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Power Plant Engineering Reviewer Complete PDF
Power Plant Engineering Reviewer Complete PDF
REVIEWER
(LECTURE)
Revision 0
2012
Prepared By:
Reserve over peak – is the plant capacity less the peak load.
Average load – is the ratio of the kilowatt-hours of energy to the period covered.
Diversity factor – is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a system,
or part of a system, to the maximum demand of the whole system, or part, under consideration.
Demand factor – is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a system, to the total connected load
of the system, or part of the system, under consideration.
Load factor – is the ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring in that
period. The average load may be determined for any specified length of time such as day, month, or year.
Capacity factor – is the ratio of the average load on a machine or equipment, for the period of time considered, to
the rating of the machine or equipment. When applied to a plant, this factor is called plant factor or plant-capacity
factor.
Output factor, or use factor – is the ratio of the actual energy output, in the period of time considered, to the energy
output which would have occurred if the machine or equipment had been operating at its full rating throughout its
actual hours of service during the period.
Load curve – is a curve of power versus time, showing the value of a specific load for each unit of the period
covered. The abscissa is usually time in hours, days, weeks, months, or years, and the ordinate is kilowatts
generated.
Monthly load curve – is the average of the daily load curves over a one-month period that is used in establishing
rates.
Annual load curve – is the average of the daily load curves over a period of one year that is used in determining the
annual load factor.
Load duration curve – is a curve showing the total time, within a specified period, during which the load equaled or
exceeded the power values shown. Kilowatts are used as the ordinate, and normally, the 8760 hr of the year is the
abscissa.
Peak load - is the maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group of units in a stated period of time. It may
be the maximum instantaneous load or the maximum average load over a designated interval of time.
Utilization factor - is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a system, to the rated capacity of the
system, or part of the system, under consideration.
1
A. VARIABLE LOAD - LECTURE
Connected load on a system, or part of a system – is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load-consuming
apparatus connected to the system, or part of the system, under consideration.
Operation factor – is the ratio of the duration of the actual service of a machine or equipment to the total duration
of the actual service of a machine or equipment to the total duration of the period of time considered.
Dump power – is hydro power in excess of load requirements that is made available by surplus water.
Firm power – is the power intended to be always available even under emergency conditions.
Prime power – is the maximum potential power (chemical, mechanical, or hydraulic) constantly available for
transformation into electric power.
Cold reserve – is that reserve generating capacity available for service but not in operation.
Hot reserve – is that reserve generating capacity in operation but not in service.
Reserve equipment – is the installed equipment in excess of that required to carry peak load. Reserve equipment
not in operation is sometimes referred to as standby equipment.
Spinning reserve – is that reserve generating capacity connected to the bus and ready to take load. System reserve is
the capacity, in equipment and conductors, installed on the system in excess of that required to carry the peak load.
Run-of-river station – is a hydroelectric generating station which utilizes the stream flow without storage.
Base-load power plants – include steam, hydroelectric, and geothermal power plants.
Peak-load power plants – include diesel-electric and gas turbine power plants.
2. Equations
Reserve over peak = plant capacity − peak load
kw − hrs energy
Average load =
no. of hours
average load
Load factor =
peak load
2
A. VARIABLE LOAD - LECTURE
- End -
3
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
1. Definitions
Fuel – is composed of chemical elements which, in rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce combustion.
Combustion – is that rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element whose exothermic heat of reaction is
sufficiently great and whose rate of reaction is sufficiently fast that useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated
temperatures.
2. Classification of Fuels
2.1 Solid – including coal, coke, peat, briquettes, wood, charcoal, and waste products
2.2 Liquid – including petroleum and its derivatives, synthetic liquid fuels manufactured from natural gas and coal,
shale oil, coal by-products (including tars and light oil), and alcohols.
2.3 Gaseous – including natural gas, manufactured and industrial by-product gases, and the propane and butane or,
liquefied petroleum (LP) gases that are stored and delivered as liquids under pressure but used in gaseous form.
3. Coal Classification
3.1 Classification by rank – degree of metamorphism, or progressive alteration, in the natural series from lignite to
anthracite (lignite, subbituminous, semibituminous, bituminous, semianthracite, anthracite, superanthracite).
Probably the most universally applicable method of classification in which coals are arranged according to fixed
carbon content and calorific value, in Btu, calculated on the mineral-matter-free basis.
3.2 Classification by grade – quality determined by size designation, calorific value, ash, ash-softening temperature,
and sulfur. The size designation is given first in accordance with the standard screen analysis method followed
by calorific value, and symbols representing ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur.
3.3 Classification by type or variety – determined by nature of the original plant material and subsequent thereof.
5. Coke
Coke – is the solid, infusible, cellular residue left after fusible bituminous coals are heated, in the absence of air,
above temperatures at which active thermal decomposition of the coal occurs.
Pitch coke or petroleum coke – are obtained by similar heating of coal-tar pitch and petroleum residues.
High temperature coke – is made from coal at temperature ranging from 815 C to 1093 C.
Low temperature coke – is formed at temperatures below 704 C. The residue, if made from a non-cooking coal, is
known as char.
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B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
6. Charcoal
Charcoal – is produced by partial combustion of wood at about 400 C and with limited air.
7. Liquid Fuels
Fuel Oil – is defined as any liquid or liquefiable petroleum products burned for the generation of heat in a furnace of
firebox, of the generation of power in an engine, exclusive of oils with a flash point below 37.7 C.
8. Gasoline
Gasoline – is defined as a refined petroleum naphtha which by its composition is suitable for use as a carburetant in
internal combustion engines.
Motor Gasoline – is a mixture of hydrocarbons distilling in the range of 37.7 C to 204.4 C by the standard method of
test.
9. Kerosene
Kerosene – is defined as a petroleum distillate having a flash point not below 22.8 C as determined by the Abel
tester and suitable as an illuminant when burned in a wick lamp.
2
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
Cracked stocks – are residual of fuels which have been treated thermally or catalytically to obtain yields of lighter-
grade fuels or gasoline.
Lightest grade distillates – classed as kerosene or No. 1 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point of 176.6 C and end
point of 260 C.
Heaviest grades of distillates – classed as No. 3 or 4 fuel oil, may have an initial boiling point of 232 C to 260 C and
end point of 343 C to 371 C.
Residual fuels, No. 4 or No. 5 – are suitable only for the slower-speed diesel.
Additives – are used principally to inhibit or slow down oxidation, to increase film strength, to keep solids in finely
divided state and to hold them in suspension, to improve the viscosity index, to lower the pour point, to decrease
friction and wear under extreme pressure conditions, to reduce foaming, and as rust or corrosion inhibitors.
SAE Numbers – are a means of coordinating and standardizing the products of oil companies and the
recommendations by the oil companies. The system of SAE motor classification is a system based entirely on
viscosity and is totally unrelated the other qualities of a lubricating oil.
3
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
In reporting SG data the 15.6 C or 60 F standard is common, that is, the oil is at 15.6 C or 60 F and is referred to the
density of water taken at 15.6 C or 60 F. Specific gravity at other temperature with correction factor,
SGt = SG15 .6o C [1 − 0.0007(t − 15.6 )] in SI units
SGt = SG60 o F [1 − 0.0004(t − 60)] in English units
16. Viscosity
Viscosity – is measure of resistance to flow.
Absolute Viscosity – is defined as that unit force required to move one layer of a fluid at unit relative velocity to
another layer of the fluid which is at unit distance from the first.
Units of viscosity:
Absolute viscosity, µ
1 reyn = 1 kb-sec / in2
1 poise – 1 dyne-se/cm2 = 0.1 Pa-sec
Kinematic Viscosity, ν
1 stoke = 1 cm2/sec = 0.0001 m2/sec
Saybolt viscosimeter – measures the time required for a given quantity of oil at standard temperature to flow
through a specified tube.
SSU (Saybolt Second Universal) – is obtained by timing the interval required for 60 cc of oil to flow through tube or
pass through a standard orifice.
For 30 to 45 SSU at 37.8 C, Centistokes = 0.308(SSU – 26)
180
Or ν = 0.22SSU − centistokes
SSU
SSF (Saybolt Second Furol) – unit used for very viscous liquids using a relatively large orifice.
62 SSF = 600 SSU
4
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
Fire point – is the temperature at which oil gives off vapor that burns continuously when ignited.
Pour point – is the temperature at which oil will no longer pour freely or the temperature at which oil will solidify.
Cloud point – is the temperature at which the paraffin elements separate from oil.
Conradson number (carbon residue) – is the carbonaceous residue remaining after destructive distillation, expressed
in percentage by weight of the original sample.
Viscosity index – indicates the relative change in viscosity of an oil for a given temperature change.
Octane number – the ignition quality rating of gasoline, which is the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture
of iso-octane and heptanes that matches the gasoline in anti-knock quality.
Cetane number – the ignition quality rating of diesel, which is the percent of cetane in the standard fuel.
Aniline point – is that temperature where equal parts if oil and aniline will dissolve in each other.
Volatility – is the ability of a liquid fuel to change into vapor which is manifested in the temperature range at which
various portions of the fuel are vaporized.
5
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
d. Fixed Carbon – is the difference between 100 % and the sum of the percentages of moisture, ash,
and volatile matter.
19.2 Ultimate analysis – analysis of composition of fuel which gives, on mass basis, the relative amounts of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash, and moisture.
b. Thermal cracking – changing heavy oil into gasoline by means of high pressure, high temperature and longer
exposure time.
c. Catalytic cracking – subjects oil to high pressure and high temperature in the presence of a catalyst; permit
accurate control of the compounds formed and produces a gasoline of higher octane number than the one
produced in thermal cracking.
d. Hydrogenation – process of catalytic cracking in a hydrogen atmosphere; obtained are more saturated products
than those from cracking process alone.
e. Isomerization – process by which the atoms of carbon and hydrogen in normal hydrocarbons are rearranged to
produce a more complex structure of higher anti-knock value.
f. Polymerization – makes use of high pressure, high temperature and a catalyst to combine light and volatile gases
into gasoline.
g. Alkylation – process of combining an isoparaffin usually iso-butane, with an olefin, usually butane or propane, to
form a large isoparaffin molecule, usually iso-octane or iso-heptane, having a very high octane number.
h. Reforming –used to obtain fuels with substantially higher than 100 octane number; currently used to process
about forty percent of motor gasoline.
i. Hydrodesulfurization – process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons and reducing the sulfur
content of the resulting fuel oil.
24. Combustion
Combustion – a chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen (air) which is accompanied by heat and light.
7
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
Actual air-fuel ratio, Waa – is determined by the presence of excess air which is defined as the amount of air supplied
over and above the theoretical air.
Waa = (1+ e)Wta
W − Wta
e = aa
Wta
where e is the excess air in decimal.
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B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
where:
Wr = dry refuse per lb coal as fired, lb
A = ash in coal, lb
Cr = combustible In 1 lb of refuse.
Q1 expressed as a percentage of the higher heating value of the fuel is the boiler efficiency.
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B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
d. Energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of hydrogen.
This loss is higher for gaseous fuels containing relatively large percentages of hydrogen than for the average low-
hydrogen coal.
Q4 = 9H 2 (h − h ff )
where:
h2 = weight of hydrogen in the fuel, lb per lb fuel
h = enthalpy of superheated vapor, Btu per lb
hff = enthalpy of liquid at the incoming fuel temperature
or
Q4 = 9H 2 (1089 + 0.46t g − t f ), when t g < 575 F
Q4 = 9H 2 (1066 + 0.5t g − t f ), when t g > 575 F
The proper value of H2 to be used in the equation is the amount of hydrogen in the fuel that is available for
combustion. To obtain the value of H2, deduct from the value of H2 in ultimate analysis one ninth of the weight
of moisture from the proximate analysis.
Q6 = 14,600(C − C ab ) Btu lb
or
Q6 = Wr HVr
- End -
11
B. FUELS AND COMBUSTION - LECTURE
12
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
1. Definitions
Propulsion system – is a system which changes the momentum of a driven body; it covers system that drives
vehicles and major pieces of industrial equipment.
Heat engines – are machines that convert heat into work or mechanical energy; heat supplied comes from the
combustion of a certain amount of fuel in oxygen (air); a working fluid absorbs the heat supplied in order to drive
the linkages that produce the mechanical energy.
Internal-combustion engine (ICE) – an engine where the generation of heat is effected inside the work-producing
unit; combustor and work-producing unit are the same; products of combustion eventually become the working
fluid.
4.3.3 Turbo-charged
4.4 Number of strokes per cycle
4.4.1 Four-stroke cycle
4.4.2 Two-stroke cycle
4.5 Location of the cam(s)
4.5.1 Overhead
4.5.2 In-block
4.6 Method of cooling
4.6.1 Water-cooled
4.6.2 Air-cooled
4.7 Number of cylinders
4.7.1 Single-cylinder
4.7.2 Two-cylinder
4.7.3 Three-cylinder, etc.
4.8 Position of cylinders
4.8.1 Vertical
4.8.2 Horizontal
4.8.3 Incline
4.9 Arrangement of cylinders
4.9.1 In-line
4.9.2 Radial
4.9.3 Opposed cylinder
4.9.4 Opposed piston
4.9.5 V-type
4.10 Number of piston sides working
4.10.1 Single-acting
4.10.2 Double-acting
4.11 Method of starting
4.11.1 Manual: crank, rope, kick
4.11.2 Electric: battery
4.11.3 Compressed air
4.11.4 Using other engines
4.12 Application
4.12.1 Automotive
4.12.2 Marine
4.12.3 Industrial
4.12.4 Stationary power
4.12.5 Locomotive
4.12.6 Aircraft
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C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
3
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
k −1
V T2
T1 = T2 2 =
V1 rkk −1
Wnet
Mean effective pressure, Cut-off ratio, pm =
VD
4
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
1 rck − 1
Cycle Efficiency = e = 1 −
rkk −1 k (rc − 1)
V 1+ c
Compression ratio, rk = 1 =
V2 c
V3 T3
Cut-off ratio, rc = =
V2 T2
Specific heat ratio, k = 1.4 for air standard.
V V2
Clearance ratio, c = 2 =
VD V1 − V2
Other relationship,
k −1
V
T2 = T1 1 = T1rkk −1
V2
k −1
V
T3 = T2 3 = T1rkk −1rc
V2
T4 = T1rck
Wnet
Mean effective pressure, Cut-off ratio, pm =
VD
5
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
1 rp rck −1 − 1
Cycle Efficiency = e = 1 − k −1
rk rp − 1 + rp k (rc − 1)
p3
Pressure ratio during constant volume process 2-3, rp =
p2
V4
Cut-off ratio, rc =
V3
Wnet
Mean effective pressure, Cut-off ratio, pm =
VD
6. Diesel Power Plant
7
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Also
T = Fr
where:
F = brake force or brake load.
r = brake arm or torque arm.
8
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Morse test as a method of determining friction power. Applicability of test is for multi-cylinder engines.
Consider a six-cylinder engine,
IP6 = BP6 + FP, all six cylinders are firing
IP5 = BP5 + FP, only five cylinder firing
===========
IP1 = BP6 – BP5, for one cylinder cut-out
Friction power, FP, is constant no matter how many cylinders are firing.
Total engine indicated power, IP, for equal cylinder IP1, IP2, IP3 . . .
IP = IP6 = 6(IP1) = 6(BP6 – BP5)
For not equal cylinder IP’s
IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 + IP5 + IP6
where:
IP1 = BP6 – BP5,1, for cylinder no. 1 cut-out
IP2 = BP6 – BP5,2, for cylinder no. 2 cut-out
IP3 = BP6 – BP5,3, for cylinder no. 3 cut-out
IP4 = BP6 – BP5,4, for cylinder no. 4 cut-out
IP5 = BP6 – BP5,5, for cylinder no. 5 cut-out
IP5 = BP6 – BP5,6, for cylinder no. 6 cut-out
FP = IP – BP = IP – BP6
9
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
10
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
11. Supercharging
Supercharging – an admittance into the cylinder of an air charge with density higher than that of the surrounding air.
Types of superchargers:
a. Engine-driven compressor.
b. Exhaust-driven compressor (turbo-charger).
c. Separately-driven compressor.
11
C. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
- End -
12
D. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
1. Definition
Gas Turbine – is a type of prime mover that derives its energy from heat, commonly supplied by combustion. The
products of combustion form the working medium, but the combustion region is external to the prime mover.
a. Air compressor, ac
Axial-type or centrifugal
b. Combustor or combustor chamber, cc
c. Gas turbine, gt
Reaction-type
d. Electric generator, eg
e. Gas turbine auxiliaries
1. Starting motor or engine, sm
2. Fuel system
3. Lubrication system
4. Speed control or governing system
1
D. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
5. Gas-Turbine Cycle
Brayton cycle – is the theoretical cycle for the gas turbine which is composed of isentropic compression, constant-
pressure heat addition, isentropic expansion, and constant-pressure heat rejection. This is known as the simple cycle
gas turbine.
Air Standard Ideal Brayton Cycle
p 2 p3
Pressure ratio = rp = =
p1 p4
V
Compression ratio = rk = 1
V2
Heat addition isobaric process 2- 3 in the combustor
QA = mc p (T3 − T2 ) = m(h3 − h2 )
Turbine isentropic expansion Process 3-4
s3 = s4 , p3V3k = p4V4k
k −1
k −1
T3 p 3 k V4
= =
T4 p4 V3
Turbine work
Wt = m(h3 − h4 ) = mc p (T3 − T4 )
2
D. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Net Work
Wnet = Wt − Wc
Heat rejection isobaric process 4-1
QR = mc p (T4 − T1 ) = m(h4 − h1 )
Note:
1. If mass of fuel, mf is considered
For process 1-2, m = mass of air, ma
For process 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1, m = ma + mf
2. If basis is air-standard cycle
For all processes, m = ma
3. For closed cycle, m = ma
Thermal efficiency
W W − Wc QA − QR
e = net = t =
QA QA QA
In terms of enthalpy
h −h
e =1− 4 1
h3 − h2
In terms of temperature
T −T
e =1− 4 1
T3 − T2
In terms of compression ratio, rk
1
e = 1 − k −1 = 1 − rk1−k
rk
In terms of pressure ratio, rp
1− k
1
e =1− k −1
= 1 − rp k
rp k
3
D. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Considering irreversibilities
4
D. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
5
D. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
6
D. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Effectiveness of the regenerator – is defined as the ratio of actual amount of heat transferred to the amount of that
could be transferred reversibly.
actual amount of heat transferred
εr =
amount that could be transferred reversibly
T −T
εr = x 2
T4 −T 2
For 100% regenerator efficiency, Tx = T4
k −1
T2 − T1 T
e = 1− = 1 − 1 rp k
T3 − T4 T3
- End -
7
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Turbine Work
Wt = m(h1 − h2 )
1
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Boiler efficiency – is meant the measure of ability of a boiler or steam generator to transfer the heat given it by the
furnace to the water and steam.
4. Reheat Cycle
Reheat cycle- to increase turbine power, increase thermal efficiency
Turbine work
Wt = m(h1 − h2 ) + m(h3 −h 4 )
Heat added in the boiler
QAb = m(h1 − h6 )
Heat added in the reheater
QArh = m(h3 − h2 )
Pump work
Wp = m(h6 − h5 ) ≈ mv 5 (p6 − p5 )
Heat rejected in the condenser
QR = m(h4 − h5 )
Thermal efficiency of reheat cycle
W − Wp W − Wp
ecycle = t = t
QA QAb + QArh
5. Regenerative Cycle
Regenerative cycle – to improve the cycle efficiency, decrease turbine power, decrease heat addition.
Turbine work
Wt = m(h1 − h2 ) + (m − m1 )(h2 −h 3 )
3
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Pump work 1
Wp1 = (m − m1 )(h5 − h4 ) ≈ (m − m1 )v 4 (p5 − p4 )
Pump work 2
Wp 2 = m(h7 − h6 ) ≈ mv 6 (p7 − p6 )
Heat rejected in the condenser
QR = (m − m1 )(h3 − h4 )
Heat balance in regenerative heater (feedwater heater or deaerator)
m1h2 + (m − m1 )h5 = mh6
Thermal efficiency of reheat cycle
W − (Wp1 + Wp 2 ) Wt − (Wp1 + Wp2 )
ecycle = t =
QA QA
6. Reheat-Regenerative Cycle
8. Boiler Types
8.1 Classification according to the contents of the tubular heating surface.
8.1.1 Fire-tube boilers
Fire-tube boilers – are those in which the products of combustion pass through the tubes and the water
lies around the outside of them.
a. Horizontal or vertical axes
b. External or internal furnaces
c. Fully cylindrical or partially cylindrical shells
4
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
5
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Boiler or Steam Generator – a closed vessel intended for use in heating water or for application of heat to generate
steam or other vapor to be used externally to itself.
Coal-Fired Boiler – used stoketed water temperature coal or pulverized coal for water-tube.
Condemned Boiler Unfired Pressure Vessel – a boiler or unfired pressure vessel that has been inspected and
declared unsafe to operate or disqualified, stamped and marked indicating its rejection by qualified inspecting
authority.
Existing Installations – any boiler or unfired pressure vessel constructed, installed, placed in operation but subject to
periodic inspection.
External Inspection – an inspection made on the external parts, accessories and/or component even when a boiler
or unfired pressure vessel is in operation.
Fire Tube Boiler – a boiler where heat is applied inside the tube.
Fusion Welding – a process of welding metals in a molten and vaporous state, without the application of mechanical
pressure or blows.
Gas-Fired Boiler – uses natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for heating boiler, fire tube or water-tube.
Heat-Recovery Steam Generator – unfired pressure vessel that uses flue gas heat.
Internal Inspection – an inspection made when a boiler or unfired pressure vessel is shut-down and handholes,
manholes, or other inspection openings are opened or removed for inspection of the interior.
6
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Locomotive Boiler – a boiler mounted on a self-propelled track locomotive and used to furnish motivating power for
traveling on rails.
Low Pressure Heating Boiler – a boiler operated at a pressure not exceeding 1.055 kg/cm2 gage steam water
temperature not exceeding 121 C.
Medium Pressure Heating Boiler – a boiler operated at a pressure not exceeding 103.5 MPa gage steam, or water
temperature not exceeding 130 C.
Miniature Boiler – as used in this Code herein mean any boiler which does not exceed any of the following limits:
405 mm inside diameter, 1065 mm overall length of outside of heads at center, 1.85 m2 of water heating surface,
7.03 kg/cm2 maximum allowable working pressure.
New Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel Installation – include all boilers and unfired pressure vessels constructed,
installed, placed in operation or constructed for.
Oil-fired Boiler – uses Bunker C as fuel for heating boiler and power boiler.
Portable Boiler – an internally fired boiler which is self-contained and primarily intended for temporary location and
the construction and usage is obviously portable.
Power Boiler – a closed vessel in which steam or other vapor (to be used externally to itself) is generated at a
pressure of more than 1.055 kg/cm2 gage by the direct application of heat.
ASME Boiler Construction Code – the term, ASME Boiler Construction Code of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers with amendments and interpretations thereto made and approved by the Council of the Society.
Reinstalled Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel – a boiler or unfired pressure vessel removed from its original setting
and re-erected at the same location or erected at a location without change of ownership.
Second Hand Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel – as used herein shall mean a boiler or unfired pressure vessel of
which both the location and ownership have been changed after primary use.
Unfired Pressure Vessel – a vessel in which pressure is obtained from an external source, or from an indirect
application of heat.
Waste-Heat Boiler – unfired pressure vessel that uses flue gas heat from waste incinerator.
Waste Tube Boiler – a boiler where heat is applied outside the tube.
7
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Also Package Fire-Tube Boiler have a heating surface of 5 sq ft per boiler horsepower.
8
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
9
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
10
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
d. Cross-compound units
- Differ from tandem-compound units only in that the high- and low-pressure ends are
not on the same shaft.
e. Steeple- or vertical-compound units
12.2.3 Back Pressure
12.2.4 Initial Temperature and Pressure
High Pressure – 1800 to 2400 psig range.
Supercritical Pressure – Above 3206 psig.
Low Pressure – 200 to 400 psig range.
High Temperature – Inlet temperature above 900 F.
12.2.5 Reheat
Reheat turbine – when steam is extracted from the turbine and its temperature increased
(usually in the steam generator) before being returned to the turbine.
12.2.6 Other Methods
a. Single-stage or multistage units
b. Mixed-pressure units
c. High or low speed turbines
d. Nonextraction or extraction turbines
e. Uses – stationary, marine, or mechanical-drive turbines.
Capability – is the manufacturer’s guaranteed maximum continuous output for a clean turbine, operating under
specific throttle and exhaust conditions, with full extraction at any openings, if provided.
11
E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Note that the Willans line for throttle governing and for an infinite number of governor valves is a straight line
and will conform to the general equation
y = a + bx
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
b. Direct-contact condenser (mixing) – also called jet condensers , where steam and cooling water are allowed to
mix.
mw c p (t 2 − t1 ) = ms (hs − h f )E
where:
cp = 4.187 kJ/kg-C or 1.0 Btu/lb-F
E = heat extraction factor
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Open heaters or Contact heaters – are feedwater heaters that function by mixing steam with the feedwater.
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Schematic Diagram
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Steam Cycle:
Net Work of the Cycle,
Wnet = ms [(h1 − h2 ) − v 3 (p4 − p3 )]
Heat Gained in the Heat Exchanger,
QG = m fw (h1 − h4 ) = ms (h1 − h4 )
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Schematic Diagram
where:
ms = steam mass flow rate
mfw = feedwater flow rate
mhg = mercury flow rate
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E. STEAM POWER PLANT - LECTURE
The terms cogeneration and CHP are used interchangeably paper and are defined as the combined simultaneous
generation of heat and electrical energy with a common source of fuel. Common examples of cogeneration
applications include pulp and paper mills, steel mills, food and chemical processing plants, and District Heating (DH)
applications.
Schematic Diagram
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20
F. CHIMNEYS AND STACKS - LECTURE
1. Definition
Chimneys and stacks – are used to dispose the exhaust gases at a considerable height and produce the necessary
draft for the flow of the gases. Chimneys indicating brick or concrete construction and stacks designating steel
construction.
2. Functions of Chimney
a. To dispose the exhaust gases at suitable height so that no pollution will occur in the vicinity.
b. To produce the necessary draft required for the flow of the gases.
Let
D = internal diameter of chimney, meters (for tapered chimney, D is the internal diameter at the top).
H = height of chimney, meters.
Ta = temperature of air, K .
Tg = average temperature of flue gases, K.
Ra = gas constant of air = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
Rg = gas constant of flue gas = 8.3143/MWfluegas ( same as for air if MW not given)
P = barometric pressure, kPa = 101.325 kPa
Height:
pt = draft pressure = H (ρ a − ρ g )g , Pa
p
ρ a = density of air = , kg/m3
RaTa
p
ρ g = density of flue gases = , kg/m3
RgTg
T1 + T2
Tg = average temperature flue gases = ,K
2
pt
H=
(ρa − ρg )g , meters
For purposes of stack design it is customary to assume that the barometric pressure decreases 0.1 in. Hg for each
one hundred-foot rise in elevation.
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F. CHIMNEYS AND STACKS - LECTURE
Diameter:
Volume flow of flue gases
π
Qg = AV = D 2V
4
mg RgTg
Qg = , m3/s
p
Theoretical Velocity of flue gas in chimney
p
Vt = 2 t , m/s
ρg
Actual velocity of flue gases in chimney is only 30% to 50% of theoretical velocity, thus to get the actual velocity,
multiple the theoretical velocity by a velocity coefficient of 0.30 to 0.50. Usual assumption is 0.40 for Cv.
V = C vVt
Then,
4Qg
D=
πV
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2
G. GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT - LECTURE
1. Definitions:
Magma – molten metal within the earth which is basically nickel-iron in composition whose stored energy heats the
surrounding water thereby producing steam or hot water.
Well-bore product – the effluent coming out from the geothermal well as produced after drilling. This can be purely
steam or hot water, or a mixture of both.
Steam-dominated geothermal field (Vapor dominated) – refers to a geothermal plant with its well producing all
steam as the well-bore product.
Liquid-dominated geothermal field (Hot Water dominated) – the well-bore product for this type of field is practically
all hot water, pressurized.
Fumarole – a crack in the earth through which the geothermal substances passes.
2. Geothermal Sources
2.1 Hydrothermal fluids
Hydrothermal fluids – basically made up of hot water, steam and minerals. It is the only form of energy currently
being tapped for significant commercial heat and electric energy supply.
2.2 Geopressurized brines
Geopressurized brines – represents a special subject of hydrothermal fluids typically found in depths exceeding
3 km and is characterized as hot water existing at pressures above the normal hydrostatic gradient and
containing dissolved methane.
2.3 Hot dry rock
Hot dry rock – is a water-free, impermeable rock at high temperature and practically drilling depth to extract
energy, high-pressure water may be injected through one or more wells to create new or to enhance existing
natural fracture system with limited access to ground water flow.
2.4 Magma
Magma – is characterized by motion or partially molten rock with temperature reaching as high 1200 C.
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G. GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT - LECTURE
2
G. GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT - LECTURE
T-s Diagram
3
G. GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT - LECTURE
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4
H. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT - LECTURE
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H. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT - LECTURE
1.7 Powerhouse
Powerhouse – consists of building structure of hydraulic and electrical equipment which includes the following:
a. Hydraulic turbines
b. Speed governors
c. Generators
d. Switchgears
e. Pressure relief valves
f. Isolation valves
g. Transformers
1.8 Draft Tube
Draft tube – an integral part of reaction turbine used to recover energy head. It connects the turbine outlet to
the tailwater so that the turbine can be set above the tailwater level.
1.9 Forebay
1.10 Turbine – converts the energy of the water into mechanical energy.
1.11 Generator – converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electric energy output.
1.12 Tailwater – the water that is discharged from the turbine.
2.2 Reaction turbine – develops power from the combined action of pressure and velocity of the water that
completely fills the runner and water passages.
2.2.1 Francis Turbine – low head and high efficiency.
2.2.2 Propeller-Type(Axial Flow) – very low head and efficiency is lower than Francis
a. Fixed Blade
b. Adjustable blade or Kaplan
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H. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT - LECTURE
3
H. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT - LECTURE
4
H. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT - LECTURE
5
H. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT - LECTURE
7. Identification of hydraulic turbine type based on available head and specific speed.
Hydraulic Turbine Type Available Head, m Specific Speed
Impulse 800 and up 5.5 to 80
Reaction (Francis) 50 to 800 22 to 80
Reaction (Propeller – Kaplan) 15 to 100 85 to 170
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6
I. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT - LECTURE
2. Definitions
Isotopes – are forms of an element that have the same chemical properties but different atomic weights because of
different numbers of neutrons in the atom.
Alpha particles – carry a positive charge and have a mass of 4. They are composed of two protons and two neutrons;
thus, they are the nucleus of the helium atom.
Fuel core – are radioactive materials, U235 with U238, which is the source of energy.
Moderator – slows down the neutrons to thermal energy, made of carbon and beryllium.
Control rods – are boron coated steel rods used to control the reactor, also called neutron-absorbers.
Reflector – made of lead or carbon which surrounds the core to bounce back any leakage of neutrons.
1
I. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT - LECTURE
Biological shield – concrete or lead which absorbs any leakage of radiation and protects operators from exposure to
radioactivity.
Control crucible – contains the meters that show the operating quantities in the reactor.
Containment vessel – prevents spread of radiation in case of a major explosion, made of concrete.
Coolant – absorbs the heat from the fuel core and then release the heat to the water in the steam generator.
3. Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear reactors – are assemblies of fissionable and other materials so arranged and in sufficient quantities so as to
be capable of supporting a chain reaction.
5. Types of Reactors
5.1 Pressurized water reactor (PWR) – where there is primary coolant circuit containing water at high temperature
and pressure, typically 270 C and 2000 psi. Attached to this is a steam-generating unit which then supplied the
turbine. This type of reactor uses high pressure light or heavy water as both moderator and coolant. This is the
type constructed in Morong, Bataan with a capacity of 620 MW and intended to supply power to the Luzon area.
5.2 Boiling water reactor (BWR) – this is the simplest form of nuclear reactor. The feedwater from the power turbine
goes directly into the reactor and picks up the heat from the fuel core. Thus the feedwater serves as the coolant.
The first experimental reactor installed in Diliman, Quezon City is of this type. It has a capacity of 1 MW.
5.3 Heavy water reactor (HWR) – This is the first alternative to the light-water types as it is still liquid-cooled and can
either be pressurized-coolant or boiling-coolant type. It uses heavy water or deuterium as coolant.
2
I. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT - LECTURE
5.4 Gas-cooled Reactors (GCR) – these were suggested as far back as 1943 but were discarded in favor of water-
cooled types for fear regarding the leakage of the chosen coolant, helium.
5.5 Fast reactors – a reactor containing no moderator and employ fast or high-energy neutrons.
5.6 Thermal reactor – wherein the neutrons have been slowed down.
5.7 Intermediate reactors – employ neutrons having an energy somewhere between fast and thermal reactors.
5.8 Heterogeneous reactors – where fissionable material for a reactor is in the form of a lump.
5.9 Homogeneous reactors – where the fuel may be in a liquid form. The fuel is a salt, such as uranium sulfate, and
is mixed with moderator, which is water.
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3
J. NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - LECTURE
2. Solar Energy
There are many applications for the direct use of solar thermal energy, space heating and cooling, water heating,
crop drying and solar cooking.
5. Pyranometer
Pyranometer – is the instrument used to measure the total solar radiation.
6. Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic cell – is a device which converts solar energy to electrical energy.
7. Solar Collectors
Solar Collectors – whose ideal characteristics are high absorptivity and low emissivity.
1
J. NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - LECTURE
2
J. NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - LECTURE
9. Wind Power
Winds – are a result of air motion caused by uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun and rotation of the
earth.
10. Typical uses of wind power.
a. To drive water pumps.
b. To drive rice and corn mills.
c. To charge batteries.
d. To generate power.
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J. NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - LECTURE
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J. NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - LECTURE
21. Advantages
a. Inexpensive
b. Low sulfur content
c. Reduces environmental hazard
d. Convertible to gaseous/liquid fuels
e. Less CO2 build-up
f. Generates additional employment
g. Simple to store
22. Disadvantages
a. Low thermal content, only about 20 MJ/kg
b. High moisture content, approximately 50%
c. Low bulk density
d. Transpo uneconomical
e. Rarely homogeneous
f. Low concentration
In the Philippines, commercialization is not full-scale since it is found that the average difference is only about 6
meters.
5
J. NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - LECTURE
In the Philippines, full-scale commercialization is also not economically-viable because of the small temperature
difference out waters have.
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