obscured; face partially
partially covered;
covered; face
face fully
fully covered; and captured
covered; and in the
captured in the dark
dark by
by an
an analog
analog camera.
camera.
Analysis of the various

Table 4 represents age groups
a face detection rateused in the
accuracy conducted
analysis of therigorous
modifiedresearch
Haar Cascadeexperiments
Classifier in
all
withtheexisting
above-mentioned
methodologies scenarios
in fourisscenarios:
presented(a) in face
Figure
not20, which depicts
obscured, (b) facea partially
variety of age group
covered, (c)
samples:
face fully covered, and (d) captured in the dark by an analog camera. In the case of the firstyears),
(i) <10 years, (ii) between (10–15 years), (iii) between (15–20 years), (iv) between (20–35 two
(v) betweenwhere
scenarios, (35–45theyears), (vi) between
intruder (45–55 years),
has not obscured (vii) between
or partially obscured (55–60
theiryears), andproposed
face, the (viii) >60system
against
corresponding face detection rate and face samples. The total sample
has enhanced system accuracy to 97.01% and 84.13% from 95% and 80.8%, to 75.6% and 65.5% from size used for all the research
experiments
69% and 34.5%, wasand10,000
to 72%images.
and 50% from 94% and 75% resulting from the use of neural networks, a
skin segmentation template, detection
Table 4 represents a face matchingrate modified
accuracy haar cascade
analysis methodologies,
of the modified Haar a two
Cascadestep Classifier
R-CNN,
higher order statistics, and faceness-net methodologies. However, in scenarios 3 and 4, where
with existing methodologies in four scenarios: (a) face not obscured, (b) face partially covered, the
(c) face
intruder
fully has fully
covered, and obscured
(d) captured theirinface
the using
dark bysome type ofcamera.
an analog transparent,
In thesolid,
case paper, plastic,
of the first twoor leather
scenarios,
material
where theand the intruder
intruder has not has been captured
obscured or partiallyin obscured
the dark using an analog
their face, camera system
the proposed withouthas night vsion
enhanced
facility, all the existing methodologies have failed in detecting the intruder except for the neural
system accuracy to 97.01% and 84.13% from 95% and 80.8%, to 75.6% and 65.5% from 69% and 34.5%,
networks
and to 72%and andtwo
50%step
from R-CNN
94% and method. Howver,from
75% resulting the two stepofR-CNN
the use method requires
neural networks, the usage of
a skin segmentation
a thermal camera to detect an intruder in the dark night [20]. The proposed system can detect
template, matching modified haar cascade methodologies, a two step R-CNN, higher order an
statistics, Formatted:
intruder using an analog camera without night vision capability. In scenarios 3 and 4, the proposed
and faceness-net methodologies. However, in scenarios 3 and 4, where the intruder has fully obscured
system
their hasusing
face enhanced
someaccuracy to 78.19% andsolid,
type of transparent, 66.5% from 56.70%,
paper, plastic, 44.01%
or leatherandmaterial
69%, 55% as represented
and the intruder
in Table 4.
has been captured in the dark using an analog camera without night vsion facility, all the existing
methodologies have failed in detecting the intruder except for the neural networks and two step
R-CNN Table 4. Face Detection
method. Howver,Rate theAccuracy
two stepAnalysis
R-CNNofmethodthe modified Haar Cascade
requires the usage Classifier with existing
of a thermal camera to
detectmethodologies
an intruder in in four scenarios:
the dark night(a)[20].
face The
not obscured;
proposed(b)system
face partially covered;
can detect (c) face fully
an intruder usingcovered;
an analog
and (d) captured in the dark by an analog camera.
camera without night vision capability. In scenarios 3 and 4, the proposed system has enhanced
accuracy to 78.19% and 66.5% from 56.70%, 44.01%
Methodologies and 69%,
Accuracy 55%Sample
% (Total as represented
Size = 10,000)in Table 4.
Scenario 3: Intruder Has
Scenario 2: Intruder Has Scenario 4: Intruder
Scenario 1: Fully Covered Face with
Partially Covered Face Is Captured in the
Instruder with Some Type of
with Some Type of Dark Night or in
Face Not Transparent, Solid,
Transparent, Solid, Plastic, Bad Light
Obscured Plastic, Leather Material
Leather Material (%) Conditions (%)
(%)
Modified Haar
97.01 84.13 78.19 66.5
Cascade
Neural Networks 95 80.8 56.70 44.01
Skin
Segmentation 75.6 65.5 CD3 CD4
Template
methodologies in four scenarios: (a) face not obscured; (b) face partially covered; (c) face fully covered;
and (d) captured in the dark by an analog camera.
Methodologies Accuracy % (Total Sample Size = 10,000)

Scenario 1: Scenario 2: Intruder Has Scenario 3: Intruder Has Fully Scenario 4: Intruder
Instruder with Partially Covered Face with Covered Face with Some Type Is Captured in the
Face Not Some Type of Transparent, Solid, of Transparent, Solid, Plastic, Dark Night or in Bad
Obscured Plastic, Leather Material (%) Leather Material (%) Light Conditions (%)
Modified Haar
97.01 84.13 78.19 66.5
Cascade
Neural Networks 95 80.8 56.70 44.01
Skin
Segmentation 75.6 65.5 CD3 CD4
Template
Matching
Modified Haar 69 34.5 CD3 CD4
Cascade
Two Step R-CNN 95 75 69 55
Higher Order
72 50 CD3 CD4
Statistics
Faceness-Net 94 75 CD3 CD4
CD3—Can not detect intruder in Scenario 3, CD4—Can not detect intruder in Scenario 4.
5. Conclusions
This research paper presents an innovative method to prevent smart home theft by providing
spontaneous notification of ongoing intrusion. The research has provided a novel wireless sensing
system for the surveillance and detection of a human intruder as well as instant notification of the
intrusion to prevent theft. It eliminates the use of DVR for recording as well as the use of large amounts
of memory for storage.
The system can effectively identify a human intruder and prevent false alarms when the intruder
is a non-human, by distinguishing between human and non-human objects. All of these processes
lead to the instant notification of intrusion by providing real-time notification about the potential theft.
The performance evaluation parameters of the Smart Home Antitheft System for intruder detection
are recorded for the four different scenarios: (a) face not obscured, (b) face partially covered, (c) face
fully covered, and (d) captured in the dark by an analog camera. The comparison stated that the
achieved correct face detection accuracy in scenarios where a detected intruder had not hidden his/her
face, hidden his/her face partially, fully, and was detected in the dark were 97.01%, 84.13, 78.19%,
and 66.5%, respectively. The main advantage of the proposed system is that it requires only 50% cost
of the DVR and other surveillance-based solutions available on the market.
The information for the caregiver as well as authorized authority is uploaded to a website,
either by the local home gateway server or cloud server. If an intruder disables WiFi connection using
DoS attack then the proposed system will not be able to notify the house members about the ongoing
theft. However, the proposed system is equipped with Bluetooth network, which can still record the
ongoing theft but cannot send the notification to the house owner due to the lack of WiFi/Internet
connections. New research challenges of security and privacy have arisen due to an increase in
products that connect the cyber and physical worlds. It is expected that these research problems will
be further resolved in the upcoming future by fellow researchers.
Author Contributions: S.P., H.G., K.K. and W.C. conceived, designed, and performed the experiments; the rest
contributed to data analysis; all authors reviewed the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by Shanghai Municipal Science and Technology International R&D Collaboration
Project (Grant No. 17510740500) and National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2017YFE0112000).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Article

Smart Home Anti-Theft System: A Novel Approach

1. Introduction and Related Work

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 42; doi:10.3390/asi1040042 www.mdpi.com/journal/asi

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER 2 of 23

3. Design and Experimental Setup

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER 6 of 23

4. Methodologies and Results Analysis

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER 7 of 23

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 42 9 of 22

Figure 8. Schematic representation of cascade classifiers.

Figure 8. Schematic representation of cascade classifiers.

Figure 10. Cont.

where A is a normalization constant and (𝛿,  ) are polar frequency coordinates.

Figure 12. Cont.

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER 12 of 23

4.3. Final Phase

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 17. Cont.

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER 17 of 23

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER 18 of 23

Table 3. Accuracy analysis of variety of skin tones in different scenarios.

Table 3. Accuracy analysis of variety of skin tones in different scenarios.

Skin Tones Accuracy % (Total Sample Size = 10,000)

Analysis of the various

Methodologies Accuracy % (Total Sample Size = 10,000)

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