PROJECTREPORTON

CRI
MONOLOGY

CRI
TICALCRI
MINOLOGY
SESSI
ON:-(
2016-
2017)

SUBMI
TTEDTO: SUBMI
TTEDBY:

Ms.TANMEETKAUR RAVIJAWA

B.
COM L.
L.B.

(
10t
hSEMESTER)

ROLLNO:
-158/
12
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Iwoul
dli
ket
othankandconv
eymysi
ncer
eregar
dst
oMs.TANMEET KAUR,f
or
pr
ovi
dingt
hisi
ncr
edi
bleoppor
tuni
tyt
owor
kont
hischal
l
engi
ngpr
ojectandhel
pme
expl
oremyl
atentt
alent
.

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dli
ket
othankherf
orhi
sper
sist
entgui
dancewhi
cht
hroughoutt
hepr
ojectgui
ded
met
owar
dssuccessf
ulcompl
eti
onoft
hispr
oject
.

Iwoul
dli
ket
othankal
lmycol
l
eaguesandf
ri
endsatUI
LS who channel
i
sedand
or
gani
zedmyt
hought
sandhel
pedmeconv
ertt
hem i
ntowr
it
tenwor
ds.

It
hanky
oual
l
,wi
thouty
oursuppor
tandgui
dance,i
twoul
dnothav
ebeenpossi
blet
o
gi
vet
hispr
ojectt
hepr
esentshape.

RAVIJAWA
 TABLEofCONTENTS

Topi
c Pg.
no.

I
NTRODUCTI
ON-
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4-5.
ORI
GINSOFCRI
TICALCRI
MINOLOGY-
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-5-
6.
RADI
CALI
SATI
ON-
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-6-
7.
WTHATBEI
NGCRI
TICALI
S?-
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-7-
10.
PRI
NCI
PALSTRAI
NSOFCRI
TICALCRI
MINOLOGY-
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-11-
14.
EMERGI
NGSTRANSOFCRI
TICLCRI
MINOLOGY-
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15-
17.
SUBSTANTI
VECONCERNSOFCRI
TICALCRI
MINOLOGY-
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18-
19.
CONCLUSI
ON-
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20-
21
REFRENCES-
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-22
 I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
eof
teni
gnor
edt
heser
iouspr
obl
em oft
radi
ti
onalorcommon
st
reetcr
ime.Asar
esul
t,cr
imepr
event
ionpol
i
cyhasbeenf
orf
eit
edt
othepol
i
ticalr
ight
ort
othosewhoadv
ocat
einef
fect
ivel
i
ber
alr
efor
ms.I
tisanumbr
ell
ater
mforav
ari
ety
ofcr
imi
nol
ogi
calt
heor
ies and per
spect
ives t
hatchal
l
enge cor
e assumpt
ions of
mai
nst
ream (
orconv
ent
ional
)cr
imi
nol
ogy i
n some subst
ant
ialway and pr
ovi
de
al
ter
nat
iveappr
oachest
ounder
standi
ngcr
imeandi
tscont
rol
.Mai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogy
i
ssomet
imesr
efer
redt
obycr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsasest
abl
i
shment
,admi
nist
rat
ive,
manager
ial
,cor
rect
ional
,orposi
ti
vi
sti
ccr
imi
nol
ogy
.It
sfocusi
sregar
dedasexcessi
vel
y
nar
rowandpr
edomi
nant
lydi
rect
edt
owar
dindi
vi
dualof
fender
s,st
reetcr
ime,
andsoci
al
engi
neer
ingonbehal
foft
hest
ate.Theunequaldi
str
ibut
ionofpowerorofmat
eri
al
r
esour
ceswi
thi
ncont
empor
arysoci
eti
espr
ovi
desauni
fyi
ngpoi
ntofdepar
tur
eforal
l
st
rai
nsofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy.Thecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyper
spect
ivei
sroot
edi
nMar
xist
soci
alt
heor
y.Oneoft
hest
rengt
hsofMar
xistt
heor
yisi
tsi
nsi
stencet
hatanysoci
al
phenomenonmustbeexami
nedwi
thi
nthecont
extofahi
stor
ical
l
yemer
gentsoci
al
t
otal
i
ty.

Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stst
endt
oadv
ocat
esomel
evelofdi
rectengagementwi
tht
her
ange
ofsoci
ali
njust
icessov
ivi
dlyexposedbyt
hei
ranal
ysi
sandt
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
heor
yto
act
ion,
orpr
axi
s.Al
lthedi
ff
erentst
rai
nsofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyhol
dfor
tht
hepossi
bil
i
ty
ofef
fect
ing f
undament
alr
efor
ms ort
ransf
ormat
ions wi
thi
n soci
etyt
hatpr
omot
e
gr
eat
er equal
i
ty and a hi
gher qual
i
ty of l
i
fef
or t
he di
sadv
ant
aged and t
he
di
senf
ranchi
sed,notj
ustt
hepr
ivi
l
eged member
sofsoci
ety
,and amor
ehumane,
aut
hent
icsoci
etyf
oral
l
.Thedomi
nantf
ormsofsoci
alcont
rol
from pol
i
cingpr
act
icest
o
penalpol
i
ciesar
eacommont
argetofcr
it
ici
sm ascent
ralt
oper
pet
uat
ingi
njust
ices,
as
pr
ofoundl
ybi
ased,andascount
erpr
oduct
ivei
nter
msofachi
evi
ngposi
ti
vechangesi
n
i
ndi
vi
dual
saswel
lassoci
alcondi
ti
ons.Cr
imeandi
tscont
rolar
emaj
orpr
eoccupat
ions
ofpeopl
eev
ery
wher
e.Publ
i
cper
cept
ionsofcr
imeandi
tscont
rolar
einmanyr
espect
s
di
stor
ted bymedi
arepr
esent
ati
onsand t
he agendasoft
he gov
erni
ng el
i
tes.The
i
mmensesi
gni
fi
canceofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy
,then,l
i
esi
nit
scapaci
tyt
oexposet
he
conv
ent
ionalmy
thsaboutcr
imeandi
tscont
rolandt
opr
ovi
deanal
ter
nat
ivebasi
sfor
under
standi
ngt
heset
remendousl
yconsequent
ial
dimensi
onsofoursoci
alexi
stence.

Thehi
stor
icalor
igi
nsofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy
,it
spr
inci
palcont
empor
aryst
rai
ns,and
someofi
tsmaj
orsubst
ant
iveconcer
nsar
eident
if
iedi
nthepar
agr
aphst
hatf
oll
ow.I
n
addi
ti
on,some specul
ati
on i
s of
fer
ed r
egar
ding t
he f
utur
e pr
ospect
s ofcr
it
ical
cr
imi
nol
ogy
.

ORI
GINSOFCRI
TICAL/
RADI
CALCRI
MINOLOGY

Cont
empor
arycr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyhasi
tsr
oot
sinar
angeoft
heor
eti
calper
spect
ives
t
hathav
e adv
anced a cr
it
ique ofbot
hthe exi
sti
ng condi
ti
onsi
n soci
etyand t
he
conv
ent
ionalorest
abl
i
shedt
heor
iest
hatcl
aimt
oexpl
ainsoci
ety
,soci
alphenomena,
and soci
albehav
ior
.Mar
xistt
heor
yhasbeen onesour
ceofi
nspi
rat
ion f
orsome
i
nfl
uent
ialst
rai
nsofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy
,al
thoughi
thasbeenacommoner
rort
o
char
act
eri
zeal
lcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsasMar
xist
sorneo-
Mar
xist
s.Kar
lMar
xandhi
s
cl
osecol
l
abor
atorFr
iedr
ichEngel
sdi
dnotdev
elopasy
stemat
iccr
imi
nol
ogi
calt
heor
y,
buti
tispossi
blet
oext
rapol
ateagener
ali
zedMar
xistper
spect
iveoncr
imeandcr
imi
nal
l
aw f
rom t
hei k.Theowner
rwor shi
pcl
assi
sgui
lt
yoft
hewor
stcr
ime:t
hebr
utal
expl
oit
ati
onoft
hewor
kingcl
ass.Revol
uti
oni
saf
orm ofcount
ervi
olence,t
hen,andi
s
bot
hnecessar
yandmor
all
yjust
if
ied.Thest
ateandt
hel
awi
tsel
ful
ti
mat
elyser
vet
he
i
nter
est
soft
heowner
shi
pcl
ass.Humanbei
ngsar
enotbynat
ureegocent
ri
c,gr
eedy,
andpr
edat
ory,butt
heycanbecomesoundercer
tai
nsoci
alcondi
ti
ons.Convent
ional
cr
imei
s,i
nessence,apr
oductofext
remepov
ert
yandeconomi
cdi
senf
ranchi
sement
andof“
fal
seneeds”andt
hedehumani
zi
nganddemor
ali
zi
ngef
fect
soft
hecapi
tal
i
st
sy
stem.Howev
er,
conv
ent
ionalcr
imei
snei
theranadmi
rabl
enoranef
fect
ivemeansof
r
evol
uti
onar
yact
ion,andal
ltooof
teni
tpi
tst
hepooragai
nstt
hepoor
.Mar
xal
so
r
egar
dedcr
imeas“
product
ive”per
hapsi
roni
cal
l
yinsof
arasi
tpr
ovi
desempl
oymentand
busi
nessoppor
tuni
ti
esf
ormany
.Inanaut
hent
ical
l
ycommuni
stsoci
etyt
hest
ateand
t
hel
aw wi
l
lwi
theraway
,wi
tht
hef
ormall
aw bei
ngr
epl
acedbyaf
orm ofcommunal
j
ust
ice.Humanbei
ngswi
l
lli
vei
nast
ateofhar
monyandcooper
ati
on,
wit
houtcr
ime.
Formostoft
hehi
stor
yofcr
imi
nol
ogy
,rat
herf
ewcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsspeci
fi
cal
l
yadopt
eda
Mar
xistf
ramewor
k.TheDut
chcr
imi
nol
ogi
stWi
l
lem Bongerwasanexcept
iont
othi
s
pr
oposi
ti
on.Al
thoughher
eject
eddogmat
icMar
xism,Bongerespeci
all
yinCr
imi
nal
i
ty
andEconomi
cCondi
ti
ons(
1916)soughtt
oshow how apol
i
ticaleconomyor
gani
zed
ar
ound “pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty” pr
omot
ed cr
ime.Al
though many soci
ologi
sts and
cr
imi
nol
ogi
stscont
inuet
orecogni
zet
hepowerofsomebasi
cdi
mensi
onsofMar
xist
t
heor
eti
calanal
ysi
stomakesenseoft
hewor
ld,i
tisal
soi
ndi
sput
abl
ytr
uet
hatany
i
nvocat
ionof“
Mar
xist
”car
ri
eswi
thi
tal
otofbaggagei
nthef
orm ofassoci
ati
onwi
th
t
hei
mmensecr
imescommi
tt
edpr
imar
il
ydur
ingt
he20t
hcent
uryi
nthenameofa
cl
aimed Mar
xist or communi
st soci
ety
. Accor
dingl
y,i
tis di
ff
icul
tfor some
cr
imi
nol
ogi
stst
ober
ecept
ivet
othepot
entexpl
anat
orydi
mensi
onsofMar
xistt
heor
y
andconcept
sindependentoft
heper
ver
seappl
i
cat
ionsofMar
xistanal
ysi
sinsome
hi
stor
icalci
rcumst
ances.Thi
sbegant
ochangei
nthe1960s.Label
i
ngt
heor
y,whi
ch
emer
gedoutofsy
mbol
i
cint
eract
ioni
sm,shi
ft
edat
tent
ionawayf
rom cr
imi
nalbehav
ior
t
othepr
ocesseswher
ebysomemember
sofsoci
etycomet
obel
abel
edasdev
iant
s
andcr
imi
nal
sandt
otheconsequencesofbei
ngsoci
all
yst
igmat
ized.Manycr
it
ical
cr
imi
nol
ogi
stswer
einf
luencedbyt
hisappr
oach,
alt
hought
heyul
ti
mat
elycr
it
ici
zedi
tfor
i
tsf
ocusupont
he“
micr
olev
el”ofsoci
albehav
iorandi
tsr
elat
ivenegl
ectoft
hebr
oader
soci
etal
andpol
i
tical
cont
extwi
thi
nwhi
cht
hel
abel
i
ngpr
ocessoccur
s.

Ther
ecenter
ahasbeenr
egar
dedasbot
hpol
i
tical
l
yandcul
tur
all
ymor
econser
vat
ive
t
hant
heer
aoft
he1960s,butcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyhasbeenaf
air
lyv
igor
ouspr
esence
wi
thi
n cr
imi
nol
ogy
,despi
te orper
haps because of t
hisl
ess r
ecept
ive soci
etal
env
ironment
.TheDi
vi
siononCr
it
icalCr
imi
nol
ogy
,whi
chpubl
i
shest
hej
our
nalCr
it
ical
Cr
imi
nol
ogy
,hasbeen an especi
all
ylar
gedi
vi
sion wi
thi
ntheAmer
ican Soci
etyof
Cr
imi
nol
ogy si
nce i
ts est
abl
i
shmenti
n 1988.Ev
eryy
ear
,the Di
vi
sion on Cr
it
ical
Cr
imi
nol
ogyat
tract
srecr
uit
samongnewcr
imi
nol
ogygr
aduat
est
udent
swhor
ecogni
ze
t
hatt
hei
rideol
ogi
calor
ient
ati
onandr
esear
chi
nter
est
sar
eatoddswi
tht
hoseof
mai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogy
.

RADI
CALI
SATI
ON
Theadv
entofr
adi
calper
spect
ivesi
ncr
imi
nol
ogyspar
kedani
ntel
l
ect
ualdebat
ethat
const
it
uted a r
evol
uti
onar
y shi
ft away f
rom so-
cal
l
ed sci
ent
if
ic cr
imi
nol
ogi
cal
di
scour
ses.Al
thoughcr
it
ical
schol
arshi
pincr
imeandj
ust
icehadi
tsmaj
ori
mpacti
nthe
1960s,i
thadv
ari
ousi
ntel
l
ect
ualandpol
i
ticalf
orer
unner
sthatwer
einspi
redbysoci
al
andeconomi
cinj
ust
ices.Forexampl
e,Wi
l
l s Cr
em Bonger’ imi
nal
i
tyandEconomi
c
Condi
ti
onswasf
ir
stpubl
i
shedi
nEngl
i
shi
n1916andpr
ovi
dedaMar
xist
-i
nfor
med
anal
ysi
sof‘
capi
tal
i
stexchange’andeconomi
cdi
sadv
ant
ageHei
dent
if
iedhow an
unequaldi
str
ibut
ionofpr
oper
tyandweal
thwascr
eat
edbyl
abour
-mar
ketexpl
oit
ati
on.
Sucheconomi
cinj
ust
icest
her
ebycr
eat
edacont
extf
orcr
imet
obemor
eli
kel
ytooccur
.
Her
ewebegi
ntoseet
hei
mpor
tanceofsoci
alst
ruct
ure,
soci
ety
,andmar
ginal
i
sat
iont
o
t
hepr
obl
em ofcr
ime.Suchsemi
nalwor
ksandi
deasast
hesewer
etohav
epr
ofound
i
mpact
sonsubsequentandear
lydev
elopment
sincr
it
icalt
hinki
ngabout
,forexampl
e,
cl
ass,
whi
te-
col
l
arcr
imeandpol
i
tical
economy
.

Akeyquest
ion– ‘
whosel
aw andwhator
deri
sbei
ngpr
otect
ed?’wasnot
abl
yunder
concept
ual
i
zedbyt
hel
abel
i
ngper
spect
iveaswast
her
oleoft
hest
ate.Label
l
ingt
heor
y
wasessent
ial
l
y‘st
atel
ess’i
nit
sanal
ysi
s.Toappl
ythei
nsi
ght
sofl
abel
i
ngt
heor
yto
concr
etesi
tuat
ions,i
twasnecessar
ytoanal
ysehow t
heabst
ractnot
ionof‘
soci
al
cont
rol
’li
nkedt
othemai
ntenanceofpol
i
ticalor
der
.‘Cr
ime’
,‘
dev
iance’
,‘
Lawandor
der
’
and‘
cri
minalj
ust
ice’needt
ober
elat
edt
oagener
almodelofcl
assbasedsoci
etyand
st
ate.I
nthi
scont
ext
,ani
nst
rument
alMar
xistanal
ysi
sofcr
imeandcr
imecont
rolt
ook
f
orm:

Thest
atei
sor
gani
zedt
oser
vet
hebesti
nter
estoft
hecapi
tal
i
str
uli
ngcl
ass
Cr
imi
nall
awi
sani
nst
rumentoft
hecapi
tal
i
stst
ateandr
uli
ngcl
asst
omai
ntai
n
hest
t atusquo(
‘bour
geoi
slegal
i
sm’
)
Capi
tal
i
stcr
ime cont
roli
s accompl
i
shed t
hrough a v
ari
etyofcoer
civ
e and
wel
far
einst
it
uti
onsandagenci
es
Thecr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem concent
rat
esont
hedet
ect
ionandpr
ocessi
ngof
mi
norof
fencescommi
tt
edbyt
hoseatt
hebot
tom oft
hecl
asssy
stem
Thecapi
tal
i
steconomi
csy
stem i
scr
imi
nogeni
c
Onl
ywi
tht
het
ransi
ti
ont
osoci
ali
sm wi
l
lther
ebeasol
uti
ont
ocr
ime
WHATBEI
NGCRI
TICALI
S?

Bei
ngcr
it
icali
ncl
udesbei
ngcur
ious,
scept
ical
,andpr
epar
edt
ochal
l
enget
heunder
lyi
ng
assumpt
ionsandaccept
edr
ati
onal
esoft
hecr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem andt
hei
rtaken-
for
-
gr
ant
ednat
ure.I
tmeansbei
ngpr
epar
edt
oasksuchquest
ionsas:

Howmi
ghtwet
hinkaboutcr
imedi
ff
erent
ly?

Dot
hel
aw,
pol
i
ce,
thecour
tsandpr
isonshav
etooper
atet
hewayt
heydo?

Coul
d‘j
ust
ice’
beconcei
vedi
not
herway
s?

Bei
ng cr
it
icali
s aboutr
epr
esent
ing t
he si
de oft
he economi
cal
l
y and soci
all
y
mar
ginal
i
zed.I
tisaposi
ti
ont
hatseekst
opr
omot
esoci
ali
ncl
usi
on,
equal
i
tyandhuman
r
ight
s.Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyof
ten f
inds i
ts expl
anat
ions f
orcr
imi
nalact
ivi
tyi
nthe
unequaldi
str
ibut
ionofpowerandweal
thi
nsoci
etyandt
her
esul
tantcl
ass,et
hni
cand
genderdi
scr
imi
nat
ion.Theof
fi
cial
discour
sesaboutcr
ime,
li
keot
herar
easofsoci
all
i
fe,
ar
evi
ewedbycr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsasconst
ruct
edt
hroughcont
ext
sofr
aci
sm,
sexi
sm,
cl
assi
sm andhet
erosexi
sm.

Bei
ngcr
it
icali
smuchmor
ethansuggest
ingcosmet
icchangest
oexi
sti
ngcr
ime-
cont
rol
r
egi
mes.Tobea‘
cri
ti
calcr
imi
nol
ogi
st’i
stoseekoutandhi
ghl
i
ghti
njust
ice,andt
o
quest
iont
hepr
ocessesandpr
act
icesuponwhi
chl
awsar
econst
ruct
ed,enf
orcedand
i
mpl
ement
ed.I
tisnotmer
elyt
inker
ingwi
tht
heexi
sti
ngsy
stem ofj
ust
iceandof
fer
ing
admi
nist
rat
ivechangest
opr
act
ice.I
tincl
udesser
iousquest
ioni
ngoft
hei
deol
ogi
cal
and pol
i
ticalf
oundat
ions upon whi
ch cr
ime i
s def
ined,enf
orced,pr
ocessed and
r
espondedt
o.

Cr
it
ical cr
imi
nol
ogi
cal per
spect
ives or cr
imi
nol
ogi
es r
epr
esent a dy
nami
c,
i
nter
connect
edy
etdi
ver
ser
angeoft
heor
ies,per
spect
ivesandmet
hodst
hatshar
ea
commi
tmentt
opr
ovi
dinganal
ter
nat
iveappr
oacht
otheway
scr
ime,j
ust
iceandt
he
‘di
sci
pli
ne’ ofcr
imi
nol
ogyar
e exami
ned.Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calappr
oacheshav
e
cont
inual
l
ypushedt
heboundar
iesandscopeofcr
imi
nol
ogy
,cr
eat
ingnew ar
easof
f
ocusandi
nnov
ati
oni
nrel
ati
ont
oit
ssubj
ectmat
ter
,met
hodsandt
heor
y.Al
though
t
her
eismuchdi
ver
sit
yanddi
ff
erencebet
weencr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calst
rands,t
heyar
e
uni
tedi
nthei
remphasi
soneconomi
candsoci
alcondi
ti
ons,t
hef
lowsandusesof
power
,thei
nter
playbet
weencr
ime,‘
race’
,gender
,and/
orcl
ass,andt
hei
rconcer
nto
seekoutmar
ginal
i
sedper
spect
ivesandi
nvest
igat
emul
ti
plet
rut
hs.

Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsof
tenpr
efert
obecal
l
edsoci
alt
heor
ist
s,hi
stor
ians,soci
ologi
sts,
f
emi
nist
sandact
ivi
stsi
nrej
ect
ionoft
hear
guabl
yconser
vat
iveandst
ate-
compl
i
ant
l
abel‘
cri
minol
ogi
st’
.Theyhav
esoughtoutandexami
nednew ar
east
hatar
eof
ten
excl
udedf
rom gov
ernment
alandmai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogi
calagendas.Forexampl
e,t
he
cr
it
iqueofact
ivi
ti
esi
nvol
vi
ngst
ateandcor
por
atehar
mthatpr
oducehumansuf
fer
ingor
env
ironment
aldegr
adat
ionandeconomi
cbi
asi
nthenameofpr
ofi
tandpowerhasl
ong
beent
hemi
ssi
onofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
sts.Assuch,l
awsandact
ivi
ti
esoft
hepower
ful
t
hatper
mitorengenderr
aci
alandeconomi
cinequal
i
ty,di
scr
imi
nat
ionandgender
pr
ejudi
ce hav
e been subj
ect
ed t
o cr
it
icalexami
nat
ion i
n pur
sui
tofsoci
alj
ust
ice.
Cont
empor
ary cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calper
spect
ives mai
ntai
nthi
s emphasi
sthr
ough
exami
ning,f
orexampl
e,gl
obali
ssuesofhumant
raf
fi
cki
ng,t
err
ori
sm,env
ironment
al
expl
oit
ati
on,andhi
ghl
i
ght
ingnat
ionali
njust
icesandhumanr
ight
sabuses– of
ten
ent
ail
i
ngacr
it
iqueoft
heunl
awf
ulact
ionsofgov
ernment
sandl
arget
ransnat
ional
cor
por
ati
ons.

CRI
TICALANALYSI
S:TWOEXAMPLES

VOI
LENCE
I
fwel
ookat‘
viol
ence’
,weobser
venumer
ousdef
ini
ti
onst
hathi
stor
ical
l
yhav
ebeen
gener
atedbypeopl
einposi
ti
onsofpowert
odescr
ibephy
sicalf
orcei
nfl
i
ctedbyone
per
sononanot
her
.Wi
tht
hisi
nmi
nd,i
fwewer
etoaskwhot
hemostv
iol
entof
fender
s
i
nUKsoci
etyar
e,wemi
ghtexpectv
ari
ousanswer
sabouty
oungmal
esofcer
tai
nsoci
o-
et
hni
cpr
ofi
l
es.Suchanswer
smi
ghtbei
nfor
medbymedi
a-gener
atedst
ereot
ypes.But
ar
etheyt
rue?

Acr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calanal
ysi
schal
l
engest
hepr
emi
sesuponwhi
chaccept
edt
rut
hs
ar
econst
ruct
ed.I
ntheUK,1500peopl
eayearar
eki
l
ledatwor
k;mor
ethandoubl
ethe
annualmur
derr
ate,andupt
o50,
000ar
einj
uredi
nthei
rpl
aceofempl
oyment
.Cr
it
ical
cr
imi
nol
ogi
calanal
ysespoi
ntt
othewor
kpl
aceasoneoft
hemostdanger
ousand
vi
olentar
easofcont
empor
aryBr
it
ishsoci
ety.However
,suchar
easofeconomi
cact
ivi
ty
ar
erar
elypor
trayedasvi
olencebyof
fi
cialgover
nmentsour
ces.I
saf
act
oryapl
aceof
vi
olence? When empl
oyees ar
e ki
l
led,i
njur
ed ormade si
ck by empl
oyer
sthat
del
i
ber
atel
yfl
outheal
thandsaf
etyr
egul
ati
onsi
npur
sui
tofpr
ofi
t,t
henyes,
fact
ori
esar
e
pl
acesofvi
olence.Tr
adeandpr
oduct
ionar
epr
esent
edast
hecor
ner
stoneoft
hri
vi
ng
capi
tal
i
steconomi
cs,yetcr
it
icalt
hinki
ngr
emi
ndsust
hatt
heyar
eal
sor
esponsi
blef
or
wi
despr
eadi
njur
y,suf
fer
inganddeat
h.

Forsomecomment
ator
sthecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calpr
ojecti
sawor
k-i
n-pr
ogr
ess.I
tisan
ev
olv
ing,unf
ini
shedandecl
ect
icnar
rat
ive.I
thasbeenapr
ojectofkeydev
elopment
s,
notofadi
sti
nctdi
sci
pli
net
aki
ngaspeci
fi
cfor
m,butofacol
l
ect
ionofper
spect
ivest
hat
f
ocus a di
ff
erentwayoft
hinki
ng aboutcr
ime and cr
imi
nal
i
sat
ion.Young quot
es
Zy
gmuntBaumant
oar
guet
hatwemustbegi
nouranal
ysesf
rom t
hepr
emi
set
hat
‘
thi
ngsar
enotnecessar
il
ywhatt
heyseem’

GOVERNI
NGTHROUGHCRI
ME

Jonat
hanSi
moni
sanAmer
icanPr
ofessorofLaw.I
n2007 hepubl
i
shed abook,
Gover
ningt
hroughCr
ime:How t
heWaronCr
imeTr
ansf
ormedAmer
icanDemocr
acy
andCr
eat
edaCul
tur
eofFear
,inwhi
chhear
guedt
hatt
heUS‘
WaronCr
ime’shoul
dbe
under
stoodnotasast
rai
ght
for
war
d,pr
act
icalpol
i
cyr
esponset
othesoci
alpr
obl
em of
cr
ime,
butasamuchbr
oaderst
rat
egyofgov
ernance.

I
nhi
sshor
tvi
deo,
Simonout
li
nessomeofhi
scent
rali
deasont
hef
unct
iont
hatt
heWar
onCr
imehasser
vedf
orsuccessi
veUSgov
ernment
s.Rat
hert
hanaski
ngpol
i
tici
ansand
pol
i
cymaker
showgov
ernmentcant
ackl
ethepr
obl
em ofcr
ime,Si
mont
urnst
hisoni
ts
headbyaski
ngi
fther
eisn’
tinf
actagov
ernment
alpr
obl
em t
owhi
chcr
imeof
fer
sa
sol
uti
on.Si
monsuggest
sthatbyf
ocusi
ngonpuni
shi
ngcr
imer
athert
hant
ackl
i
ngi
ts
v
erycompl
exr
ootcauses,
suchaspov
ert
ygov
ernment
sfr
amesoci
alpr
obl
emsi
nway
s
t
hatappeart
ohav
esi
mpl
ersol
uti
ons,
andi
nter
msofwhi
cht
heycanmor
eeasi
l
ycl
aim
success.Si
mont
husr
efocusesourat
tent
ion,mov
ingi
tawayf
rom t
hinki
ngaboutt
he
pr
obl
em ofcr
imei
nter
msoft
hemi
sdeedsofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.I
nst
ead,
heencour
agesust
o
quest
iont
hef
undament
alt
ermsonwhi
cht
hedebat
eispr
edi
cat
edandt
oaskhow
t
hoset
ermsmi
ghtser
vet
hei
nter
est
soft
hosewi
tht
hepowert
odef
inet
hem.

PRI
NCI
PALSTRAI
NSOFCRI
TICALCRI
MINOLOGY

Peacemaki
ngCr
imi
nol
ogy
Thecont
empor
aryf
orm ofpeacemaki
ngcr
imi
nol
ogyi
spr
inci
pal
l
ythepr
oductoft
wo
wel
l
-known,pr
oli
fi
c,andhi
ghl
yor
igi
nalcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
sts:Ri
char
dQui
nneyand
Har
oldPepi
nsky
.Theyhav
ecol
l
abor
atedt
oputt
oget
hert
hepr
emi
err
eaderont
he
subj
ect
,Cr
imi
nol
ogyasPeacemaki
ng.Thebasi
cthemesofapeacemaki
ngcr
imi
nol
ogy
hav
ebeenconci
sel
yident
if
iedasf
oll
ows:connect
edness,car
ing,andmi
ndf
ulness.
Per
sonalsuf
fer
ingandsuf
fer
ingi
nthewor
ldar
etakent
obei
nsepar
abl
e.Weshoul
d
av
oidper
sonal
i
zingev
ilandconst
ruct
ingf
alseschemest
hatpi
geonhol
ehumanbei
ngs
ashonor
abl
eci
ti
zensorr
epr
ehensi
blecr
imi
nal
s.I
nst
ead,weshoul
dfocusonour
commonhumani
tyandchooseaf
fi
rmat
iveway
sofr
eachi
ngoutt
oandi
nter
act
ingwi
th
ot
her
s.Responsest
othepr
obl
em ofcr
imemustbegi
nwi
that
tendi
ngt
oour
sel
vesas
humanbei
ngs;weneedt
osuf
ferwi
tht
hecr
imi
nalr
athert
hanmaki
ngt
hecr
imi
nal
suf
fer f
or us. Al
toget
her
, peacemaki
ng cr
imi
nol
ogy cal
l
s f
or a f
undament
al
t
ransf
ormat
ioni
nourwayoft
hinki
ngaboutcr
imeandcr
imi
nal
just
ice.

Peacemaki
ngcr
imi
nol
ogyi
sbyanymeasur
eaher
eti
calchal
l
enget
othedomi
nant
assumpt
ionsofmai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogi
calper
spect
ives.I
tcanbecr
it
ici
zedasaf
orm
ofut
opi
ani
sm,butatami
nimum i
tser
vesasapr
ovocat
iveant
idot
etot
heexpl
i
citor
i
mpl
i
citcy
nici
sm orpessi
mism ofot
hercr
imi
nol
ogi
calper
spect
ives.Peacemaki
ng
cr
imi
nol
ogyhassomeaf
fi
nit
ywi
thananar
chi
corabol
i
tioni
stcr
imi
nol
ogy
,butt
hisl
att
er
per
spect
ivei
smor
edi
rect
lyassoci
atedwi
tht
hecont
rov
ersi
alpr
oposi
ti
ont
hatwewoul
d
bebet
terof
fwi
thoutaf
ormalst
ate(
andi
tsl
aws)andwoul
dbebet
terof
fwi
thout
pr
isonsandaf
ormalj
ust
icesy
stem.Peacemaki
ngcr
imi
nol
ogycanal
sobel
i
nkedwi
th
t
he expandi
ng r
est
orat
ivej
ust
ice mov
ement
,whi
ch cal
l
sfora shi
ftawayf
rom a
r
etr
ibut
ivej
ust
icesy
stem t
hatf
ocusesoni
dent
if
yingandpuni
shi
ngper
pet
rat
orsof
cr
imesandt
owar
dasy
stem t
hatf
ocusesonr
epai
ri
nghar
mthr
oughacooper
ati
ve
endeav
ori
nvol
vi
ngt
heaccused,t
hev
ict
im,andt
hecommuni
ty.Ther
est
orat
ivej
ust
ice
appr
oach has been embr
aced by some por
ti
on oft
he mai
nst
ream (
and ev
en
conser
vat
ive)communi
ty,andatl
eastsomecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsbel
i
evei
thasbeen
co-
opt
edbyt
hecr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem.Ot
her
s,howev
er,bel
i
evet
hati
tcont
inuest
o
hav
epr
ogr
essi
vepot
ent
ial
.Thewor
kofpeacemaki
ngcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshasbeendi
rect
ed
t
owar
d sensi
ti
zi
ng peopl
eto count
erpr
oduct
ive,i
nher
ent
ly unj
ust r
esponses t
o
conv
ent
ional
for
msofcr
ime.

Post
moder
nistCr
imi
nol
ogy
Al
thoughapost
moder
nistcr
imi
nol
ogyhasbeeni
dent
if
iedasonest
rai
nofcr
it
ical
cr
imi
nol
ogy
,post
moder
nthoughti
tsel
fis byno means necessar
il
yli
nked wi
tha
pr
ogr
essi
veagenda;ont
hecont
rar
y,muchpost
moder
nistt
houghti
svi
ewedasei
ther
consci
ousl
y apol
i
ticalori
nher
ent
ly conser
vat
ive and r
eact
ionar
y.Any at
temptt
o
char
act
eri
zeapost
moder
nistcr
imi
nol
ogyorpost
moder
nthoughti
tsel
fencount
ers
di
ff
icul
ti
es.I
tcanbebestdescr
ibedasal
oosecol
l
ect
ionoft
hemesandt
endenci
es.
Post
moder
nist
srej
ectt
otal
i
zingconcept
s(e.
g.,t
hest
ate)
,theyr
ejectposi
ti
vi
sm,and
t
heyr
ejectt
hepot
ent
ialofcol
l
ect
iveact
ion t
otr
ansf
orm soci
ety
.Post
moder
nism
cont
endst
hatmoder
nit
yisnol
ongerl
i
ber
ati
ngbuthasbecomer
atheraf
orceof
subj
ugat
ion,
oppr
essi
on,
andr
epr
essi
on.Forpost
moder
nism,
languagepl
ayst
hecent
ral
r
olei
nthehumanexper
ienceofr
eal
i
ty.Thepost
moder
nist“
deconst
ruct
ion”oft
ext
s
exposest
hei
nst
abi
l
ityandr
elat
ivi
tyofmeani
ngi
nthewor
ld.Wi
thi
ncr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy
speci
fi
cal
l
y,St
uar
tHenr
yandDr
aganMi
l
ovanov
ichav
epr
oducedapi
oneer
ingef
for
t
whi
cht
heycal
lconst
it
uti
vecr
imi
nol
ogyt
oint
egr
ateel
ement
sofpost
moder
nistt
hought
wi
tht
hecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calpr
oject
.Theyar
eespeci
all
yconcer
nedwi
thhi
ghl
i
ght
ing
t
her
oleofi
deol
ogy
,di
scur
siv
epr
act
ices,sy
mbol
s,andsensedat
aint
hepr
oduct
ionof
meani
ngi
nther
eal
m ofcr
ime.Wemust
,theycont
end,under
standhow t
hosewho
engagei
ncr
ime,
whoseekst
ocont
rol
it,
andwhost
udyi
t“co-
produce”i
tsmeani
ng.

Femi
nistCr
imi
nol
ogy
Femi
nistcr
imi
nol
ogycont
ainsmanybr
anches.Li
ber
al,r
adi
cal
,Mar
xist
,andsoci
ali
st
f
emi
nism ar
ewi
del
yrecogni
zed,
alt
houghot
her"
str
ands"exi
stsuchaspost
moder
nism
and ecof
emi
nism.Mostf
emi
nistcr
imi
nol
ogyi
nvol
vescr
it
iquesabouthow women
of
fender
shav
ebeeni
gnor
ed,
dist
ort
ed,
orst
ereot
ypedwi
thi
ntr
adi
ti
onal
cri
minol
ogy
,but
t
her
eisnoshor
tageofsepar
atet
heor
iesandmodi
fi
cat
ionsofexi
sti
ngt
heor
ies.Al
most
al
lwomencr
imi
nol
ogi
stsorcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsofwomenwhoexami
negenderandcr
ime
hav
eaddr
essedt
he"
genderr
ati
o"pr
obl
em (
whywomenar
elessl
i
kel
y,andmenmor
e
l
i
kel
y,t
ocommi
tcr
ime)
.Ot
her
sst
udyt
hegener
ali
zabi
l
itypr
obl
em (
whet
hert
radi
ti
onal
mal
etheor
iescanmodi
fi
edt
oexpl
ainf
emal
eof
fendi
ng)
.Mostf
emi
nist
sar
equi
ckt
o
poi
ntoutwher
est
ereot
ypi
calt
hinki
ngandt
heor
eti
caldeadendsexi
st,al
thought
he
mai
npr
obl
em compl
ainedabouti
nmostcr
imi
nol
ogyi
sthesi
mpl
efactt
hatgender
mat
ter
sandshoul
dnotbei
gnor
ed.Li
ber
alf
emi
nism oper
ateswi
thi
ntheexi
sti
ngsoci
al
st
ruct
urest
odr
aw at
tent
iont
owomen'
sissues,pr
omot
ewomen'
sri
ght
s,i
ncr
ease
women'
soppor
tuni
ti
es,
andt
ransf
orm women'
srol
esi
nsoci
ety
.Radi
calf
emi
nism l
ooks
athow womencamet
ooccupysubser
vientr
olesi
nthef
ir
stpl
ace,whatmal
epower
consi
stsof
,andhow soci
eti
est
hemsel
vescanbet
ransf
ormed.Mar
xistf
emi
nism t
ies
pat
ri
archyormal
epr
ivi
l
egei
ntot
heeconomi
cst
ruct
ureofcapi
tal
i
sm,aswhenf
emal
e
of
fender
sar
esent
encedf
orpr
oper
tyorsexualcr
imes(
byt
hreat
eni
ngmal
edomi
nance
ofpr
oper
tyr
elat
ionshi
psormal
econt
rolofwomen'
sbodi
es)
.Atl
eastsomef
emi
nist
cr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
eal
so f
ocused ont
henat
ureoff
emal
einv
olv
ementi
ncr
imi
nal
behav
iorandt
hesoci
alandcul
tur
alf
orcest
hathav
eledt
oahi
gherl
eveloff
emal
e
i
nvol
vementi
nsuchact
ivi
tyi
nthemostr
ecenter
a.Somef
ormsofi
l
legal(
anddev
iant
)
act
ivi
tyhav
eal
way
sinv
olv
edf
emal
est
oasi
gni
fi
cantdegr
ee,wi
thpr
ost
it
uti
onandsex
wor
k as pr
imar
y exampl
es.Femi
nistcr
imi
nol
ogi
sts who hav
e expl
ored f
emal
e
i
nvol
vementi
nsexwor
khav
enotbeenuni
fi
edi
nthei
rchar
act
eri
zat
ionofsuchf
emal
e
of
fender
s.Ar
etheyexpl
oit
edv
ict
imsorl
i
ber
atedwomen?Thef
ocusofcr
imi
nol
ogi
cal
r
esear
chhi
stor
ical
l
yhasbeenov
erwhel
mingl
ydi
rect
edt
owar
dmal
eof
fender
s

Di
rectf
ormsofmal
evi
olence(
e.g.
,rapeandspouseabuse)t
arget
ingwomeni
nev
itabl
y
hav
ebeenamaj
orpr
eoccupat
ionoff
emi
nistcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Inaddi
ti
ont
othosef
ormsof
cr
imet
hatspeci
fi
cal
l
yanddi
rect
lyt
argetf
emal
es,f
emi
nistcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
eal
so
soughtt
odemonst
rat
ethebr
oaderv
ulner
abi
l
ityoff
emal
est
oar
angeofcr
imesnoti
n
t
hiscat
egor
y,suchast
hemul
ti
nat
ionalcor
por
ateexpl
oit
ati
onofl
abori
nsweat
shopsi
n
dev
elopi
ngcount
ri
es.Thi
sper
spect
ivehasespeci
all
yfocusedonexposi
ngt
heov
eral
l
pat
ter
nsofpat
ri
archi
ali
sm andmal
edomi
nancei
nal
lreal
msper
tai
ningt
ocr
imeand
t
hel
egal
syst
em.

Lef
tReal
i
sm
Thi
sper
spect
iveemer
gedl
argel
yinGr
eatBr
it
ainandCanadai
ntheper
iodaf
ter1985as
ar
esponset
otheper
cei
vedanal
yti
calandpr
act
icaldef
ici
enci
esofr
adi
calcr
imi
nol
ogy
,
especi
all
yini
tsneo-
Mar
xistf
orm.JockYoungi
nEngl
andandWal
terDeKeser
edyi
n
Canadahav
ebeenamongt
hepr
imar
ypr
omot
ersoft
hisper
spect
ive.Lef
treal
i
sts
r
eal
i
zedt
hatr
ight
-wi
nger
swer
eabl
etol
argel
ypr
eemptt
hecr
imei
ssue,becauset
he
f
earofst
reetcr
imei
sper
vasi
veandi
ntenseandt
ypi
cal
l
yhasmor
eimmedi
acyt
hanf
ear
ofel
i
tecr
ime.Radi
cal
swhoei
theri
gnor
est
reetcr
imeor
,ev
enwor
se,ar
eseenas
r
omant
ici
zi
ngst
reetcr
imi
nal
sloseal
lcr
edi
bil
i
tyi
ntheey
esoft
hei
rlar
gestpot
ent
ial
const
it
uency
.Fur
ther
mor
e,t
radi
ti
onalr
adi
calcr
imi
nol
ogydoesnotat
tendt
othef
act
t
hatt
hepr
inci
palv
ict
imsofst
reetcr
imear
edi
sadv
ant
agedmember
sofsoci
etyand
t
hatconv
ent
ionalcr
imeper
sist
sinnon-
capi
tal
i
stsoci
eti
es.Lef
treal
i
stsal
sor
ejectone-
di
mensi
onali
nter
pret
ati
onsofst
atecr
ackdownsonst
reetcr
imet
hatchar
act
eri
zei
t
excl
usi
vel
yasr
epr
essi
on.Howev
er,
lef
treal
i
stsv
ehement
lydenyt
hatt
hei
rwor
kleadsi
n
t
hesamedi
rect
ionasr
ightr
eal
i
sts,andt
heydi
ff
erf
rom r
ightr
eal
i
stsi
nmanyway
s:
Theypr
ior
it
izesoci
alj
ust
iceov
eror
der
;rej
ectbi
ogenet
ic,
indi
vi
dual
i
sti
cexpl
anat
ionsof
cr
imi
nal
i
tyandemphasi
zest
ruct
uralf
act
ors;ar
enotposi
ti
vi
sti
c,i
nsof
arast
heyar
e
concer
nedwi
thsoci
almeani
ngofcr
imeaswel
lascr
imi
nalbehav
iorandt
hel
i
nks
bet
weenl
awmaki
ngandl
awbr
eaki
ng;andt
heyar
eacut
elyawar
eoft
hel
i
mit
ati
onsof
coer
civ
eint
erv
ent
ion and ar
e mor
eli
kel
yto st
ress i
nfor
malcont
rol
.Lef
treal
i
st
cr
imi
nol
ogyi
nsi
stsonat
tendi
ngt
othecommuni
tyaswel
last
hest
ate,t
hev
ict
im as
wel
last
heof
fender
.Itar
guest
hatsomet
radi
ti
onalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calr
esear
chmet
hods
canbeusedt
ogener
ater
esear
cht
hatcanser
vepr
ogr
essi
veobj
ect
ives.Somel
eft
r
eal
i
stshav
efocused on t
hecr
imesofpower
fulcor
por
ati
ons.Her
e,howev
er,t
he
t
endency has been t
o cal
lformor
eregul
ati
on and t
oughersanct
ions agai
nst
l
awbr
eaker
swhocausei
mmense,
demonst
rabl
ehar
m butwhohav
ebeenabl
etoshi
eld
t
hemsel
vesf
rom cr
imi
nal
i
zat
ion duet
othei
rweal
th and i
nfl
uence.Al
toget
her
,lef
t
r
eal
i
stsmaybesai
dtoadv
ocat
epol
i
ciesandpr
act
icest
owar
dbot
hconv
ent
ionaland
cor
por
atecr
imet
hatar
ereal
i
sti
caswel
laspr
ogr
essi
ve.
EMERGI
NGSTRAI
NSOFCRI
TICALCRI
MINOLOGY

Newsmaki
ngCr
imi
nol
ogyandPubl
i
cCr
imi
nol
ogy
Kar
lMar
xfamousl
yar
guedt
hatoneshoul
dnotbecont
entt
oexpl
aint
hewor
ld;one
shoul
dchangei
t.I
tisanendur
ingcompl
aintaboutmanyf
ormsofacademi
cdi
sci
pli
nes
t
hatt
heyar
einsul
arandsel
f-
indul
gentandmakenomeasur
abl
eimpactont
he“
real
”
wor
ld.Cer
tai
nlyt
heydonotcont
ri
but
etot
heal
l
evi
ati
onofhumansuf
fer
ing,i
nit
s
v
ari
ousmani
fest
ati
ons.Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsmaybeespeci
all
ysensi
ti
vet
othi
sty
pe
ofcr
it
iqueandt
heneedf
orsomef
orm ofpr
axi
swher
eby“
real
-wor
ld”di
ff
erencesar
e
af
fect
ed.Newsmaki
ngcr
imi
nol
ogy
,asor
igi
nal
l
ypr
omot
edbyGr
eggBar
ak,cal
l
sfor
di
rectengagementbycr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stswi
thabr
oadpubl
i
cconst
it
uencyt
hrough
act
ivel
yseeki
ngoutoppor
tuni
ti
est
oputacr
ossacr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calper
spect
iveon
i
ssuesofcr
imeandcr
imi
nalj
ust
icei
nmassmedi
aout
let
s.I
ncr
easi
ngl
y,ofcour
se,i
tis
r
ecogni
zedt
hatef
for
tst
oreachabr
oaderaudi
enceespeci
all
yay
oungeraudi
encemust
i
nvol
vet
heI
nter
net
.Inasomewhatpar
all
elv
ein,El
l
iot
tCur
ri
e,amongot
her
s,has
r
ecent
ly pr
omot
ed a publ
i
c cr
imi
nol
ogy wi
th a cr
it
icaldi
mensi
on.Too much of
cr
imi
nol
ogyi
ncl
udi
ngsomeofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyi
sregar
dedasnar
rowl
yfocusedor
adopt
ingt
ermi
nol
ogyandf
ormsofanal
ysi
sthatar
ecompr
ehensi
blet
oonl
yasmal
l
number of ot
her (
li
ke-
minded) cr
imi
nol
ogi
sts i
nst
ead of addr
essi
ng pr
essi
ng
subst
ant
ivei
ssuessuchashar
mfulpr
esentcr
imi
nalj
ust
icepol
i
ciesi
nfor
msand
f
orumscapabl
eofr
eachi
ngabr
oaderpubl
i
c.Suchi
nit
iat
ivesr
aiset
hequest
ionof
whet
hernewsmaki
ngorpubl
i
ccr
imi
nol
ogi
stscanr
eal
i
sti
cal
l
yexpectt
oinf
orm and
engageapubl
i
cmassi
vel
yresi
stantt
osuchengagementandl
argel
ydi
str
act
edbya
f
ormi
dabl
ecul
tur
eofent
ert
ainment
.

Cul
tur
alCr
imi
nol
ogy
Ther
ecogni
ti
onoft
hepr
ofoundl
yst
yli
sti
candsy
mbol
i
cdi
mensi
onofcer
tai
nfor
msof
l
awbr
eaki
nganddev
iantbehav
iorhasbeenapr
imar
yfocusofcul
tur
alcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Thi
s
cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calappr
oach,pi
oneer
edbyJef
fFer
rel
l
,amongot
her
s,hassoughtt
o
pr
ovi
der
ichor“
thi
ck”descr
ipt
ionsofpeopl
ewhol
i
veatt
hemar
ginsoft
heconv
ent
ional
soci
alor
der
,incl
udi
ng,amongot
her
s,dr
uguser
s,gr
aff
it
iwr
it
ers,mot
orcy
cli
sts,and
sky
div
ers,dr
awi
ngonanet
hnogr
aphi
cappr
oacht
hatof
teni
nvol
vesdi
rectpar
ti
cipant
obser
vat
ionaswel
lasonaut
obi
ogr
aphi
calandj
our
nal
i
sti
caccount
s.The“
cri
mesof
st
yle” t
hatcul
tur
alcr
imi
nol
ogyaddr
essesar
ebestunder
stood i
nrel
ati
on t
othe
cont
est
edpol
i
ticalenv
ironmentwi
thi
nwhi
cht
heyoccurandasr
epr
esent
ati
onsof
cul
tur
alv
aluest
hatchal
l
enge,onv
ari
ousl
evel
s,t
hedomi
nantcul
tur
alv
aluesy
stem of
cont
empor
arysoci
ety
.Somecr
it
icshav
ecompl
ainedt
hatcul
tur
alcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsov
er
empat
hizewi
tht
hesoci
aldev
iant
sand“
out
laws”aboutwhom t
heywr
it
eandt
hatt
hey
f
ailt
oadequat
elyappr
eci
atet
heper
spect
iveandl
egi
ti
mat
econcer
nsoft
hemember
s
ofsoci
ety char
ged wi
th addr
essi
ng t
hei
ract
ivi
ti
es.Howev
er,cul
tur
alcr
imi
nol
ogy
pr
ovi
desuswi
thacol
orf
ulandmul
ti
lay
eredappr
eci
ati
onofar
angeofmar
ginal
i
zed
member
sofsoci
ety
.

Conv
ictCr
imi
nol
ogy
Pr
isonconv
ict
shav
ebeenasi
gni
fi
cantf
ocusofcr
imi
nol
ogi
cal
concer
nfr
om t
heout
set
.
Howev
er,
recent
lyest
abl
i
shedconv
ictcr
imi
nol
ogyput
sfor
tht
henot
ionqui
tepar
all
elt
o
cl
aimsmadebygenderandr
acef
ocusedcr
imi
nol
ogi
calper
spect
ivest
hatt
heaut
hent
ic
exper
ience ofpr
ison conv
ict
s of
ten f
ail
stof
ull
y emer
ge f
rom t
he st
udi
es of
conv
ent
ionalormanager
ialcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Fur
ther
mor
e,peopl
ewhohav
eser
vedt
imei
n
pr
isonal
soof
ferauni
queper
spect
iveoncor
rect
ionalr
efor
ms.Anumberoff
ormer
conv
ict
s hav
e become pr
ofessor
s ofcr
imi
nol
ogy and cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice and hav
e
publ
i
shedbooksandar
ti
clesont
hepr
isonex
per
ience.Atl
eastsomeoft
hem hav
e
becomeakeypar
toft
hedev
elopmentofconv
ictcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Thei
rinsi
derknowl
edge
oft
hewor
ldofpr
isonsmakest
hem uni
quel
yqual
i
fiedt
oconductet
hnogr
aphi
cst
udi
es
ofpr
isonl
i
fe.Theymi
ghtal
sobesai
dtohav
eanext
rameasur
eofcr
edi
bil
i
tyi
ncl
aims
t
hatexi
sti
ngpol
i
ciesofi
ncar
cer
ati
nghugenumber
sofnonv
iol
entof
fender
s,i
ncl
udi
ng
many l
ow-
lev
eldr
ug of
fender
s,and t
hen subj
ect
ing t
hem t
o demeani
ng and
count
erpr
oduct
ive condi
ti
ons,do not wor
k and shoul
d be abandoned.Conv
ict
cr
imi
nol
ogy accor
dingl
y adopt
s cor
ethemes ofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy i
n cal
l
ing f
or
under
standi
ngcr
imeandi
tscont
rolf
rom t
hebot
tom upandi
nexposi
ngt
hepr
ofound
l
i
mit
ati
onsofpubl
i
cpol
i
ciesi
mposedonapr
ofoundl
ydi
sadv
ant
agedsegmentoft
he
popul
ati
on.

Cr
it
ical
RaceCr
imi
nol
ogy
I
fgenderhasbeenonesi
gni
fi
cantv
ari
abl
einr
elat
iont
ocr
imeandcr
imi
nalj
ust
ice,
race
hascer
tai
nlybeenanot
her
.Accor
dingl
y,somecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
efocusedon
bot
hthehi
stor
icalr
oleofr
aci
sm i
npr
oduci
ngdi
scr
imi
nat
oryt
reat
mentt
owar
dpeopl
e
ofcol
ori
nal
laspect
sofcr
imeandcr
imi
nalj
ust
iceaswel
last
her
olet
hatendur
ing(
if
l
essmani
fest
lyobv
ious)f
ormsofr
aci
sm cont
inuet
opl
ayi
npr
omot
ingi
magesof
cr
imi
nal
sandpol
i
ciesandpr
act
icesi
npr
ocessi
ngcr
imi
nalof
fender
s.I
tiswel
l
-known
t
hat r
aci
al mi
nor
it
ies and Af
ri
can Amer
ican men i
n par
ti
cul
ar ar
e gr
eat
ly
ov
err
epr
esent
edi
nthecor
rect
ionalsy
stem,andsomeoft
hewor
kofcr
it
icalr
ace
cr
imi
nol
ogi
stsi
sdi
rect
edt
owar
ddemonst
rat
inghow t
hisov
err
epr
esent
ati
onnotonl
y
r
efl
ect
sembeddedr
aci
stel
ement
sofourcr
imi
nall
awandcr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem but
al
socont
ri
but
est
owar
dsuppor
ti
ngal
ucr
ati
vepr
isoni
ndust
ry.

Bey
ondt
hest
rai
nsofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogydi
scussedear
li
er,t
her
ear
esomeaddi
ti
onal
emer
gingst
rai
nsorpr
oposedst
rai
ns,al
thoughi
tremai
nst
obeseenwhet
hert
heywi
l
l
be wi
del
y embr
aced and f
urt
her expanded. Queer cr
imi
nol
ogy expl
ores t
he
mani
fest
ati
ons ofhomophobi
aint
he r
eal
m ofcr
ime and cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice.Gr
een
cr
imi
nol
ogyexposesandanal
yzessoci
alpr
act
icesandpol
i
ciest
hatar
eenv
ironment
all
y
har
mful
.Count
ercul
tur
alcr
imi
nol
ogycal
l
sforaddr
essi
ngt
he“
col
oni
al”i
ssuesl
argel
y
negl
ect
edi
nmai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogyandcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Cer
tai
nlyt
her
eissome
cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
calwor
kcomi
ngoutofdev
elopi
ngcount
ri
est
odayaddr
essi
ngt
he
cr
imeandcr
imecont
roli
ssuesaf
fl
ict
ingt
hesecount
ri
esand,mor
ety
pical
l
ynow,by
dr
awi
ngoni
ndi
genousi
ntel
l
ect
ualt
radi
ti
ons,asopposedt
osi
mpl
yappl
yi
ngWest
ern
(
Occi
dent
al)t
heor
ies and f
ramewor
ks.Bi
ocr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyi
s a cal
lforcr
it
ical
cr
imi
nol
ogi
stst
oacknowl
edget
hatgenespl
aysomer
olei
natl
eastcer
tai
nfor
msof
cr
imi
nalbehav
ior
,andacooper
ati
veendeav
orbet
weencr
imi
nol
ogi
stswi
thabi
osoci
al
or
ient
ati
onandcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsmi
ghtdi
sent
angl
ether
elat
ivecont
ri
but
ionsoft
he
pol
i
ticaleconomy
,thesoci
etalenv
ironment
,andbi
ogenet
icf
act
orsi
ntheemer
genceof
cr
imi
nalbehav
ior
.Speci
es-
rel
atedcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogycal
l
sforr
ecogni
ti
ont
hatani
mal
s
(
orspeci
esot
hert
han human)ar
evi
cti
msofabr
oad r
angeofcr
imesbysoci
al
i
nst
it
uti
onsandspeci
fi
chumanbei
ngs.

THESUBSTANTI
VECONCERNSOFCRI
TICALCRI
MINOLOGY

Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
eat
tendedt
oconv
ent
ionalf
ormsofcr
imi
nalact
ivi
tysuchas
st
reetcr
imeanddr
ugt
raf
fi
cki
ngbutwhent
heyhav
edoneso,
theyhav
ebeenespeci
all
y
concer
nedwi
thdemonst
rat
inghow t
heseconv
ent
ionalf
ormsofcr
imi
nal
i
tyar
ebest
under
stoodi
nrel
ati
ont
otheat
tri
but
esofacapi
tal
i
stpol
i
tical
economy
.Accor
dingl
y,t
he
appr
oach ofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stst
o such f
orms ofcr
ime di
ff
ersf
rom t
hatof
mai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogy
,whi
chi
smor
eli
kel
ytof
ocusoni
ndi
vi
dualat
tr
ibut
es,r
ati
onal
cal
cul
ati
ons and r
out
ine act
ivi
ti
es,si
tuat
ionalf
act
ors,and t
he mor
eimmedi
ate
env
ironment
.

Thest
udyofdomest
icv
iol
enceandr
ape,wi
thar
angeofst
udi
esexpl
ori
ngt
hecul
tur
al
f
orcest
hatbot
hpr
omot
esuchv
iol
enceandt
hathav
eledt
oit
spastmar
ginal
i
zat
ionby
t
hecr
imi
nalj
ust
icesy
stem,hasbeenamaj
orpr
eoccupat
ionoff
emi
nistandl
eft
-r
eal
i
st
cr
imi
nol
ogi
sts.Ther
oleof“
mascul
i
nit
ies”i
nsuchcr
imes,
aswel
lasi
nvar
iousf
ormsof
st
reetcr
ime,hasbeenexpl
oredaswel
l
.Inr
ecogni
ti
onoft
heexpandedi
nvol
vementof
f
emal
esi
nconv
ent
ionalf
ormsofcr
imeasoneout
comeofv
ari
ousl
i
ber
ati
ngf
orces
wi
thi
nsoci
etysomecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
eaddr
essedsuchmat
ter
sasf
emal
e
gang member
sand t
hei
rinv
olv
ementi
n gang v
iol
ence,wi
th speci
alemphasi
son
di
spar
it
iesofpower
.Somecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
efocusedonnewerf
ormsof
cr
ime,suchashat
ecr
imes,whi
chhav
eacont
rov
ersi
alst
atuswi
thi
nthel
argersoci
ety
.
Thechal
l
engeher
eist
odemonst
rat
ewhysuchcr
imeshav
edemonst
rabl
yhar
mful
consequencest
hatwar
rantr
ecogni
ti
onoft
hei
rspeci
alchar
act
erandwhyt
heyshoul
d
notbev
iewedaspr
otect
edbyt
het
radi
ti
onall
i
ber
alcommi
tmentt
ofr
eedom ofspeech.
Et
hni
c,r
aci
al,
andsexualmi
nor
it
ygr
oupshav
ebeenamongt
hef
avor
edt
arget
sofsuch
cr
ime,
andi
mmi
grantcommuni
ti
esr
emai
nespeci
all
yvul
ner
abl
e.

Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshavebeenespeci
all
yrecept
ivet
othecl
aim t
hatt
hemost
si
gni
fi
cantf
ormsofcr
imear
ethosecommi
tt
edbyt
hepower
ful
,nott
hepower
less.
Accor
dingl
y,somecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
etakenupSut
her
land’
scal
ltoat
tendt
o
whi
te-
col
l
arcr
ime,
wit
hspeci
alemphasi
sont
hecr
imesofl
arge,
power
fulcor
por
ati
ons.
Wi
thi
n capi
tal
i
st soci
eti
es,cor
por
ati
ons oper
atei
n an env
ironment of unequal
di
str
ibut
ionofmar
ketpowerandr
elent
lesspr
essur
etoi
ncr
easepr
ofi
torgr
owt
h,and
t
heyv
iol
atel
awswhent
hepot
ent
ialbenef
it
sofdoi
ngsoar
eregar
dedasout
wei
ghi
ng
t
hepot
ent
ialcost
s.St
ater
egul
ati
onofcor
por
ateact
ivi
tyi
ssi
gni
fi
cant
lyi
nhi
bit
edbyt
he
di
spr
opor
ti
onat
einf
luenceofcor
por
ati
onsi
nmaki
ngandadmi
nist
eri
ngl
awsandbyt
he
st
ates’needt
ofost
ercapi
talaccumul
ati
on.Fr
iedr
ichEngel
sthecol
l
abor
atorofMar
x
putf
ort
hthecl
aimi
nthe19t
hcent
uryt
hatt
heowner
shi
pcl
asswasgui
l
tyofmur
der
becausei
tisf
ull
yawar
ethatwor
ker
sinf
act
ori
esandmi
neswi
l
ldi
evi
olent
,pr
emat
ure
deat
hsduet
o unsaf
econdi
ti
ons.Somecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stst
odayf
ocuson t
he
per
sist
enceof“
saf
etycr
imes”i
nthewor
kpl
aceandt
heongoi
ngr
elat
ivenegl
ectofsuch
cr
imesbymostcr
imi
nol
ogi
sts.Ot
her
shav
eaddr
essedenv
ironment
alcr
imescar
ri
ed
outi
nthei
nter
estofmaxi
mizi
ngpr
ofi
t,andi
tseemsl
i
kel
ythatconcer
nov
ersuch
cr
imeswi
l
lint
ensi
fyi
nthef
utur
e.

Somecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
efocusedont
hemanydi
ff
erentway
sthatt
hepr
inci
pal
agent
sofsoci
alcont
roli
ncl
udi
ngt
hepol
i
ce,t
hecour
ts,andt
hepr
isonsr
efl
ectt
he
v
aluesandi
nter
est
soft
hepr
ivi
l
egedandpower
fulst
rat
aofsoci
etyandal
ltooof
ten
r
eal
i
zed r
epr
essi
ve and count
erpr
oduct
ive out
comes.Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
sts ar
e
concer
nedwi
thi
dent
if
yingf
ormsofsoci
alcont
rol
thatar
ecooper
ati
veandconst
ruct
ive.
Forsomecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
sts,t
hedeat
hpenal
tyal
mostuni
quel
yret
ainedbyt
he
Uni
tedSt
atesamongdev
elopednat
ionsi
sawor
thyf
ocusofat
tent
ion,i
nsof
arasi
t
br
ingsi
ntoespeci
all
yshar
prel
i
eft
hei
nher
enti
njust
icesper
pet
rat
edbyt
heex
ist
ing
sy
stem.

Fi
nal
l
y,atl
eastsomecr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
edi
rect
edsomeat
tent
iont
omat
ter
s
pr
inci
pal
l
yofi
nter
estt
oacademi
csandr
esear
cher
sinr
elat
iont
othei
rpr
ofessi
onal
act
ivi
ti
es.Accor
dingl
y,t
heyhav
eaddr
essedsomeoft
heet
hicali
ssuest
hatar
isei
n
r
elat
iont
ocr
imi
nol
ogi
calr
esear
ch,wi
thspeci
alat
tent
iont
othecor
rupt
ingi
nfl
uenceof
cor
por
ateandgov
ernment
alf
undi
ngofsuchr
esear
ch.Ot
hercr
it
ical
cri
minol
ogi
stshav
e
addr
essedchal
l
engest
hatar
isei
napedagogi
calcont
ext
:ont
heonehand,exposi
ng
st
udent
swhoar
eof
tenl
argel
yei
therr
elat
ivel
yconser
vat
iveorapol
i
ticali
nthei
rout
look
t
oapr
ogr
essi
veper
spect
ive,wi
thoutal
i
enat
ingori
nspi
ri
ngact
ivehost
il
it
yfr
om such
st
udent
s,and on t
he ot
herhand,pr
ovi
ding pr
ogr
ams such as cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice,
conf
ormi
ngwi
thexpect
ati
onst
hatst
udent
sbepr
epar
edf
orcar
eer
sasagent
soft
he
cr
imi
nalj
ust
ice sy
stem whi
l
e att
he same t
ime addr
essi
ng t
he r
epr
essi
ve and
i
nequi
tabl
echar
act
erofsuchasy
stem.

CONCLUSI
ON

Cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy has i
n one sense t
ended t
oref
lectt
he domi
nantf
ocus of
mai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogyoncr
imeandi
tscont
rolwi
thi
napar
ti
cul
arnat
ion;howev
er,
goi
ngf
orwar
dint
he21stcent
ury
,ther
eisani
ncr
easi
ngr
ecogni
ti
ont
hatmanyoft
he
mostsi
gni
fi
cantf
ormsofcr
imesoccuri
nthei
nter
nat
ionalspher
e,cr
ossbor
der
s,and
canonl
ybepr
oper
lyunder
stood—andcont
rol
l
ed—wi
thi
nthecont
extoft
hef
orcesof
gl
obal
i
zat
ion.Accor
dingl
y,agr
owi
ngnumberofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stshav
eaddr
essed
suchmat
ter
sascol
l
apsedst
ateswi
thi
nagl
obaleconomy
,har
msemanat
ingoutoft
he
pol
i
ciesofsuchi
nter
nat
ionalf
inanci
ali
nst
it
uti
onsast
heWor
ldBank,t
hecr
imesof
mul
ti
nat
ionalcor
por
ati
ons,
traf
fi
cki
ngofhumanbei
ngsacr
ossbor
der
sandsext
our
ism
i
n a gl
obal
i
zed wor
ld,t
he t
reat
mentofnew wav
es ofi
mmi
grant
s and r
efugees,
i
nter
nat
ionalt
err
ori
sm,t
hespr
eadofmi
l
itar
ism,pr
eempt
ivewar
sasaf
orm ofst
ate
cr
ime,
transnat
ional
pol
i
cing,
int
ernat
ional
warcr
imet
ri
bunal
s,andt
ransi
ti
onal
just
ice.

Al
though atl
eastsome oft
hese t
opi
cs hav
e been occasi
onal
l
y addr
essed by
mai
nst
ream cr
imi
nol
ogi
sts,cr
it
ical cr
imi
nol
ogi
sts hi
ghl
i
ght t
he cent
ral r
ole of
i
mbal
ancesofpoweri
nal
loft
heser
eal
ms.Al
toget
her
,cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsgoi
ng
f
orwar
dar
eincr
easi
ngl
yli
kel
ytot
akei
ntoaccountt
heexpandedgl
obal
i
zedcont
ext
,
r
egar
dlessoft
hei
rspeci
ali
zedi
nter
estorf
ocus.
Ont
heonehand,
cri
ti
calcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsf
ull
yrecogni
zet
hei
mmensepowerofcor
por
ate
i
nter
est
s and ot
her pr
ivi
l
eged i
nter
est
s and const
it
uenci
es t
o shape publ
i
c
consci
ousnessi
namannert
hati
ssuppor
ti
veofacapi
tal
i
stpol
i
ticaleconomyandt
he
br
oadpopul
arcul
tur
ethati
soneofi
tskeypr
oduct
s.TheI
tal
i
anneo-
Mar
xistt
heor
ist
Ant
oni
oGr
amsci
famousl
yadv
ancedt
henot
ionofhegemonyt
ocapt
uret
hiscapaci
tyof
pr
ivi
l
egedi
nter
est
stoi
nfl
uencepubl
i
cconsci
ousnessi
nfundament
alway
s.Ont
he
ot
herhand,
manycr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogi
stsar
eal
so,
onsomel
evel
,bot
hsomewhatpuzzl
ed
anddi
sappoi
ntedt
hatt
hecr
it
ical
per
spect
iveont
hepol
i
tical
economyhasf
ail
edt
ogai
n
mor
etr
act
ionwi
thawi
derpubl
i
cconst
it
uencybynow.Whati
sthef
utur
edest
inyof
cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy
?Themostpessi
mist
icpr
oject
ionwoul
dbet
hatconv
ent
ionaland
mai
nst
ream per
spect
iveswi
l
lsucceed i
nrender
ing cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogyi
ncr
easi
ngl
y
mar
ginal
i
zed.I
namor
emoder
atepr
oject
ion,cr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogywi
l
lcont
inuet
obea
conspi
cuousandmeasur
abl
yinf
luent
ialal
ter
nat
ivet
odomi
nantf
ormsofcr
imi
nol
ogi
cal
t
heor
yandanal
ysi
s,al
thoughi
twi
l
lal
socont
inuet
obeov
ershadowedbymai
nst
ream
cr
imi
nol
ogy
.Int
hemostopt
imi
sti
cpr
oject
ion,t
hei
nfl
uenceandi
mpactofcr
it
ical
cr
imi
nol
ogywi
l
lincr
easeexponent
ial
l
yint
hey
ear
sahead,per
hapsatsomepoi
ntev
en
comi
ngt
oov
ershadow mai
nst
ream f
ormsofanal
ysi
s.Forsomev
ersi
onoft
hisl
ast
scenar
iot
ober
eal
i
zed,per
hapsa“per
fectst
orm”ofbot
hobj
ect
iveandsubj
ect
ive
condi
ti
ons(
tof
oll
owMar
x’sowncel
ebr
atedt
hesi
s)mustt
akepl
ace:Ont
heobj
ect
ive
si
de,
onewoul
dhav
ethei
ntensi
fi
cat
ionofsomef
undament
alf
ormsofsoci
ali
nequal
i
ty
andi
njust
ices,andaccor
dingl
yofhumansuf
fer
ing.Ont
hesubj
ect
ivesi
de,onewoul
d
hav
eamor
eenl
i
ght
enedandaut
onomous“
cri
ti
calmass”oft
heci
ti
zenr
ythatcomest
o
r
ecogni
zebot
hthef
ail
uresandt
hei
njust
icesofexi
sti
ngar
rangement
sandpol
i
cies
wi
thi
nthepol
i
ticaleconomy
,andt
hei
nher
entper
suasi
venessofcr
it
icalper
spect
ives,
i
ncl
udi
ngt
hatofcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogy
.Inawor
ldwher
einequal
i
tiesofpowerandweal
th
hav
eint
ensi
fi
edr
ecent
lyi
ncer
tai
nsi
gni
fi
cantr
espect
s,i
tseemsmor
eli
kel
ythannot
t
hatcr
it
icalcr
imi
nol
ogywi
l
lcont
inuet
opl
ayapr
omi
nentr
olei
nmaki
ngsenseofcr
ime
andi
tscont
rolandt
hepr
omot
ionofal
ter
nat
ivepol
i
ciesf
oraddr
essi
ngt
heendur
ing
pr
obl
em ofcr
ime.
 REFERENCES

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imi
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ogy
”,i
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i
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imi
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imi
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imi
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it
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imi
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