Microcontroller-Based Vernier Fringe Controller for

Interferometric Measurement of Laser Wavelength

NAME: Rohan George Joshua
REG NO : 17BEC0901
SUBJECT NAME & CODE: Microcontroller and its Applications
(ECE3003)
SEMESTER: 5
SLOT: E2

FACULTY INCHARGE
Prof. KARTHIKEYAN.A
Ass. Prof(Sr), SENSE
VIT, Vellore

2019
Contents
1. Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................ 3
2. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Objective ............................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Motivation.......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Background ....................................................................................................................................... 6
3. LITERATURE SURVEY ................................................................................................................... 8
4. PROJECT DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................... 9
5. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................................................... 9
6. DESIGN APPROACH AND DETAILS ........................................................................................... 9
7. RESULT & DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................... 13
8. SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 14
9. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 15
 1. Executive Summary

The accuracy of current wavelength meters using optical interferometry is limited by the number
of fringes counted. To solve this problem, a novel laser wavelength meter based on the
measurement of synthetic wavelength, is proposed. The unknown wavelength is obtained by
measuring the value of the synthetic wavelength produced by the unknown and reference
wavelengths, and half of this value corresponds to 2𝜋 variations of the phase difference between
the interference signals of the unknown and reference wavelengths.

The outputs of the interferometer are processed through an electronic system that counts the
interference fringes of both lasers. The electronic system is based on a fringe counter that is
composed of photodetectors (photodiodes, phototransistors, and APD), an analog processing
circuit, and a digital counter. To achieve subfringe precision, several techniques can be
employed, like fringe multiplication with phase-locked loop (PLL) circuits or Vernier
coincidence detection.

The optical configuration of the wavelength meter is designed and the measurement principle is
analyzed theoretically. To verify its feasibility, three helium-neon lasers’ wavelengths were
determined experimentally, and a relative uncertainty on the unknown wavelength of the order of
10−8 was realized. Accuracy analysis shows that this wavelength meter has the advantage of high
accuracy when the unknown wavelength is around the standard laser wavelength recommended
by CIPM. © 2010 American Institute of Physics.

2. INTRODUCTION

Interferometry is a family of techniques in which waves, usually electromagnetic waves,

are superimposed, causing the phenomenon of interference, which is used to extract information.

Interferometers are widely used in science and industry for the measurement of small
displacements, refractive index changes and surface irregularities. In most interferometers, light
from a single source is split into two beams that travel in different optical paths, which are then
combined again to produce interference; however, under some circumstances, two incoherent
sources can also be made to interfere. The resulting interference fringes give information about
the difference in optical path lengths. In analytical science, interferometers are used to measure
lengths and the shape of optical components with nanometer precision; they are the highest
precision length measuring instruments existing.

In physics, interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave
of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. Constructive and destructive interference result from
the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come
from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency.
The interference of two waves. When in
phase, the two lower waves
create constructive interference (left),
resulting in a wave of greater amplitude.
When 180° out of phase, they
create destructive interference.

Heterodyne and homodyne operating principles

Heterodyne laser systems

The adjacent figure shows a heterodyne laser system. The output beam from the dual frequency
laser source contains two polarisations, one with a frequency F1 , the other with frequency F2.
The beat frequency between them is F2 – F1. A polarising beam-splitter reflects the light with
frequency F1 into the Frequency of returned
reference path. Light with beam from moving
reflector is Doppler shifted
frequency F2 passes by F
through the splitter into
F1
the measurement path
F2 – F1 F1 F2 F2
where it strikes the
moving reflector causing
the frequency of the F2-F1 F
reflected beam to be F1 F2 F F2 F
Doppler shifted by ±δF.
This reflected beam is Note: F2 > F1
then combined with the F1 Stationary Stationary Moving
frequency light at the Laser Interferometer Reflector
interferometer, and
returned to the laser detector unit with a new beat frequency of F2 – F1 ±δF.

Homodyne laser systems

Frequency of returned A single frequency laser

beam from moving
reflector is Doppler shifted
source is used in
by F homodyne systems (see
F1
Figure 3), which results
F1 F1 F1
in an outbound beam with
F1 – F1
a single frequency F1.
The laser beam from the
0 F stationary reference path
F1 F1 F F1 F is returned with
frequency F1 but the
Note: F2 > F1 beam from the moving
Stationary Stationary Moving measurement path is
Laser Interferometer Reflector returned with a Doppler
shifted frequency of F1δF. These beams are interfered together in the detector to give a beat
frequency of zero when the optics are stationary, whilst the beat frequency rises as the optics
move in either direction. The direction of motion is detected from the signal phase change.

Wavelength measurement using wavemeters

Laser wavelength as the standard of length is widely used in the measurement of displacement,
velocity, angle, flatness, and straightness. An accurate laser wavelength is very important to
guarantee the accuracy and traceability of such geometrical measurements. Thus, many
researchers have focused on laser wavelength measurements since the early 1960s. Generally,
most laser wavelength measurements are based on interferometry, such as the Fabry–Pérot,
Fizeau, and Michelson interferometers. The Fabry–Pérot wavemeter can achieve an accuracy of
10−7, but its narrow measurement spectral range requires a prior knowledge of the measured laser
wavelength with sufficient precision. The Fizeau wavemeter uses a photodetector array to record
the spatial interference fringes produced by two inclined planes. Although it is unnecessary to
use a reference laser, its accuracy is highly sensitive to temperature and mechanical vibrations.

The Michelson interferometer is widely used in wavelength measurement. This involves feeding
an unknown wavelength λU and a well-known wavelength λR as reference simultaneously into
the interferometer with continuously varying optical path difference.

The interference fringes of the unknown λU and reference λR are counted, and the ratio of the two
fringe counts can give the ratio of the two wavelengths, that is, λR/ λU = NU/NR. Hall et al.
achieved an absolute wavelength accuracy of 2 x 10−7 with phase-locked frequency
multiplication with a scan range of approximately 200 mm. Bennett et al. realized an uncertainty
of ±2 parts in 108 (99% confidence) using an electronic timer to interpolate fringes with a
displacement of approximately 475 mm. Fox et al. achieved a relative uncertainty of 3.8 x 10−6
with a scan range of approximately 250 mm. Wakim et al. obtained a relative accuracy on the
unknown wavelength of 6.4 x 10−8 at 1 σ based on the measurement of Doppler frequency shifts,
but this requires the relative stability of the velocity of moving system to be less than 10−9.
Monchalin et al. reported that the wavelength measurement accuracy can be of several parts in
109–1011 by simultaneous fringe counting and relative fringe-phase comparison at the two
wavelengths in vacuum condition. Ishikawa et al. developed a multicoincidence fringe counting
technique and obtained a standard deviation of 4 x10−10 when their wavemeter was operated in
vacuum.

Obviously, for most wavelength measurement methods, the improvement of achievable accuracy
requires an increasing number of fringes counted, or fringe multiplication. Additionally, the
misalignment of the beams will produce errors in the number of fringes counted. Therefore, to
improve the accuracy for wavelength measurement using a fringe counting method will require
the interferometer’s mechanical design to be more complex and expensive.

The Vernier principle and fringe counting

The Vernier principle in a time-to-digital converter with Vernier delay technique is used to
improve measurements to very low values of propagation delays between two sample
frequencies.

Vernier method for fringe counting starts and stops when there is a phase coincidence between
the two interference signals. With this method, NR and NU are always the integer numbers and
the main source of error is produced by the resolution of the electronic circuits used to detect the
coincidence.

1.1 Objective

The objective of this report to present a novel laser wavelength meter, based on the measurement
of synthetic wavelength is proposed to overcome the disadvantages of the wavelength
measurement based on fringe counting. Its major advantages are high accuracy, common path,
and compact structure.

In this article, a novel laser wavelength meter based on the measurement of synthetic wavelength
is proposed to overcome the disadvantages of the wavelength measurement based on fringe
counting. Its major advantages are high accuracy, common path, and compact structure.

1.2 Motivation

Understand the Vernier principle and its application in a digital-to-time converter, apply it to
enhance the accuracy of the wavelengthmeter. The implementation is done using electronics
involving a microcontroller. This helps overcome some of the disadvantages in wavelength
measurement based on fringe counting.

1.3 Background

Optical Configuration

The optical configuration of the laser wavelength meter based on the measurement of synthetic
wavelength. Two linearly polarized
laser beams U and R are modulated
orthogonally, incident upon a
Michelson interferometer to produce
interference signals simultaneously.

The Michelson interferometer

consists of a beamsplitter BS, a fixed
corner cube M1, and a moving corner
cube M2 mounted on a translation
stage. The interference signals of
beam R and U are detected by photodetectors PD1 and PD2, respectively.

The phase difference of the interference signal of beam R is given by

φR = 4πL/λR, (1)

where L is the optical path difference in Michelson interferometer.

Similarly, the phase difference of the interference signal of beam U is given by

φU = 4πL/λU , (2).

From Eqs. 1 and 2, the phase difference ⌂φ between φR and φU is expressed by

⌂φ = 4π (L/λR – L/λU) = 4πL/λS , (3)

where λS is the synthetic wavelength expressed by

λS = λRλU /│λR − λU │ , (4)

where λR and λU are the wavelengths of reference and unknown laser in air, respectively.

Equation (3) shows that a phase difference (⌂φ) advance of 2π corresponds to a displacement of
⌂L= λS/2. For instance, if the initial phase difference ⌂φ = 0, when M2 is moved a displacement
of ⌂L=λS/2, the current phase difference ⌂φ’ will attain zero again. Thus, half a synthetic
wavelength is achieved by determining two simultaneous zero crossings of the interference
signals of unknown and reference wavelengths. Therefore, from Eq. (4), the unknown
wavelength λU is obtained as

λU = λsλU / λs ± λU . (5)

The common-path configuration of the

reference beam R and the unknown beam
U provides an insensitivity to temperature
and mechanical vibrations.

The adjacent schematic shows the

variation of the phase difference of the
interference signals during the moving of
M2. V(λR) and V(λU) represent the
interference signals received by PD1 and
PD2, respectively.
Realization method

From the above description, it is obvious that the measurement of λS/2 requires finding two
adjacent positions where the phase of the interference signals λR and λU coincides.

The frequency of pulse signal clk is much higher than that of V(λR) and V(λR). The numbers of
the clk, n0, n1, n2, ... filled between zero crossings of the interference signals correspond to the
variations of the phase difference ⌂φ. For example, the phase difference ⌂φ at position A is
equal to that at position B because the filled numbers are the same, that is, n0= 0. Thus, the
displacement of M2 between positions A and B is equal to λS/2.

To determine whether the measured wavelength is shorter or longer than the reference one, the
periods of the two interference signals are measured during the moving of the translation stage.
NR and NU represent the filled pulse numbers during one period of interference signals. For
example, if NU is less than NR, then the measured wavelength is shorter than the reference one,
and the sign of λR in Eq. (5) is positive.

It is to be noted that the scan range of translation stage will be very large when the unknown
laser wavelength is very close to the reference laser wavelength. So, before the wavelength
measurement, a prior test needs to be performed. The translation stage is moved to make sure
that the phases of the interference signals can coincide twice. If we cannot find two simultaneous
zero-crossing points, then it means that half a synthetic wavelength λS/2 is larger than the whole
moving range of the translation stage. To avoid this situation, two ways can be used as follows.
One way is to enlarge the scan range by folding the optical path or replacing the translation stage
by a stage with larger moving range. Another way is to replace the reference laser

3. LITERATURE SURVEY

This report has been prepared after review of multiple papers published in the field of
Microwave Theory, Interferometers. Extensive research has been carried out on papers and
publications related to Electronic Counters, Time Interval Measurement, and Automatic
Microwave Frequency Counters, and the methods to improve their stability, error reduction and
accuracy at very high frequencies. The articles and papers that have been particularly useful to
the preparation of this report are given in the reference.
 4. PROJECT DESCRIPTION

This report is focused on the electronic system of a proposed Michelson wavemeter designed to
give traceability to the wavelength of an external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs). The
Interferometer can employ a calibrated He–Ne laser as the reference and an ECDL as the
unknown laser. The path variation can be obtained by a Thorlabs DDS220/M motorized stage
that moves at constant velocity. This stage has a maximum displacement of 220 mm, large
enough to continuously acquire about 1 400 000 interference fringes for laser wavelengths about
633 nm in one direction travel. Vernier coincidence detection can be used to improve the
accuracy of the system.

5. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

The electronic system used to integrate with the wavemeter, carry out the Vernier coincidence
detection and find the wavelentht of the reference wave, is divided into four modules:

1) analog module;
2) digital interface with coincidence detector;
3) microcontroller module; and
4) auxiliary generator.

6. DESIGN APPROACH AND DETAILS

Analog Module

The analog module consists of a transimpedance amplifier and an active filter. This is critical for
the accuracy of the system because of a small signal-to-noise ratio, thus many tests were made to
verify its reliability. This module fits in the interferometer, connects with the main unit and has
two identical sections
composed of a
photodiode, a
transimpedance amplifier,
a voltage preamplifier
with filter, a variable gain
amplifier, and a Schmitt-
trigger comparator.

The prototype uses a

single +5 V supply and a
Low Dropout (LDO)
regulator LP2950-3.3 that
generates 3.3 V for the reverse polarization of the BPX65 photodiodes and preamplifier
reference. This configuration allows that a single supply can be used for all the analog circuits,
although the power supply has separate outputs with different regulators to avoid feedback
between the different amplifier stages. The digital circuits have also their own supply with a
LM2576 switched regulator.

The Schmitt-trigger comparator has a hysteresis level about 200 mV, which provides noise
immunity. The maximum fringe frequency has been limited to 300 kHz.

The operational amplifier TLE2074 from Texas Instruments is used in because of its
characteristics (low noise, 10-MHz bandwidth, 45 V/μs slew rate, and wide supply range in
symmetrical and single configuration).

Coincidence Detector

The second module of the electronic system is the digital interface and coincidence detector. The
digital interface module supplies the digital input to the microcontroller and it is responsible for
the coincidence detection needed to start and stop the fringe measurements in the Vernier
method.

In place of wired logic

and old hardware
counters like ICL7226, in
the circuit proposed here,
the counter logic has been
replaced by a
microcontroller and a
hardware coincidence
detector has been added
to generate an interrupt
signal for the
microcontroller counters.
The coincidence detector
produces short pulses in
the positive edges of the input signals, using monostables built with a 74HC04 inverter and an
RC network. These pulses are combined in a high speed 74HC00 logic gate, which activates an
Reset-Set (RS) flip-flop when both signals are in phase.

The output of this circuit triggers an external interrupt of the microcontroller that starts and stops
its counters. The flip-flop is reset by the microcontroller in order to detect the coincidences.
There is also a led indicator and a manual reset pushbutton to test the circuit without the
microcontroller.

The pulse duration has been specified at 100 ns without losing the performance, because this
pulse duration can achieve a resolution of 10−2 per fringe when the input frequency is less than
100 kHz. It can be reduce to a values as low as 10 ns to achieve a resolution of 10−3 per fringe
with further improvements.

The coincidence detector has also a digital mixer made with a NAND gate and a low-pass filter
with a cutoff frequency of a few kilohertz. The difference of phase and frequency between the
two input signals is the output of this circuit and it serves as an auxiliary detection signal that can
be viewed with an oscilloscope.

Some improvement can be made in the coincidence detector by the reduction of the pulsewidth
of the monostables, the use of analog-to-digital converters combined with digital signal
processing and a new design based on phase detectors used in PLL circuits like 74HC4046.

Control Module

The control module has been designed with a microcontroller that carries out the user interface,
fringe counter, Vernier detector, and communications. The microcontrollers belong to the family
MCS-51 with In-System Programming (ISP) capabilities, such as Atmel AT89S4051 or
AT89S52. These microcontrollers have high speed 16-bits integrated counters and can be
extended to 32 bits by software using hardware interrupts, thus the resolution is only limited by
acquisition time. The module has a Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection for ISP, remote
control, and data transfer to an external computer. There is also an interface board with 2 × 16
monochrome Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and a small keyboard with four pushbuttons.

The AT89S52 has one more timer than the AT89S4051 and more digital inputs and outputs that
can be used for new functions. In addition, the peripheral frequency of the microcontroller limits
the input frequency to a maximum of 500 kHz for a 12-MHz quartz crystal. The use of a single
cycle core microcontrollers will allow the input frequencies of at least 2 MHz.

The control module menu has three measurement modes that can be selected by a keyboard or a
remote control. Each mode has assigned a specific mode key and a remote command code. The
input configuration of the microcontroller ports allows direct connection of multiple elements to
the same pin, so the keyboard and different sensors can be connected in parallel. Another option
is an external command sent by USB. This possibility should be carefully used to avoid
concurrent commands from multiple sources. When the specific key is pressed or the remote
code is received, the control module changes to the selected mode and waits for an external order
to start or stop the measurement. The following paragraphs describe in detail the operation of
each mode.

1) Manual Counting: In this mode, the beginning and end of the fringe counting is controlled by
the keyboard or an external trigger signal (like a photocoupler or Hall effect sensor).

2) Coincidence Counting: This mode operates like the manual counting, but in this case, the
fringe counting is triggered by the coincidence detector. The output of the coincidence detector is
directly connected to an external interrupt input of the microcontroller to minimize the delay
between the coincidence detection and the beginning or end of counting.
3) Frequency Counting: This mode shows the fringe frequency of each input. This information
can be useful for signal adjustment and velocity checking of the interferometer. The frequency
mode does not use the coincidence detector and its resolution is lower than the counting modes.

The microcontroller module allows remote control by an USB external connection. This option
opens the possibility of integration with other elements like a motorized stage or position sensors
to implement a fully automated measurement system. Furthermore, a large set of measurements
can be easily acquired and stored in a computer for statistical analysis.

The USB connection module is based in an FT232R integrated circuit from Future Technology
Devices International (FTDI). This circuit performs a complete conversion between USB
interface and RS232 signals. It allows full-duplex transmissions with a baud rate of 3 Mbit/s.
This circuit directly connects to reception (RXD) and transmission (TXD) pins of 8051
microcontrollers with TTL levels.

The control unit uses the same USB interface both for communications and ISP of the
microcontroller. For that purpose, some of the handshake lines of the FT232R circuit (Data
Terminal Ready, Request To Send, Data Set Ready, and radio interference) emulate an Serial
Peripheral Interface (SPI) serial port that connects to Master Out Slave In (P1.5), Master
In Slave Out (P1.6), Serial Clock (P1.7), and Reset lines of the microcontroller. This
configuration simplifies the design of the control unit and allows a rapid development of the
wavemeter prototype.

Auxiliary Generator
The auxiliary generator
module provides an
electronic and optical test
signal to check the
performance of the digital
modules before
integrating into the
interferometer system in
order to verify the
accuracy and reliability of
the fringe counters. This
module has two quartz
crystal oscillators with a
variable reactance that
can be adjusted to slightly
change the frequency and
a binary counter divider
to select the output range.
Each oscillator can be
independently adjusted.
The module has two outputs, a digital output for direct connection to the microcontroller module
to test the digital counters and programs and an optical output with visible led diodes that can be
used to test the photodiodes and analog amplifiers.

7. RESULT & DISCUSSION

The electronic counter can been designed to display 10 digit values in the LCD module in order
to minimize the last digit error truncation. If the maximum value is reached, the resolution could
be as low as 0.0001 ppm. As the values come from the 32-bit software counters that can reach a
maximum value of 4 294 967 296, the real counter resolution is 0.00023 ppm. This resolution is
a few orders of magnitude better than the required value for the wavemeter, but if needed, the
counter size could be increased by reprogrammation of the microcontroller. This design upgrades
the resolution of the electronic counters in the previous designs that had only eight digits or less.

If the wavemeter separately counts the number of fringes of each laser source, a large number of
fringes should be acquired to compensate the error due to the truncation of the fractional
part of fringes at start and stop of counting. To achieve a resolution of 0.01 ppm, a number of
108 fringes should be acquired.

With certain configuration of the interferometer and a laser wavelength of 633 nm, a distance of
158 mm should only provide 1 000 000 fringes. Moreover, the Thorlabs DDS220/M
recommended here in this wavemeter has a maximum displacement of 220 mm.

The use of Vernier method reduces the number of fringes that are required to achieve the same
resolution. With this method, the number of fringes in each channel is always an integer value,
eliminating most of the error. The main source of error in this case is due to the time resolution
of the electronic circuit, and is also related to the fringe frequency. In the prototype discussed,
the time resolution of the electronic coincidence detector is 100 ns. If fringe frequency is lower
than 100 KHz, the interval between fringes is higher than 10 μs and the resolution is better than
0.01 fringes. If the total number of fringes is more than 1 000 000, a total resolution of 0.01 ppm
can be achieved. The main problem in this case is the large acquisition time required (10 s or
more).

Javier Diz-Bugarín and colleagues in their paper, describe the results of their experiment.

In order to check the performance of the electronic circuits, we have made several tests with the
auxiliary generator (that can provide both electronic and optical signals with LED) and the final
tests with the interferometer and reference laser. The auxiliary generator was adjusted to a
frequency of 375 kHz. To check the analog amplifiers and comparators first, we have applied an
electronic square wave from the auxiliary generator to the counter inputs, and then the same
frequency was optically coupled from the LEDs to the photodiodes and analog amplifiers. The
results showed that there was no difference between the two signals and the measurement was
the same in both cases.

The second test consisted of applying the same optical signal to both counters and verifying that
the displayed values were also the same. The measurement time was large enough to achieve a
high value in the counters (more than 100 000 000). To verify the coincidence detector, we have
adjusted the second oscillator of the auxiliary generator to a slightly different value, with a
difference less than 1 Hz in order to appreciate the coincidence points with an oscilloscope. The
measurements in this case showed pairs NR and NU with different values but with a constant
relationship between them (depending on the allowed acquisition time).

The results of these tests demonstrated that the electronic modules work properly with stable
digital signals as input.

Two types of measurements were made :

1) with only the reference laser and 2) with the reference and unknown lasers.

For the first measurement, the reference laser was split in two beams and applied as reference
and unknown lasers, giving the same number of fringes in both channels of the counter. For the
second measurement, several different tests were performed in order to evaluate the uncertainty
of the system.

The first test was carried out using an unknown laser (HP 5519A) and a reference laser
(Research Electro-Optics a calibration code CEM 131641001). In this case, the wavelength
measurement was 632.99141 nm with an uncertainty of 0.00016 nm (0.26 ppm), which agrees
with the values of 632.9913867 and 0.000013 nm obtained by the Metrology Laboratory of the
ETSII at the Technical University of Madrid for the HP 5519A calibration (code ENAC
003/LC037).

A second test of the system uncertainty utilized the ECDL as unknown laser and REO Model
32734 as reference laser. These results of wavelength and uncertainty were 632.9922 and 0.0013
nm (2.0 ppm), respectively.

8. SUMMARY

The results show how the Vernier method helps improve the accuracy of fringe counting

In conclusion, the results obtained with this new electronic design are good and open the
possibility of employing the ECDL for gauge block calibration, but some improvements would
be needed in the electronics for this specific application like better resolution in the coincidence
detector, more amplification in the analog stages and higher speed in the counters.
As this paper is focused on the development of the electronic system of the wavemeter, the
measurement results should be considered as the first tests and not the final results of the
complete system. The reference laser used for these tests is not good enough for gauge block
calibration and should be replaced by a best one in the final stage of the development.

The developed electronic design improves the resolution of the electronic counters designs and
allows the synchronization with other elements to make a fully automated measurement system.

9. REFERENCES

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Liping Yan, Benyong Chen,a_ Wanfu Yang, Ruofei Wei, and Siwei Zhao
Nanometer Measurement Laboratory, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
Received 11 April 2010; accepted 7 September 2010; published online 8 November 2010
Article in The Review of scientific instruments · November 2010
DOI: 10.1063/1.3494615 · Source: PubMed

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Measurement of Laser Wavelength
Javier Diz-Bugarín, Ismael Outumuro-González, José Benito Vázquez-Dorrío, José Luis Valencia-
Álvarez, and Jesús Blanco-García
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 65, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2016

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Laser Wavelength
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Lars E. Bengtsson
Dept. of Physics, University of Gothenburg, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden

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Russell Loughridge* Daniel Y. Abramovitch**
2013 American Control Conference (ACC)
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9. Two-Dimensions Vernier Time-to-Digital Converter

Luca Vercesi, Antonio Liscidini, Member, IEEE, and Rinaldo Castello, Fellow, IEEE
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