367 accurately model the lithologie variability within the reservoir. For the construction of the modeled 368 grid, following process was used to create the vertical proportion curve 369 ‘A vertical proportion curve (VPC) (Fig.13) is a cumulative probability plot that shows the 370 percentage of lithology versus depth. In this study we characterized VPC analy'ss considering all the 371 studied wells within the gridded model. To create the vertical proportion curve, the interval 372 between Farewell Formation was subdivided into an equal number of approximately 10m thick 373 layers. 374 For this reason, proportional layers were defined within this stratigeaphie interval in the well 375 logs. The proportional layers had an approximate thickness of 10m in general but the thickness 376 varied laterally, from well to well, given the same number of layers per reservoir zone on each well 377 og, For each layer, the percentage of each lithology (sandstone, shale, coal) in that interval was 378. determined from the well logs. The original well-log data were used in this analysis. By combining, 379 the well log data for each layer in this way, a vertical proportion curve was created that provides a 380 1D vertical trend to show how the lithology percentages vary with respect to depth in this study 381 area 382 From the VPC, it was evident that 6 different geobodies were three-dimensionally distributed 383. along the Farewell Formation. From figure 13(a) meandering channel sand proportion curve was 384 interpreted. We interpreted that, probability of occurrence for meandering channel sands were 385. varying in different layers of the model. Layer 111-115 had higher probability of occurrence whereas 386 layers from 116-118 have 20-29% probability of occurrence within the model, Layer 119-120 had only 387 10-15% probability of having meandering channel sand deposits. For floodplain mudstones, highest 388 percentage of occurrence concentrated within the deeper layers (30-60%) (Fig.13b). For erevasse 389 splay sands, probability of occurrence was very low; around 10% for al the interpreted layers of the 390 Farewell Formation (Fig.13c). Figure 13d represented VPC for levee sands. Probability of occurrence 391 for levee sancls within the model was very low in the deeper layers (2-87) compared to that of the 392 shallower layers (5-9%). Mouth bar sands had a distribution of lower VPC all along the modeled 393 layers (Fig.13e), Braided channel sands had higher probability of occurrence in the shallow layers, 394 compared to the meadering ones. 395 To create the 3D model grid based on the VPC, facies thickness maps were generated for each of 396 the reservoir zones. The isopach maps were added to a single reference surface in the model to create 397 the additional structure maps (reservoir model surfaces) needed to define the 3D model grid oF 398. framework. This process ensured all structure maps to be consistent with the structural trends, 399 ‘A detailed 3D facies model of 300,000 geo-gridded cells was created for 3D facies modeling, 400 Fine-scale layers were distributed proportionally between the key stratigraphic surfaces. Fach fine 401 layer was approximately 10m thick to capture the stratigraphic detail of both meandering and 402 braided deposits, Lateral cell dimensions of 50m X 50m were used to capture the details ofthe lateral 403 distribution of the fluvial deposits and in order to have several cells between wells, 404 To honour the lithologic variability in wells, lithology logs were created for each well and 405 subsequently upscaled to the resolution of the model grid and used in the modeling, process. To 406 create the lithology logs for all 4 wells, various cutoffs for the welllog data were used for each 407 lithology for generating point attributes for each well, that later were incorporated into the 3D. 408 model. It was to be noted that inthe study area, values less than 70 APL units on the gamma-ray log, 409 was defined as sandstones (North and Boering 1999; Rider 1990) Values greater than 70-90 APT units 410 on the gamma-ray log was defined as silty sandstone to clayey siltstone and values above that were 411 all termed as shales. 412 During the modeling process, the scaled sand-shale ratio volume was used as a conditioning 413 parameter to control the spatial distribution of sandstone bodies or sandstone lithology within the 414 3D models. The calculations were performed using the Data Analysis plug-in of Petre (Fig.14). As a 415. result, if a modeled layer within the Farewell reservoir exhibits a high percentage of sandstone, the 416 corresponding reservoir layer in the 3D model will have a high percentage of sandstone. 417 For the object-based lithology (sandstone, shale) modeling, the dimensions of sand bodies were 418 derived from previous depositional and paleo-depositional studies performed on the basin [28,419 75-78}, For the indicator based modeling, the spatial correlation of the lithologies of the Farewell 420 Formation was quantitatively analyzed through variogeam analysis. Experimental variograms were 421 calculated separately for each reservoir zone and lithology and were fitted with exponential and 422 spherical variogram models. Correlation lengths of the model variograms ranged from 423. approximately 25-35000 m parallel to paleoflow (Northeast to Southwest) in the major direction and, wegen seme seo ac cemeter e incon ee 44 x ee 425 Figuret5. Object geometries (e+) of the interpreted geabodies of the Farewell Formation. Each geobody 426 represents its spatial distribution within the formation along the XYZ axis of the modeled grid. Braided 427 channel sands to meandering channel deposits have been modeled forthe analysis. Figure 15g represent the 428 entire facies model combined with all possible geobodies ofthe Farewell Formation, Maui Gas Fie 429 430 around 12-15000 m perpendicular to paleoflow in the minor direction and vertically around 100m 431 on an average within the studied wells (Fig.15). The few zones with longer vertical correlation 432 lengths appeared to correspond to stacked mouth-bar deposits (multstory channel-fill deposits)433 rather than individual mouth bars. It was important to note that the correlation lengths do not 434 directly provide information on the dimensions, geometry and sinuosity ofthe fluvial deposits 435 We used sequential-indicator simulation and conditioned it to fit with the object based geobody 436 modeling (30, 75] to generate a 3D facies model for the Farewell Formation. A value for lithology 437 was simulated in each cell of the model based on probabilities calculated from well data and 438 user-defined inputs. The percentages of each lithology were defined for each zone based on well 439° data 440 For the sequential-indicator simulation model (indicator-based model), the global volume 441 fraction for sandstone was 45% sandstone and 55% shale. Because indicator-based simulation used 442 variograms (a two-point statistics) to incorporate the spatial correlation of the reservoir lithologies, 443 the geometries of channel sand bars were, as expected, not reproduced using this method. However, 444 the general distribution of sandstone honored all the constraints. The lower portion of the facies, 445 model (layer 115-120) of the indicator-based model was composed primarily of discontinuous 446 sandstones and shales which whereas stacked and more continuous sandstone and interbedded 447 shale intervals were more common in the upper part of the facies model. The upper part was 448 therefore denominated as possible braided stacked channel sands and the lower being multistoried 449 meandering channel sand deposits. Relatively small and discontinuous sand bodies were observed 450 throughout the modeled interval 451 452 3.7. Object geometry 453 ‘The geometrical properties for each selected facies association in all zones were set by defining, 454 different and reasonable geometries (Fig.15a-). Distributary channel, the main H/C bearing facies, 455. was defined as a backbone which was a variant of the axial shape where the object was deformed 456 locally to follow a direction parameter. Its thickness and width remained constant along axis and the 457 cross sectional formed as U shapes (Fig.154). The overbank was also defined as an axial shape with 458 constant thickness and slight width variation. The mouth bar (Fig.15b) was defined as an axial lobe 459 body whose width increased then decreased along axis with a lentoid cross sectional form. It was 460 worth noting that these definitions do not determine the size or orientation of the bodies, they only 461 specify a prototype shape for the object and this shape was then rescaled and orientated using the 462 size and orientation attribute values. 463 Evidence of possible multi-storey stacking within the sand-body profile was usually in the form 464 of aminor gamma peaks that might resull from thin units of fine-grained sediment or, more likely, 465 horizons of intra-formational mud clasts resting on erosion surfaces at the bases of stacked storeys. 466 Such sandbodies range in thickness from around 10 m up to over 20 m (Fig. 15a/f). In the object-based. 467 facies modeling, it was necessary to define facies body log to split a multi-storey channel interval 468 into different facies objects and get a better statistics of properties and thus a better simulation result 469 [79-80], The body division results were showed along with the prospective major and minor 470 directions in figure 15 (a0. 471 472 38, Object-based simulation ofthe geobodies 43 Object-based simulation involves defining lithology (or facies, architectural element) objects 474 with a range of dimensions and characteristic shapes that were used to populate the 3D model 475 [80-81]. This method honored geologic rules for stacking patterns and erosion and user-defined 476 shapes that, in some cases, can produce more geologically realistic models than other modeling, 477 methods [30,75]. 478 For this study, the modeled elements were crescent-shaped objects that represent the main 479 reservoir elements (mouth bars) within the studied formation. The thickness of individual channel 480 sands within the grid was modeled using a triangular distribution with values ranging from 2-15m 481 withan average of 8.5m. Individual bar widths range from 200-400m with an average of 300m. The 482 mouth-bar shape was modeled as a scalable crescent-shaped body based on the study of 483. paleo-channel reconstructions of mouth bars (23, 77-78]. Therefore this method used objects with 484 distinct shapes to control the spatial continuity and distribution of lithologies (.e, variogeams were485 not used) which resulted in improved model predictions as compared to the corresponding, 486 indicator-based models. 2/ TWT: 2400 M! etaealt 487 488 Figure.16, Seismic attribute (coherence) showing the paleochannels within the Farewell Formation, Soltd black 489 ines are posible fluvial channels as interpreted on the Zslceof the seismic cube 490 491 To simplify the modeling process, separate stochastic object-based models were generated for 492 each lithology and then merged to create the final lithology model. The two sandstone and shale 493. models were constructed using the same ranges of object dimensions for the sandstone bodies but 494 used different object orientations. These models were then merged to create a final model with point 495 orientations that were consistent with outcrop measurements. The orientations of the geobodies 496 were consistent with the approximate paleoflow direction of the Farewell Formation of the Maui Gas 497 Field. The range in orientations produced crescent-shaped and lenticular objects that represent bar 498. deposits on opposite sides of a sinuous meandering stream system. Using this approach, 499. crescent-shaped sand bar objects were modeled, along with the fluvial channels; therefore, the 500. sinuosity, amplitude and wavelength of the inferred channels that deposited the sandstones were 501 not used as input into the modeling process. The sinuosity of Farewell Formation fluvial channels 502 was estimated to be approximately 1.7-1.9 based on sandstone body width-to-thickness ratios and 503 paleo channel direction measurements from the 3D seismic cube [31, 82]. Although channel504 amplitude and wavelength were not modeled explicitly, the modeled object dimensions and 505 orientations were consistent with the previous studies (23, 31, 77, 82]. With the combination of 506 indicator and object based modeling, the final outputs were constrained by well data and seismic 507 picks and resulted in a 3D geobody grid for the studied formation. 508 2 509. Figured7. Vertical seismic profiles (in TW) forthe Farewell Formation. AA’ end BB’ profiles represent major 510 channel forms along the faces model ofthe formation, Note that the interpreted paleochannels (BB) have more S11 width-thickness ratio compared that ofthe westward profile (AA), 512 513. 3.9, 3D Facies Architecture based on Seismo-sedimentological Interpretation S14 ‘A number of investigations were published on facies architecture analysis based on outcrop, 515. wel, seismic, and experimental data [45, 52, 83-87]. In this study, we applied seismic sedimentology 516 toextend the well data study to the entire block covered by 3-D seismic survey and to provide more 517 detailed sedimentary facies architecture mapping [29, 88-90]. Stratal slicing and 90°-phasing were 518. two key techniques used in seismic sedimentology analysis (29, 89]. 519 Using horizontal seismic patterns within a small travel-time window that followed the 520 sedimentary facies, a stratal slice could reveal more detailed geobody distributions and sedimentary 521 facies in much higher resolution with less ambiguity than that was possible by using classe seismic 522 stratigraphy [89-90] 523 524 3.9.1, Spatial distribution and temporal evolution of incised valleys 525 The incised valley fill was used to identify the sediment transport direction, deduce the 526 sedimentary dispersal system, and served as a potential high-quality reservoir [91-94]. As a typical 527. sand-prone fill and the main drainage system in the study area, the spatial distribution and temporal 528 evolution of incised valleys were investigated in great detail 529 530 3.9.1.1. Spatial distribution of incised valleys, 531 Figure 16 explained the spatial distribution of incised valleys using coherence attribute. 532 Coherence attribute was used in the study because of its effectiveness in identifying edge detection 533. along with possible channel boundaries. In figure 16a to figure 16b, the bottom of each figure was 534 the stratal slice showing the reflection amplitude of the bottom boundary of sequence If in inline535 and crossline cross sections, respectively, which were used for interpreting the spatial distribution of 536 incised valleys. 537 Moving the Z slices on the seismic sections from figure 16a to 16b, the numbers of incised 538. valleys changes and their with-to-thickness ratio was evident from upstream to downstream region 539 of the strata slice(Fig.16). In figure 16a, at least 9 prominent incised valley ills were interpreted on 540. the seismic section with multiple, very strong converging and branching belt-shaped amplitude 541 anomalies in the slice from upstream to downstream (NE-SW). The anomalies had a close 542 corresponding relationship with incised valleys on the seismic section, indicating the planar 543. distribution of multiple incised valleys. 544 11 incised valleys were interpreted in figure 16b. There were also combined channel forms, 545. branching out from main channel seen in the seismic slice. This corresponds to high amplitude 546 anomalies (coherence altribute) in the strata slice. It was also evident that the width-to-thickness 547 ratio of incised valleys gradually decreases from upstream to downstream, 548 $49 39.12 Temporal evolution of incised valley fills 350 Representative seismic profiles shown in 3-D visualization from the Farewell Formation 551 sequences revealed the temporal evolution of the incised valley fills from the bottom to top 552 boundary (Fig.17). In figure 17, the bottom of the illustration was the vertical slice showing the 553 reflection amplitude of different stages of the two major sequences, The higher amplitudes were 554 characterized by channel sands distributed spatially. 555 ‘The beltshaped high amplitudes reflected the difference of incised valley fills in the stratal 556 slices, indicating the differences in width, sinuosity, continuity, and extended length (Fig.17), 557 reflecting the hydrodynamic change and temporal evolution of an incised valley fill. The incised 558 valleys tend to be of broad and straight amplitude anomalies. In comparison, it was observed that 559 incised valleys were characterized by narrow and meandering channels; the number of incised 560 valleys obviously increases while their width decreases, The incised valleys actively developed in 561 figure 17 were almost faded in the bottom vertical slice; whereas incised valleys developed at the top 562 slice were characterized by branching and converging, From the interpretation of channel 563. distribution and occurrence, the variations in number, width, and sinuosity of incised valleys 564 indicated the evolution of incised valleys from initiation to extinction [91, 94-95] 565 5. Conclusions 566 ‘The following conclusions can be made from this study:- 567 1) We identified three major depositional facies distributed over the paleo-environmental setup 568 of the Farewell Formation, It was also observed that the current workflow of facies occurrence and 569 probability according to the geological knowledge-base and grid sequencing showed considerable 570. improvements within the modeled region of the Maui Gas Field 571 @) The Farewell reservoir was interpreted to be of fluvial paleo-environment in origin. 572 Interpretations lead us to believe that about 45% of the depositional facies are of channel sandstone 573 origin and the rest 55% are floodplainjoverbank shales. 574 {@) The Farewell model was sequence stratigraphically interpreted to be of Type-1 origin having 575. Lowstand Systems Tract (LSI) of fluvial origin. 516 (4) It was also observed that the lower portion of the geobody facies model (layer 115-120) was 577 composed primarily of discontinuous sandstones and shales. Sandstone and interbedded shale 578 intervals were more common in the upper part of the facies model. The upper part was therefore 579 denominated as possible braided stacked channel sands and the lower being multistoried 580. meandering channel sand deposits 581 (6) We modeled at least eleven prominent incised valley fills on the seismic section with 582 multiple, very strong converging and branching belt shaped amplitude anomalies in the slice from. 583. upstream to downstream (NE-SW). The anomalies had close corresponding relationship with 584 incised valleys on the seismic section, indicating the planar distribution of multiple incised valleys.585 There were combined channel-forms, branching out from main channel corresponding to high 586 amplitude anomalies predicted to be higher quality reservoir sands, 587 (6) The geobody modeling process had effective advantage of quantitative propagation of 588 uncertainty via the object-based algorithm of the identified geobodies distributed across of the 589 formation. Thus the facies model was interpreted to be used as a significant new tool for future 590 studies on deeper reservoirs and their development strategies for better production. 591 Acknowledgments: This study is fanded as part of the doctoral research (GIRS2015) at the Department of| 592 Geological Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD). The authors would like to thank Ministry of 593 Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE), New Zealand for providing dataset containing 3D seismic, well 594 logs and associated reports required for this study. Schlumberger is greatly acknowledged for supporting us 595 with Petrel G&G software v.2013.1 5396 Author Contributions: AKM Eahsarl Haque (A. E. Hl) developed the 3D geobody modeling concept for the 597 reservoir, workflow and static modeling parameters; Md Aminul Islam (M. A. ) improved the wel log facies 598 analysis and Mohamed Ragab Shalaby (M. R. 5) contributed to correct the manuscript 599 Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest, 600 References 601 1.1, Childs, C; Nicol Ay Walsh J. J. The growth and propagation of synadimentary fouls, Journal of 602 Structural Geology 2003, 25(8), 633-648, doi ong/10-1016/S0191-8141(02}000548 603 2. Reilly, C; Nicol A. Walsh J J. 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