A Technical Seminar report

On

NANO ELECTRONICS

Submitted

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

By

A.GAURAV
18311A04X2

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

Mr .V Rama Krishna Sharma

Professor, E.C.E Department

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
Yamnampet, Ghatkesar, R.R District, Hyderabad – 501301(Affiliated to JNT University Hyderabad, Hyderabad and
Approved by AICTE - New Delhi)
 CERTIFICATE

Date:3-5-2019

This is to certify that the Technical Seminar report entitled "...ANTENNA..." being submitted by A.GAURAV–
18311A04X2 in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Technology degree in Electronics & Communications
Engineering to Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, Yamnampet, Ghatkesar [Telangana], is a report carried
out by him/her during academic year 2019-2020 under our guidance and supervision.
ABSTRACT
Nano electronics is perceived as one of the key
technologies of the 21St century with an enormous
potential to flourish dramatically in the near
future.Albert Einstein first proved that each
molecule measures about a nanometer (a billion of a
meter) in diameter. And in 1959, it was Richard P.
Feynman who predicted a technological world
composed of self-replicating molecules whose
purpose would be the production of nano-sized
objects.
This breakthrough technology enables creation
of things one atom or molecule at a time. It offers a
broad set of opportunities by focusing on quantum
devices and addressing their potential for high
performance through increases in density(factors of
5 to 100), speed (factors of 10 to 100), and reduced
power (factors of more than 50).The definition of
features on the nanometer length scale (NLS) is
impossible via conventional lithography, but can be
done using extreme ultraviolet, synchrotron-
radiation, or electron beam lithography .Carbon
tubes, which are the heart for this technology, is
highlighted which possesses extraordinary physical
and chemical properties because of which it is
possible to make incredible components. Most of
the preceding discussion is premised upon the
implicit assumption that future quantum effect nano
electronics devices will be fabricated in nanometer
scale using molecules.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies
Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and
manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and
macromolecular scales, where properties differ
significantly from those at a larger scale’ [1]. The
application of nanoscience to ‘practical’ devices is
called nanotechnologies. Nanotechnologies are based
on the manipulation, control and integration of atoms
and molecules to form materials, structures,
components, devices and systems at the nanoscale.
Nanotechnologies are the application of nanoscience
especially to industrial and commercial objectives.
All industrial sectors rely on materials and devices
made of atoms and molecules thus, in principle, all
materials can be improved with nanomaterials, and
all industries can benefit from nanotechnologies. In
reality, as with any new technology, the ‘cost versus
added benefit’ relationship will determine the
industrial sectors that will mostly benefit from
nanotechnologies.
Thus, Nanotechnologies are the design,
characterization, production and application of
structures, devices and systems by controlling shape
and size at the Nanometre scale. Nanoscience deals
with the scientific study of objects with sizes in the
1–100 nm range in at least one dimension. But
Nanotechnology deals with using objects in the same
size range to develop products with possible
practical application. It is usually based on
nanoscience insights. It is the creation of functional
materials, devices, and systems through control of
matter on the nanometer length scale and the
exploitation of novel properties and phenomena
developed at that scale. A scientific and technical
revolution has begun that is based upon the ability to
systematically organize and manipulate matter on the
nanometer length scale[1].
1.2 The Nanometre scale
The Nanometre scale is conventionally defined as 1
to 100 nm. One nanometre is one billionth of a metre
(10-9 m). The size range is normally set to a
minimum of 1 nm to avoid single atoms or very
small groups of atoms being designated as nano-
objects (Figure .1.). Therefore, nanoscience and
nanotechnologies deal with clusters of atoms of 1 nm
in at least one dimension.’ Nanoscience is the 2
study of materials that exhibit remarkable properties,
functionality and phenomena due to the influence of
small dimensions. Figure .1. A nanomaterial is an
object that has at least one dimension in the
nanometre scale (approximately 1 to 100 nm).
1.3 Quantum mechanics (QM) & Nanomaterials
Classification
 Quantum mechanics (QM); also known as quantum
physics or quantum theory), including quantum field
theory, is a fundamental branch of physics concerned
with processes involving, for example, atoms and
photons. In such processes, said to be quantized, the
action has been observed to be only in integer
multiples of the Planck constant. This is utterly
inexplicable in classical physics. Quantum
mechanics gradually arose from Max Planck's
solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem
(reported 1859) and Albert Einstein's 1905 paper
which offered a quantum-based theory to explain the
photoelectric effect (reported 1887). Early quantum
theory was profoundly reconceived in the mid-
1920s. The reconceived theory is formulated in
various specially developed mathematical
formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical function,
the wave function, provides information about the
probability amplitude of position, momentum, and
other physical properties of a particle. Important
applications of quantum mechanical theory include
superconducting magnets, light-emitting diodes and
the laser, the transistor and semiconductors such as
the microprocessor, medical and research imaging
such as magnetic resonance imaging and electron
microscopy, and explanations for many biological
and physical phenomena. Bulk materials (the ‘big’
pieces of materials we see around us) possess
continuous (macroscopic) physical properties. The
same applies to micron-sized materials (e.g. a grain
of sand). But when particles assume nanoscale
dimensions, the principles of classic physics are no
longer capable of describing their behaviour
(movement, energy, etc.): at these dimensions, the
principles of quantum mechanics principles. The
same material (e.g. gold) at the nanoscale can have
properties (e.g. optical, mechanical and electrical)
which are very different from (and even opposite to!)
the properties the material has at the macroscale
(bulk). The overall behavior of bulk crystalline
materials changes when the dimensions are reduced
to the nanoscale. For 0-D Nanomaterials, where all
the 3 dimensions are at the nanoscale, an electron is
confined in 3-D space. No electron delocalization
(freedom to move) occurs. For 1-D Nanomaterials,
electron confinement occurs in 2-D. For 1-D
Nanomaterials, electron confinement occurs in 2-D,
whereas delocalization takes place along the long
axis of the nanowire/rod/tube. In the case of 2-D
Nanomaterials, the conduction electrons will be
confined across the thickness but delocalized in the
plane of the sheet. Nanomaterials Classification is
based on the number of dimensions, which are not
confined to the nanoscale range as shown in figure
.2. Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally
very broad, including fields of science as diverse
as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular
biology, semiconductor physics, energy
storage, microfabrication, molecular engineering,
etc. The associated research and applications are
equally diverse, ranging from extensions of
conventional device physics to completely new
approaches based upon molecular self-
[7]
assembly, from developing new materials with
dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of
matter on the atomic scale.
Scientists currently debate the future implications of
nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to
create many new materials and devices with a vast
range of applications, such as
in nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, biomaterials energ
y production, and consumer products. On the other
hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues
as any new technology, including concerns about
the toxicityand environmental impact of
[8]
nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global
economics, as well as speculation about
various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have
led to a debate among advocacy groups and
governments on whether special regulation of
nanotechnology is warranted.
1.3.1 Zero-dimensional Nanomaterials
Materials wherein all the dimensions are measured
within the nanoscale (no dimensions, or 0-D, are
larger than 100 nm). The most common
representation of zero-dimensional nanomaterials are
nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can: be amorphous or
crystalline; be single crystalline or polycrystalline;
be composed of single or multi-chemical elements;
exhibit various shapes and forms; exist individually
or incorporated in a matrix and be metallic, ceramic,
or polymeric.
1.3.2 One-dimensional Nanomaterials
One dimension that is outside the nanoscale. This
leads to needle like-shaped Nanomaterials. 1-D
materials include nanotubes, nanorods, and
nanowires. In 1-D Nanomaterials nanomaterials can
be Amorphous or crystalline; Single crystalline or
polycrystalline; Chemically pure or impure
Standalone materials or embedded in within another
medium Metallic, ceramic, or polymeric.
1.3.3 Two-dimensional Nanomaterials
Two of the dimensions are not confined to the
nanoscale. 2-D nanomaterials exhibit plate-like
shapes. Two-dimensional nanomaterials include
nanofilms, nanolayers, and nanocoatings. 2-D
nanomaterials nanomaterials can be: can be:
amorphous or crystalline made up of various
chemical compositions used as a single layer or as
multilayer structures; Deposited on a substrate and
integrated in a surrounding matrix material metallic,
ceramic, or polymeric. Two dimensional
Nanomaterials such as tubes and wires have
generated considerable interest among the scientific
community in recent years. In particular, their novel
electrical and mechanical properties are the subject
of intense research.
1.3.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were first observed by
Sumio Iijima in 1991. CNTs are extended tubes of
rolled graphene sheets. There are two types of CNT:
singlewalled (one tube) or multi-walled (several
concentric tubes). Both of these are typically a few
nanometres in diameter and several micrometres to
centimetres long. CNTs have assumed an important
role in the context of nanomaterials, because of their
novel chemical and physical properties. They are
mechanically very strong (their Young’s modulus is
over 1 terapascal, making CNTs as stiff as diamond),
flexible (about their axis), and can conduct
electricity extremely well (the helicity of the
graphene sheet determines whether the CNT is a
semiconductor or metallic). All 4 of these
remarkable properties give CNTs a range of potential
applications: for example, in reinforced composites,
sensors, nanoelectronics and display devices [3].
1.3.4 Three-dimensional Nanomaterials
Bulk nanomaterials are materials that are not
confined to the nanoscale in any dimension. These
materials are thus characterized by having three
arbitrarily dimensions above 100 nm. Materials
possess a nanocrystalline structure or involve the
presence of features at the nanoscale. In terms of
nanocrystalline structure, bulk nanomaterials can be
composed of a multiple arrangement of nanosize
crystals, most typically in different orientations.
With respect to the presence of features at the
nanoscale, 3-D nanomaterials can contain
dispersions of nanoparticles, bundles of nanowires,
and nanotubes as well as multinanolayers.
Classification 0- among 0-D, 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D As
shown in figures 2 & 3, Nanostructures refer to
materials systems with length scale in the range of ~
1-100 nm in at least one dimension. In a
nanostructure, electrons are confined in the
nanoscale dimension(s), but are free to move in other
5 dimension(s). One way to classify nanostructures
is based on the dimensions in which electrons move
freely: Quantum well: electrons are confined in one
dimension (1D), free in other 2D
Figure .2. Nanomaterials Classification. Figure .3. The relationships among Nanomaterials

It can be realized by sandwiching a narrow-bandgap Creating Nano-scale materials by physically or

semiconductor layer between the widegap ones. A
quantum well is often called a 2D electronic system.
Quantum wires: confined in two dimensions, free in
1D (so it is called a 1D electronic system). Real
quantum wires include polymer chains, nanowires
and nanotubes.
Quantum dots: electrons are confined in all
dimensions, as in clusters and nanocrystallites [5]
Nanostructured materials consist of many forms such
as:
• Nanoparticles
chemically breaking down larger materials. A
number of physical phenomena become pronounced
as the size of the system decreases. These include
statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum
mechanical effects. Solid-state techniques can also
be used to create devices known as
nanoelectromechanical systems or NEMS, which are
related to microelctromechanical systems or MEMS.
MEMS became practical once they could be
fabricated using modified semiconductor device
fabrication technologies, normally used to make
electronics [6].

• Nanowires

• Nanotubes 1.4.2 Bottom-up Approach (Simple to complex: a

molecular perspective)
• Nanorods
Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point
• Nanoporous materials where it is possible to prepare small molecules to
almost any structure. These methods are used today
• Other structures
to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals
1.4 Approaches in nanotechnology and such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers.
Fabrication Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called
molecular manufacturing, describes engineered
1.4.1 Top-down Approach (Larger to smaller: a nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the
materials perspective) molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is
especially associated with the molecular assembler, a elements; such a circuit is described as an electronic
machine that can produce a desired structure or circuit. The nonlinear behaviour of active
device atomby-atom using the principles of components and their ability to control electron
mechanosynthesis [7]. flows makes amplification of weak signals possible,
and electronics is widely used in information
1.5 Nano-technology processing, telecommunication, and signal
Types Nanotechnology is ubiquitous and pervasive. processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as
It is and emerging field in all areas of science, switches makes digital information processing
engineering and technology. Some are as given. possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit
boards, electronics packaging technology, and other
• Nano-Material. varied forms of communication infrastructure
complete circuit functionality and transform the
• Nano-Electronic. 6
mixed components into a regular working system.
• Nano-Robotics. Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-
mechanical science and technology, which deal with
• Molecular mechanics Nano engineering the generation, distribution, switching, storage, and
conversion of electrical energy to and from other
• Nanobiotechnology
energy forms using wires, motors, generators,
• Nanofluidics batteries, switches, relays, transformers, resistors,
and other passive components. This distinction
• Nanohub started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De
• Nanometrology Forest of the triode, which made electrical
amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals
• Nanoscale networks possible with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950
this field was called "radio technology" because its
principal application was the design and theory of
radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes.
Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor
components to perform electron control. The study
of semiconductor devices and related technology is
considered a branch of solid-state physics, whereas
3 NANOMATERIALS ELECTRONIC the design and construction of electronic circuits to
PROPERTIES solve practical problems come under electronics
engineering. This article focuses on engineering
3.1 Electronics aspects of nano electronics [16]. 13
Electronics is the science of how to control electric
energy, energy in which the electrons have a
fundamental role. Electronics deals with electrical
circuits that involve active electrical components
3.2 Nanoelectronics
such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and
integrated circuits, and associated passive electrical Nanoelectronics are part of the nanotechnology
components and interconnection technologies. domain, which deals with the characterization,
Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry manipulation and fabrication of the electronic
consisting primarily or exclusively of active devices at the nanoscale. Nanoelectronics is one of
semiconductors supplemented with passive
the major technologies of Nanotechnology. It plays
vital role in the field of engineering and electronics.
Nanoelectronics make use of scientific methods at
atomic scale for developing the Nano machines. The
main target is to reduce the size, risk factor and
surface areas of the materials and molecules.
Machines under nano electronic process undergoes
the long range of manufacturing steps each with
accurate molecular treatment. This article focuses on
engineering aspects of Nanoelectronics. The
Nanotechnology field has been the subject of intense
focus, particularly from the viewpoint of the
electronics industry. The commitment is, no doubt,
driven to a large measure by the current top-down
methodologies for fabrication of siliconbased
devices. This is implied in the next-generation
approach towards manufacture of MEMS,
microprocessors, optical switching and several other
electronic components. Nanoelectronic devices; are a
very small devices to overcome limits on scalability
Nanotechnology is continually playing vital role to
improve the capability of electronic products. The
technology also made the devices very light making
the product easy to carry or move and at the same
time it has reduced the power requirement. Some
Consumer Products which are using
Nanotechnology:
 Computer Hardware
 Display Devices
 Mobile & Communication Products
 Audio Products
 Camera & Films
 The world market for nanoelectronics is expected
to reach $409.6 billion by 2017 [17]
. 3.3 Nanoelectronic configuration
The electronic configurations of Nanomaterials are
significantly different from that of their bulk
counterpart. These changes arise through systematic
transformations in the density of electronic energy
levels (Density of states (DOS)) as a function of the
size, and these changes result in strong variations in
the optical and electrical. While the DOS in a band
could be very large for some materials, it may not be
uniform. It approaches zero at the band boundaries,
and is generally higher near the middle of a band.
The density of states for the free electron model. In
statistical and condensed matter physics, the density
of states (DOS) of a system describes the number of
states at each energy level that are available to be
occupied. A high DOS at a specific energy level
means that there are many states available for
occupation. A DOS of zero - no states can be
occupied at that energy level. near the middle of a
band. The density of states for the free electron
model in three dimensions is shown by figure .9. 14
Figure .9. Density of states for 3D, 2D, 1D, 0D
showing discretization of energy and discontinuity of
DOS 3.4 Importance of Nanostructures in Electronic
Nanotechnology is already being used by the
electronic industry and you will be surprised to know
that many of today’s electronics have already
incorporated many applications that the
nanotechnology science has developed. For example,
new computer microprocessors have less than 100
nanometers (nm) features. Smaller sizes mean a
significant increase in speed and more processing
capability [18]. These advances will undoubtedly
help achieve better computers. However, at some
point in time (very near in the future) current
electronic technology will no longer be enough to
handle the demand for new chips microprocessors.
Right now, the method for chip manufacturing is
known as lithography or etching. By this technology,
a probe literally writes over a surface the chip
circuit. This way of building circuits in electronic
chips has a limitation of around 22 nanometers (most
advanced chip processors uses 60-70 nm size
features). Below 22 nm errors will occur and short
circuits and silicon limitations will prevent chip
manufacturing.
3.5 The Electronic behavior of Materials at
Nanoscale
 Materials behave electronic differently at Nanoscale
for two reasons: Firstly, very small particles have a
larger surface area compared to the same amount of
material in a larger lump (for example, grains of
sand would cover a bigger surface than the same
amount of sand compressed into a stone). As the
surface of the particle is involved in chemical
reactions, the larger surface area can make materials
more reactive – grains of salt dissolve in water much
more quickly than a rock of salt for example. In fact,
some materials that are generally inactive in their
larger form can be more reactive in nanoscale.
Secondly, when we look at materials on a nanoscale
level, the relative importance of the different laws of
physics shift and effects that we normally do not
notice (such as quantum effects) become more
significant, especially for sizes less than 20nm. This
is mainly due to the nanometer size of the materials
which render them: 1. large fraction of surface
atoms; 2. high surface energy; 3. spatial
confinement; 4. reduced imperfections, which do not
exist in the corresponding bulk materials.
Nanostructures are unique as compared with both
individual atoms/molecules at a smaller scale and the
macroscopic bulk materials. They are also called
mesoscopic structures. Nanoscience research focuses
on the unique properties of 15 nanoscale structures
and materials that do not exist (or only very weakly
exist) in structures of same material composition but
at other scale ranges. In Electronic, the wave like
properties of electrons inside matter are influenced
by variations on the nanometer scale. By patterning
matter on the nanometer length, it is possible to vary
fundamental properties of materials (for instance,
melting temperature, magnetization, charge capacity)
without changing the chemical composition. The
systematic organization of matter on the nanometer
length scale is a key feature of biological systems.
Nanotechnology promises to allow us to place
artificial components and assemblies inside cells,
and to make new materials using the self-assembly
methods of nature. Nanostructures components have
very high surface areas, making them ideal for use in
composite materials, reacting systems, drug delivery,
and energy storage. The finite size of material
entities, as compared to the molecular scale,
determine an increase of the relative importance of
surface tension and local electromagnetic effects,
making Nanostructured materials harder and less
brittle. The interaction wavelength scales of various
external wave phenomena become comparable to the
material entity size, making materials suitable for
various opto-electronic applications. Nano-materials:
Used by humans for 100 of years, the beautiful ruby
red color of some glass is due to gold Nano particles
trapped in the glass (ceramic) matrix[19]. There are
various reasons why nanoscience and
nanotechnologies are so promising in electronic
properties of materials and engineering. First, at the
nanometre scale, the electronic properties of matter,
such as energy, change. This is a direct consequence
of the small size of Nanomaterials, physically
explained as quantum effects. The consequence is
that a material (e.g. a metal) when in a nanosized
form can assume properties which are very different
from those when the same material is in a bulk form.
For instance, bulk silver is non-toxic, whereas silver
nanoparticles are capable of killing viruses upon
contact. Properties like electrical conductivity,
colour, strength and weight change when the
nanoscale level is reached: the same metal can
become a semiconductor or an insulator at the
nanoscale level. The second exceptional property of
nanomaterials is that they can be fabricated atom by
atom by a process called bottomup. The information
for this fabrication process is embedded in the
material building blocks so that these can self-
assemble in the final product [20]. Bulk materials
(e.g., a Cu wire, a cup of water), their intrinsic
physical properties, such as density, conductivity and
chemical reactivity, are independent of their sizes.
For example, if a one-meter Cu wire is cut into a few
pieces, those intrinsic properties of the shorter wires
remain the same as in the original wire. If the
dividing process is repeated again and again, this
invariance cannot be kept indefinitely. Certainly, we
know that the properties are changed greatly when
the wire is divided into individual Cu atoms (even
more at the level of electrons, protons and neutrons).
Significant property changes often start when we get
down to the nanoscales. The following phenomena
critically affect the properties of nanostructural
materials: 1. Quantum confinement: the confinement
of electrons in the nanoscale dimensions result in
quantization of energy and momentum, and reduced
dimensionality of electronic states 2. Quantum
coherence: certain phase relation of wave function is
preserved for electrons moving in a nanostructure, so
wave interference effect must be considered. But in
nanostructures, generally the quantum coherence is
not maintained perfectly as 16 in atoms and
molecules. The coherence is often disrupted to some
extent by defects in the nanostructures. Therefore,
both quantum coherent and de-coherent effects have
to be considered, which often makes the description
of electronic motion in a nanostructure more
complicated than in the extreme cases. 3.
Surface/interface effects: a significant fraction (even
the majority) of atoms in nanostructure is located at
and near the surfaces or interfaces. The mechanic,
thermodynamic, electronic, magnetic, optical and
chemical states of these atoms can be quite different
than those interior atoms. These factors play roles to
various degrees (but not 100%) of importance. For
example, the confinement and the coherent effects
are not as complete as that in an atom. Both the
crystalline (bulk) states and the surface/interface
states cannot be ignored in nanoscale structures. The
different mixture of atomic/molecular, mesoscopic
and macroscopic characters make the properties of
nanostructures vary dramatically. Nanostructural
materials are often in a metastable state. Their
detailed atomic configuration depends sensitively on
the kinetic processes in which they are fabricated.
Therefore, the properties of nanostructures can be
widely adjustable by changing their size, shape and
processing conditions. The situation is similar to
molecular behavior in chemistry (e.g., N vs. N2) in
certain aspect. Because of the rich and often
surprising outcomes, it will be extremely interesting
and challenging to play with nanostructural systems.
Nanoscience and nano-engineering have been an
area where many breakthroughs have been and will
continue to be produced [21].
3.6 Nanomaterials Required size for size effect
As shown in section 2.1, in the case of metals, where
the Fermi level lies in the centre of a band and the
relevant energy level spacing is very small, the
electronic and optical properties more closely
resemble those of continuum, even in relatively
small sizes (tens or hundreds of atoms). In
semiconductors, the Fermi level lies between two
bands, so that the edges of the bands are dominating
the low-energy optical and electrical behavior.
Optical excitations across the gap depend strongly on
the size, even for crystallites as large as 10,000
atoms. For insulators, the band gap between two
bands is already too big in the bulk form. The same
quantum size effect is also known for metal
nanoparticles; however, in order to observe the
localization of the energy levels, the size must be
well below 2 nm, as the level spacing has to exceed
the thermal energy (~26 meV). In a metal, the
conduction band is half filled and the density of
energy levels is so high that a noticeable separation
in energy levels within the conduction band
(intraband transition) is only observed when the
nanoparticle is made up of ~100 atoms. If the size of
metal nanoparticle is made small enough, the
continuous density of electronic states is broken up
into discrete energy levels. The spacing δ , between
energy levels depends on the Fermi energy of the
metal EF, and on the number of electrons in the
metal, N, as given by: (1) Where: the Fermi energy
EF is typically of the order of 5 eV in most metals.
For example; the discrete electronic energy level in
metal nanoparticles has been observed in far-infrared
absorption measurements of gold nanoparticle.
When the diameter of nanowires or nanorods reduces
below the de Broglie wavelength, size confinement
would also play an important role in determining the
energy level just as for 17 nanocrystals. For
example, the absorption edge of Si nanowires has a
significant blue shift with sharp, discrete features
and silicon nanowires also have shown relatively
strong "band-edge" photoluminescence [22].
3.7 Nanoelectronics Technology
Nanoelectronics technology deals with the
characterization, manipulation and fabrication of the
electronic devices at the nanoscale. But,
Nanoelectronic device is a very small devices to
overcome limits on scalability. Nanoelectronics
holds some answers for how we might increase the
capabilities of electronics devices while we reduce
their weight and power consumption.
3.7.1 Electrons properties in Nanostructures
The electronic properties of materials change when
electrons are confined to structures that are smaller
than the distance between scattering events (i.e., the
mean free path) of electrons in normal solids. In this
section, we will discuss what happens to electrons
that are confined to one-dimensional structures (i.e.,
constrictions or “wires”) and zero-dimensional
structures (i.e., small particles). Two-dimensional
confinement will be dealt with in semiconductor
heterostructures in As a prerequisite for this material,
we begin with a broad overview of conduction in
normal solids, including the “free electron” model of
metals and the band structure theory of the electronic
states in periodic solids [23]. The vast variation in
the electronic properties of materials The electrical
properties of materials vary vastly. We think of
electrical properties in terms of resistance: the
copper wires that carry electrical power have a low
resistance and the glass insulators that support power
lines have a very high resistance. Resistance depends
on geometry and a more intrinsic quantity is
resistivity, ρ. For example, a rod of material of
length, L, and cross-sectional area, A, has a
resistance R = ρL A (2) ρ is purely a material
property, having units of Ω -m. The resitivities of
some common materials are shown in Table .1. (The
units here are Ω-m, but Ω - cm are more commonly
used in the semiconductor industry.) Few physical
quantities vary as much as resitivity: the range
between copper and rubber is nearly 24 orders of
magnitude! Only a fraction of the electrons in a
given material are involved in conducting electricity.
For example, only one of the 29 electrons in each
copper atom in a copper wire is free to carry a
current. We shall see that these electrons move very
quickly – about 106 m/s. However, they are also
scattered very frequently – on average about every
40 nm in copper. The net current is carried by a slow
drift of this randomly scattered cloud of electrons.
The drift velocity depends upon the voltage drop
across the copper wire, but for the small voltages
dropped across typical appliance leads (a fraction of
a volt per meter at high current) it is a fraction of a
mm per second. Despite the fact that they are in a
minority, these “free electrons” give metals
remarkable properties. In addition to their ability to
pass electric currents, incident optical fields set free
electrons into a motion that opposes the incident
field, reradiating the light as a reflection, accounting
for the optical reflectivity of most metals. Most of
the elements in the periodic table are 18 metals, with
only those few on or to the right of the diagonal B-
Si-As-Te-At being semiconductors or insulators. On
the other hand, most compounds are insulators.
Thus, metal oxides are insulators (e.g., Al2O3) or
semiconductors (such as Cu2O—the reason why it is
possible to make good electrical contacts to partly
oxidized copper wires). We will see that this
incredible variation in the electronic properties of
materials has its origin in their quantum mechanical
band structure. Table .1. Resistivities of various
materials at 20◦ C
3.8 Electrons in nanostructures and quantum
effects
The electronic properties of bulk materials are
dominated by electron scattering. This acts like a
frictional force, so that the electron travels at a “drift
velocity” such that the force owing to an applied
field (field = voltage drop per unit distance, force =
charge × field) is just equal to the friction force.
Since the current is proportional to the drift velocity
of the electrons, we can see why current is
proportional to voltage in most conductors (i.e.,
Ohm’s law is obeyed). The scattering events that
contribute to resistance occur with mean free paths
that are typically tens of nm in many metals at
reasonable temperatures. Thus, if the size of a
structure is of the same scale as the mean free path of
an electron, Ohm’s law may not apply. The transport
can be entirely quantum at the nanoscale. Another
nanoscale phenomenon occurs if the structure is so
small that adding an electron to it causes the energy
to shift significantly (compared to kBT)
3.9 Fermi liquids and the free electron model
The free electron model treats conduction electrons
as a gas of free, non interacting particles, introducing
interactions only as a means for particles to
exchange energy by scattering. It was introduced by
Drude, who justified it solely on the basis of the
results produced by a simple model based on this
assumption. It is remarkable that the Drude model
works. To begin with, it ignores the long-range
Coulomb repulsion between electrons. Even more
seriously, we now know that the 19 Pauli principle
means that most electrons in a material are forbidden
from moving anywhere (Drude’s model predated
quantum mechanics). The explanation of why the
free electron model works is subtle. It was first
proposed, as a hypothesis, by Landau who called it
the “Fermi liquid” model of metals, a model that has
been remarkably successful in explaining the
electrodynamics of metals.1 The Landau hypothesis
has been proved rigorously, but here will only sketch
the basic idea. Figure .10. is a plot of the thermal
average occupation number as a function of
temperature for Fermions reproduced from .6. with
plots for zero temperature and a temperature
corresponding to 0.05µ (µ is the chemical potential).
The chemical potential at T = 0 is called the Fermi
energy, the energy of the highest occupied state at
zero temperature. Mobile particles are produced only
because thermal fluctuations promote electrons from
below the Fermi energy to above it. Thus carriers are
not produced alone, but in pairs, corresponding to a
net positive charge in a state below the Fermi level,
and a net negative charge in a state above it. This
association between an electron and its “correlation
hole” is part of the reason that Coulomb interactions
may be ignored. Figure .10. Fermi liquid theory of a
metal. The carriers are not the electrons themselves
(which are immobile at low temperature) but
“quasiparticles” formed when an electron is excited
above the Fermi energy by a thermal fluctuation,
leaving behind a “hole” or antiparticle.
The basis for modern nanoelectronic semiconductor
device fabrication are multi-gate transistors. The
first multi-gate MOSFET (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor) to scale
below 20 nm is the FinFET (fin field-effect
transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-
gate MOSFET.[8] The basis for FinFET technology
was the "Depleted Lean-channel Transistor" or
"DELTA" transistor developed by Hitachi Central
Research Laboratory's Digh Hisamoto, Toru Kaga,
Yoshifumi Kawamoto and Eiji Takeda in
1989.[9][10][11][12]The potential of Hisamoto's
research on DELTA transistors drew the attention
of the Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA), which in 1997 awarded a
contract to a research group at UC Berkeley to
develop a deep sub-micron transistor based on
DELTA technology.[12] The group consisted of
Hisamoto along with TSMC's Chenming Hu and
other UC Berkeley researchers including Tsu-Jae
King Liu, Jeffrey Bokor, Hideki Takeuchi, K.
Asano, Jakub Kedziersk, Xuejue Huang, Leland
Chang, Nick Lindert, Shibly Ahmed, Cyrus Tabery,
Yang‐Kyu Choi, Pushkar Ranade, Sriram
Balasubramanian, A. Agarwal and M. Ameen. In
1998, the team successfully fabricated FinFET
devices down to a 17 nmprocess.[8] In 2001, they
developed a 15 nm FinFET process. In 2002, a team
including Yu, Chang, Ahmed, Hu, Liu, Bokor and
Tabery described a 10 nm process.[8]
In 1999, a CMOS transistor developed at the
Laboratory for Electronics and Information
Technology in Grenoble, France, tested the limits of
the principles of the MOSFET transistor with a
diameter of 18 nm (approximately 70 atoms placed
side by side). It enabled the theoretical integration
of seven billion junctions on a €1 coin. However,
the CMOS transistor, which was created in 1999,
was not a simple research experiment to study how
CMOS technology functions, but rather a
demonstration of how this technology functions
now that we ourselves are getting ever closer to
working on a molecular scale. According to Jean-
Baptiste Waldner in 2007, it would be impossible to
master the coordinated assembly of a large number
of these transistors on a circuit and it would also be
impossible to create this on an industrial level.
In 2006, a team of Korean researchers from
the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology (KAIST) and the National Nano Fab
Center co-developed a 3 nm transistor, the world's
smallest nanoelectronic device, based on finFET
technology.
Commercial production of nanoelectronic
semiconductor devices began in the 2010s. In
2013, SK Hynix began commercial mass-
[16]
production of a 16 nm process, TSMC began
production of a 16 nm Fin FET process,[17] and
Samsung Electronics began production of a 10 nm
class process.[18] TSMC began production of
a 7 nm process in 2017,[19] and Samsung began
production of a 5 nm process in 2018. In 2017
TSMC announced plans for the commercial
production of a 3 nm process by 2022, and in 2019
Samsung announced plans for a
3 nm GAAFET (gate-all-around FET) process by
2021.
4 ELECTRONS NANOSTRUCTURES
APPLICATION
Nanoelectronics refer to the use of nanotechnology
in electronic components. the section covers a
diverse set of devices and materials, with the
common characteristic that they are so small that
inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical
properties need to be used extensively. Some of
these include: hybrid molecular/semiconductor
electronics, one-dimensional nanotubes/nanowires,
or advanced molecular electronics. Recent silicon
CMOS technology generations, such as the 22
nanometernode, are already within this regime.
Nanoelectronics are sometimes considered as
disruptive technology due to the significantly
different from traditional transistors.
4.1 Nanoelectronic Devices
Nanotechnology Makes many Nanoelectronic
digital Devices such as: • Nano Transistors
• Nano Memory • Nano Circuitry • Nano Diodes •
OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) • Plasma
Displays • Quantum Computers • Nano sensors •
Nano rods • I pods • Nanogears
Electrodes made from nanowires enable flat
panel displays to be flexible as well as thinner than
current flat panel displays. Nanolithography is used
for fabrication of chips. The transistors are made of
nanowires, that are assembled on glass or thin films
of flexible plastic. E-paper, displays on sunglasses
and map on car windshields.
4.1.1 Nanoelectronic Transistors
Nanoelectronic Transistors made using Current
high-technology production processes are based on
traditional top down strategies, where
nanotechnology has already been introduced
silently. The critical length scale of integrated
circuits is already at the nanoscale (50 nm and
below) regarding the gate length of transistors in
CPUs or DRAM devices. Nanoelectronics holds
the promise of making computer processors more
powerful than are possible with conventional
semiconductor fabrication techniques. A number of
approaches are currently being researched,
including new forms of nanolithography, as well as
the use of nanomaterials such as nanowires or small
molecules in place of traditional CMOS
components. Field effect transistors have been made
using both semiconducting carbon nanotubes[8] and
with heterostructured semiconductor nanowires.[9]
In 1999, the CMOS transistor developed at the
Laboratory for Electronics and Information
Technology in Grenoble, France, tested the limits of
the principles of the MOSFET transistor with a
diameter of 18 nm (approximately 70 atoms placed
side by side). This was almost one tenth the size of
the smallest industrial transistor in 2003 (130 nm in
2003, 90 nm in 2004, 65 nm in 2005 and 45 nm in
2007). It enabled the theoretical integration of seven
billion junctions on a €1 coin. However, the CMOS
transistor, which was created in 1999, was not a
simple research experiment to study how CMOS
technology functions, but rather a demonstration of
how this technology functions now that we
ourselves are getting ever closer to working on a
molecular scale. Today it would be impossible to
master the coordinated assembly of a large number
of these transistors on a circuit and it would also be
impossible to create this on an industrial level [23
Figure .11. Simulation result for formation of
inversion channel (electron density) and attainment
of threshold voltage (IV) in a nanowire MOSFET.
Note that the threshold voltage for this device lies
around 0.45V.
4.1.2 Memory Storage
Electronic memory designs in the past have largely
relied on the formation of transistors. However,
research into crossbar switch based electronics have
offered an alternative using reconfigurable
interconnections between vertical and horizontal
wiring arrays to create ultra high density memories.
Two leaders in this area are Nantero which has
developed a carbon nanotube based crossbar
memory called Nano-RAM and Hewlett-Packard
which has proposed the use of memristor material
as a future replacement of Flash memory. An
example of such novel devices is based on
spintronics. The dependence of the resistance of a
material (due to the spin of the electrons) on an
external field is called magneto resistance. This
effect can be significantly amplified (GMR-Giant
Magneto-Resistance) for nanosized objects, for
example when two ferromagnetic layers are
separated by a nonmagnetic layer, which is several
nanometers thick (e.g. Co-Cu-Co). The GMR effect
has led to a strong increase in the data storage
density of hard disks and made the gigabyte range
possible. The so-called tunneling magneto
resistance (TMR) is very similar to GMR and based
on the spin dependent tunneling of electrons
through adjacent ferromagnetic layers. Both GMR
and TMR effects can be used to create a non-
volatile main memory for computers, such as the
so-called magnetic random access memory or
MRAM
4.2 Novel Optoelectronic Devices
Electronic and optoelectronic devices, from
computers and smart cell phones to solar cells, have
become a part of our life. Currently, devices with
featured circuits of 45 nm in size can be fabricated
for commercial use. However, further development
based on traditional semiconductor is hindered by
the increasing thermal issues and the manufacturing
cost. During the last decade, nanocrystals have
been widely adopted in various electronic and
optoelectronic applications. They provide
alternative options in terms of ease of processing,
low cost, better flexibility, and superior
electronic/optoelectronic properties. By taking
advantage of solution-processing, self-assembly,
and surface engineering, nanocrystals could serve as
new building blocks for low-cost manufacturing of conductive and due to their small diameter of
flexible and large area devices. Tunable electronic several nanometers, they can be used as field
structures combined with small exciton binding emitters with extremely high efficiency for field
energy, high luminescence efficiency, and low emission displays (FED). The principle of operation
thermal conductivity make nanocrystals extremely resembles that of the cathode ray tube, but on a
attractive for FET, memory device, solar cell, solid- much smaller length scale. Improving
state lighting/display, photodetector, and lasing display screens on electronics devices. This
applications. Efforts to harness the nanocrystal involves reducing power consumption while
quantum tunability have led to the successful decreasing the weight and thickness of the screens.
demonstration of many prototype devices, raising Increasing the density of memory chips.
the public awareness to the wide range of solutions Researchers are developing a type of memory chip
that nanotechnology can provide for an efficient with a projected density of one terabyte of memory
energy economy. This special issue aims to provide per square inch or greater. Reducing the size of
the readers with the latest achievements of transistors used in integrated circuits. One
nanocrystals in electronic and optoelectronic researcher believes it may be possible to "put the
applications, including the synthesis and power of all of today's present computers in the
engineering of nanocrystals towards the palm of your hand".
applications and the corresponding device
fabrication, characterization and computer
modeling. Furthermore, in the modern 4.2.2 Quantum Computers
communication technology traditional analog
electrical devices are increasingly replaced by
Entirely new approaches for computing exploit the
optical or optoelectronic devices due to their
laws of quantum mechanics for novel quantum
enormous bandwidth and capacity, respectively.
computers, which enable the use of fast quantum
Two promising examples are photonic crystals and
algorithms. The Quantum computer has quantum bit
quantum dots . Photonic crystals are materials with
memory space termed "Qubit" for several
a periodic variation in the refractive index with a
computations at the same time. This facility may
lattice constant that is half the wavelength of the
improve the performance of the older systems.
light used. They offer a selectable band gap for the
propagation of a certain wavelength, thus they
resemble a semiconductor, but for light or photons
instead of electrons. Quantum dots are nanoscaled
objects, which can be used, among many other 4.2.3 Radios
things, for the construction of lasers. The advantage
of a quantum dot laser over the traditional
Nanoradios have been developed structured around
semiconductor laser is that their emitted wavelength
carbon nanotubes.
depends on the diameter of the dot. Quantum dot
lasers are cheaper and offer a higher beam quality
than conventional laser diodes.
4.2.1 Displays

4.2.4 Energy Production

The production of displays with low energy
consumption might be accomplished using carbon
nanotubes (CNT). Carbon nanotubes are electrically
 Research is ongoing to use nanowires and other monitoring, surveillance, and defense technology
nanostructured materials with the hope to create [21,22,23].
cheaper and more efficient solar cells than are
possible with conventional planar silicon solar
cells.[12]. It is believed that the invention of more 4.2.6 Nano-Robotics
efficient solar energy would have a great effect on
satisfying global energy needs. There is also
A nanorobot is a tiny machine designed to
research into energy production for devices that
perform a specific task or tasks repeatedly and with
would operate in vivo, called bio-nano generators.
precision at nanoscale dimensions, that is,
A bio-nano generator is a nanoscale electrochemical
dimensions of a few nanometer s (nm) or less,
device, like a fuel cell or galvanic cell, but drawing
where 1 nm = 10 -9 meter. They are nanodevices
power from blood glucose in a living body, much
that will be used for the purpose of maintaining and
the same as how the body generates energy from
protecting the human body against pathogens. The
food. To achieve the effect, an enzymeis used that is
joint use of nanoelectronics, photolithography, and
capable of stripping glucose of its electrons, freeing
new biomaterials provides a possible approach to
them for use in electrical devices. The average
manufacturing nanorobots for common medical
person's body could, theoretically, generate 100
applications, such as for surgical instrumentation,
watts ofelectricity (about 2000 food calories per
diagnosis and drug delivery. Potential applications
day) using a bio-nano generator.[13] However, this
for nanorobotics in medicine include early diagnosis
estimate is only true if all food was converted to
and targeted drugdelivery for cancer.
electricity, and the human body needs some energy
consistently, so possible power generated is likely
much lower. The electricity generated by such a 4.2.7 Nanotechnology in Circuitry
device could power devices embedded in the body
(such aspacemakers), or sugar-fed nanorobots.
Much of the research done on bio-nano generators To see the circuitry, researchers use an electron
is still experimental, with Panasonic's microscope or an atomic force microscope.
Nanotechnology Research Laboratory among those
at the forefront.

4.2.8 Nano-Sensors
4.2.5 Medical Diagnostics

Nanotechnology creates many new,

There is great interest in constructing
interesting fields and applications for photonic
nanoelectronic devices[14][15][16] that could detect
sensors. Existing uses, like digital cameras, can be
the concentrations of biomolecules in real time for
enhanced because more ‘pixels’ can be placed on a
use as medical diagnostics,[17] thus falling into the
sensor than with existing technology. In addition,
category of nanomedicine.[18] A parallel line of
sensors can be fabricated on the nano-scale so that
research seeks to create nanoelectronic devices
they will be of higher quality, and possibly defect
which could interact with single cells for use in
free. The end result would be that photos would be
basic biological research.[19]. These devices are
larger, and more accurate. As part of a
called nanosensors. Such miniaturization on
communication network, photonic sensors will be
nanoelectronics towards in vivo proteomic sensing
used to convert optical data (photons) into
should enable new approaches for health
electricity (electrons). Nanoscale photonic sensors
will be more efficient and basically receive similar
advantages to other materials constructed under the
nanoscale.
4.2.9 Multiplexers
A multiplexer is a device for converting
many data streams into one single data stream,
which is then divided into the separate data streams
on the other side with a demultiplexer. The main
benefit is cost savings, since only one physical link
will be needed, instead of many physical links. In
nano-optics, multiplexers will have many
applications. They can be used as part of a
communication network, as well as utilized on a
smaller scale for various modern scientific
instruments.
5. ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTERS
5.1 Nanotechnology in Computer Processing
The number of transistors on a chip will
approximately double every 18 to 24 months
(Moore’s Law) as shown in figure .12. This law has
given chip designers greater incentives to
incorporate new features on silicon. Problem of
Making Moore's Law works largely through
shrinking transistors, the circuits that carry
electrical signals. By shrinking transistors,
designers can squeeze more transistors into a chip.
However, more transistors means more electricity
and heat compressed into a smaller space.
Furthermore, smaller chips increase performance
but also create the problem of complexity [24].
Figure .12. Exponential Moore's Law Curve Credit:
Clayton Hallmark
This was expensive. Improving a
microprocessor's performance meant scaling down
the elements of its circuit so that more of them
could be packed together on the chip, and electrons
could move between them more quickly. Scaling, in
turn, required major refinements in
photolithography, the basic technology for etching
those microscopic elements onto a silicon surface.
But the boom times were such that this hardly
mattered: a self-reinforcing cycle set in. Chips were
so versatile that manufacturers could make only a
few types — processors and memory, mostly —
and sell them in huge quantities. That gave them
enough cash to cover the cost of upgrading their
fabrication facilities, or 'fabs', and still drop the
prices, thereby fuelling demand even further
improving display screens on electronics devices.
This involves reducing power consumption while
decreasing the weight and thickness of the screens.
6. NANO ELECTRONICS: APPLICATIONS
UNDER DEVELOPMENT
Some of the nanoelectronics areas under
development such as: Improving display screens
on electronics devices. This involves reducing
power consumption while decreasing the weight
and thickness of the screens. Increasing the
density of memory chips. Researchers are
developing a type of memory chip with a projected
density of one terabyte of memory per square inch
or greater. Reducing the size of transistors used
in integrated circuits. One researcher believes it
may be possible to "put the power of all of today's
present computers in the palm of your hand".
In addition, Researchers are looking into the
following nanoelectronics projects:
Cadmium selenide nanocrystals deposited on
plastic sheets have been shown to form flexible
electronic circuits. Researchers are aiming for a
combination of flexibility, a simple fabrication
process and low power requirements.
Integrating silicon nanophotonics components
into CMOS integrated circuits. This optical
technique is intended to provide higher speed data
transmission between integrated circuits than is
possible with electrical signals.
Researchers at UC Berkeley have demonstrated
a low power method to use nanomagnets as
switches, like transistors, in electrical circuits. Their
method might lead to electrical circuits with much
lower power consumption than transistor based
circuits.
Researchers at Georgia Tech, the University of
Tokyo and Microsoft Research have developed a
method to print prototype circuit boards using
standard inkjet printers. Silver nanoparticle inkwas
used to form the conductive lines needed in circuit
boards.
Researchers at Caltech have demonstrated a laser
that uses a nanopatterned silicon surfacethat helps
produce the light with much tighter frequency
control than previously achieved. This may allow
much higher data rates for information transmission
over fiber optics.
Building transistors from carbon nanotubes to
enable minimum transistor dimensions of a few
nanometers and developing techniques to
manufacture integrated circuits built with nanotube
transistors.
Researchers at Stanford University have
demonstrated a method to make functioning
integrated circuits using carbon nanotubes. In order
to make the circuit work they developed methods to
remove metallic nanotubes, leaving only
semiconducting nanotubes, as well as an algorithm
to deal with misaligned nanotubes. The
demonstration circuit they fabricated in the
university labs contains 178 functioning transistors.
Developing a lead free solder reliable enough for
space missions and other high stress environments
using copper nanoparticles.
Using electrodes made from nanowires that
would enable flat panel displays to be flexible as
well as thinner than current flat panel displays.
Using semiconductor nanowires to build transistors
and integrated circuits.
Transistors built in single atom thick graphene
film to enable very high speed transistors.
Researchers have developed an interesting
method of forming PN junctions, a key component
of transistors, in graphene. They patterned the p and
n regions in the substrate. When the graphene film
was applied to the substrate electrons were either
added or taken from the graphene, depending upon
the doping of the substrate. The researchers believe
that this method reduces the disruption of the
graphene lattice that can occur with other methods.
Combining gold nanoparticles with organic
molecules to create a transistor known as a
NOMFET (Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field-
Effect Transistor).
Using carbon nanotubes to direct electrons to
illuminate pixels, resulting in a lightweight,
millimeter thick "nanoemmissive" display panel.
Using quantum dots to replace the fluorescent dots
used in current displays. Displays using quantum
dots should be simpler to make than current
displays as well as use less power.
 Making integrated circuits with features that can
be measured in nanometers (nm), such as the
process that allows the production of integrated
circuits with 22 nm wide transistor gates.
Using nanosized magnetic rings to make
Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory
(MRAM)which research has indicated may allow
memory density of 400 GB per square inch.
Researchers have developed lower power, higher
density method using nanoscale magnets called
magnetoelectric random access memory (MeRAM).
Developing molecular-sized transistors which
may allow us to shrink the width of transistor gates
to approximately one nm which will significantly
increase transistor density in integrated circuits.
Using self-aligning nanostructures to manufacture
nanoscale integrated circuits.
Using nanowires to build transistors without p-n
junctions.
Using buckyballs to build dense, low power
memory devices.
Using magnetic quantum dots in spintronic
semiconductor devices. Spintronic devices are
expected to be significantly higher density and
lower power consumption because they measure the
spin of electronics to determine a 1 or 0, rather than
measuring groups of electronics as done in current
semiconductor devices.
Using nanowires made of an alloy of iron and
nickel to create dense memory devices. By applying
a current magnetized sections along the length of
the wire. As the magnetized sections move along
the wire, the data is read by a stationary sensor. This
method is calledrace track memory.
Using silver nanowires embedded in a polymer to
make conductive layers that can flex, without
damaging the conductor.
IMEC and Nantero are developing a memory
chip that uses carbon nanotubes. This memory is
labeled NRAM for Nanotube-Based Nonvolatile
Random Access Memory and is intended to be used
in place of high density Flash memory chips.
Researcher have developed an organic nanoglue
that forms a nanometer thick film between a
computer chip and a heat sink. They report that
using this nanoglue significantly increases the
thermal conductance between the computer chip
and the heat sink, which could help keep computer
chips and other components cool. Researchers at
Georgia Tech, the University of Tokyo and
Microsoft Research have developed a method to
print prototype circuit boards using standard inkjet
printers. Silver nanoparticle inkwas used to form the
conductive lines needed in circuit boards.
7. EMERGING APPLICATIONS OF
RADIATION IN NANOTECHNOLOGY
Radiation is a type of energy emitted by
electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles. Like
any other type it can be completely or partially
stored in a suitable medium or environment where it
can produce an effect. The effect produced by
radiation is the actual cause, on the basis of which it
can be detected, tracked and identified. This effect
is mainly in the form of ionization, which can be
direct or indirect [1]. Incident radiation which
ionizes atoms or molecules in a material and thus
creates an electrons and holes which are detected is
called direct ioniz in gradiation. Another type of
radiation which excites atom or molecule to a
higher energy state which then decay by the
emission of excess energy in the form of photons
and is converted into charge carrier is called indirect
ionization [2] The charged radiationwhich produce
direct ionization effect are called alpha and beta
rays where as the other which produced
indirectionization are neutrons and gamma rays,
which are also known as neutral radiation. The
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is
promoting the new development in radiation
technologies through its technical cooperation
programmes, coordinated research projects,
consultants and technical meetings and conferences.
The Consultants Meeting on Emerging Applications
of Radiation Nanotechnology was hosted by the
Institute of Organic Synthesis and Photochemistry
in Bologna, Italy, from 22 to 25 March 2004. The
meeting reviewed the status of nanotechnology
worldwide. Applications of radiation for
nanostructures and nanomachine fabrication,
especially drug delivery systems, polymer based
electronic, solar energy photovoltaic devises, etc.,
were discussed during the meeting. The
opportunities of radiation technology applications
were amply demonstrated. The
Proceeding of a consultants meeting held in
Bologna, Italy, 22–25 March 2004 is a report with
topic "Emerging Applications of Radiation
Nanotechnology", it provides basic information on
the potential of application of radiation processing
technology in nanotechnology. Development of new
materials, especially for health care products and
advanced products (electronics, solar energy
systems, biotechnology, etc.) are the main
objectives of R&D activities in the near future. It is
envisaged that the outcome of this meeting will lead
to new programmes and international collaboration
for research concerning the application of various
radiation techniques in nanotechnology [25].
A nanosensor is not necessarily a device merely
reduced in size to a few nanometers, but a device
that makes use of the unique properties of
nanomaterials and nanoparticles to detect and
measure new types of events in the nanoscale. For
example, nanosensors can detect chemical
compounds in concentrations as low as one part per
billion, or the presence of different infectious agents
such as virus or harmful bacteria. Communication
among nanosensors will expand the capabilities and
applications of individual nano-devices both in
terms of complexity and range of operation. The
detection range of existing nanosensors requires
them to be inside the phenomenon that is being
measured, and the area covered by a single
nanosensor is limited to its close environment.
A network of nanosensors will be able to cover
larger areas and perform additional in-network
processing. In addition, several existing nanoscale
sensing technologies require the use of external
excitation and measurement equipment to operate.
Wireless communication between nanosensors and
micro- and macrodevices will eliminate this need.
For the time being, it is still not clear how these
nanosensor devices will communicate. [26]
8. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
USING NANOTECHNOLOGY
8.1 Advantages
8.1.1 Energy Advantages
Nanotechnology may transform the ways in which
we obtain and use energy. In particular, it's likely
that nanotechnology will make solar power more
economical by reducing the cost of constructing
solar panels and related equipment. Energy storage
devices will become more efficient as a result.
Nanotechnology will also open up new methods of
generating and storing energy.
8.1.2 Advantages in Electronics and Computing
The field of electronics is set to be revolutionized
by nanotechnology. Quantum dots, for example, are
tiny light-producing cells that could be used for
illumination or for purposes such as display screens.
Silicon chips can already contain millions of
components, but the technology is reaching its limit;
at a certain point, circuits become so small that if a
molecule is out of place the circuit won't work
properly. Nanotechnology will allow circuits to be
constructed very accurately on an atomic level.
8.1.3 Medical Advantages
Nanotechnology has the potential to bring major
advances in medicine. Nanobots could be sent into a
patient's arteries to clear away blockages. Surgeries
could become much faster and more accurate.
Injuries could be repaired cell-by-cell. It may even
become possible to heal genetic conditions by
fixing the damaged genes. Nanotechnology could
also be used to refine drug production, tailoring
drugs at a molecular level to make them more
effective and reduce side effects.
8.1.4 Environmental Effects
Some of the more extravagant negative future
scenarios have been debunked by experts in
nanotechnology. For example: the so-called "gray
goo" scenario, where self-replicating nanobots
consume everything around them to make copies of
themselves, was once widely discussed but is no
longer considered to be a credible threat. It is
possible, however, that there will be some negative
effects on the environment as potential new toxins
and pollutants may be created by nanotechnology.
8.1.5 Economic Upheaval
It is likely that nanotechnology, like other
technologies before it, will cause major changes in
many economic areas. Although products made
possible by nanotechnology will initially be
expensive luxury or specialist items, once
availability increases, more and more markets will
feel the impact. Some technologies and materials
may become obsolete, leading to companies
specializing in those areas
going out of business. Changes in manufacturing
processes brought about by nanotechnology may
result in job losses.
8.1.6 Privacy and Security
Nanotechnology raises the possibility of
microscopic recording devices, which would be
virtually undetectable. More seriously, it is possible
that nanotechnology could be weaponized. Atomic
weapons would be easier to create and novel
weapons might also be developed. One possibility is
the so-called "smart bullet," a computerized bullet
that could be controlled and aimed very accurately.
These developments may prove a boon for the
military; but if they fell into the wrong hands, the
consequences would be dire.
8.1.7 Material Advantages
It can be created unique materials and products
which are: stronger, lighter, durable and precise.
8.2 Disadvantages
Loss of jobs (in manufacturing, farming, etc)
Carbon Nanotubes could cause infection of lungs
Atomic weapons could be more accessible and
destructive
9. CONCLUSION
A variety of micromaterials and Nanomaterials have
been synthesized that exhibit unique mechanical,
electrical, and photonic properties, and have been
used as functional elements in device applications.
For example, self-assembly of silica microspheres
resulted in a photonic crystal with a complete three-
dimensional bandgap [1]. Semiconductor nanowires
were used to construct nanoelectronic circuits [2],
solar cells [3], and nanosensors for the detection of
biological and chemical species [4]. Device
construction usually requires the positioning of
micro and nanomaterials. Taking one-dimensional
nanomaterials as an example, nanowires/nanotubes
need to be positioned between source and drain
electrodes for building nanotransistors and
biosensors. To position relatively large amounts of
materials simultaneously, large-scale methods are
used, namely, self-assembly [1], contact printing
[5], and dielectrophoresis [6]. However, these
methods represent probabilistic strategies and are
not capable of precision control of individual
materials. By contrast, mechanical manipulation,
despite being slow in comparison with the
aforementioned large-scale methods, promises
specificity, precision, and programmed motion, and
thus, can enable the precise manipulation of
individual materials. For the manipulation of
micromaterials, a micromanipulator under an
optical microscope is used. The end-effector can be
either a microprobe or a microgripper. Owing to the
strong adhesion forces (capillary forces,
electrostatic forces, and van der Waals forces) at the
microscale, manipulation is unreliable and has low
repeatability, motivating the development of
suitable manipulation tools and strategies.
Nanotechnology with all its challenges and
opportunities will become a part of our future. The
researchers are optimistic for the products based
upon this technology. Nanotechnology is slowly
but steadily ushering in the new industrial
revolution.
Nanotechnology may offer new ways of
working for electronics. Nanotechnology science is
developing new circuit materials, new processors,
new means of storing information and new manners
of transferring information. Nanotechnology can
offer greater versatility because of faster data
transfer, more “on the go” processing capabilities
and larger data memories. A new field is
emerging in electronics that will be a giant leap in
computer and electronics science. It is the field of
quantum computing and quantum technology.
Quantum computing is area of scientific knowledge
aimed at developing computer technology based on
the principles of quantum theory. In quantum
computing the “qbit” instead of the traditional bit of
information is used. Traditionally, a bit can assume
two values: 1 and 0. All the computers up-to-date
are based on the “bit” principle. However, the new
“qbit” is able to process anything between 0 and 1.
This implies that new types of calculations and high
processing speeds can be achieved.
Quantum computers have been more of a research
area until now. But recently, the first quantum
computer has been built in the United States,
according to a recent paper published on the
prestigious scientific journal Nature Physics. This
new computer is said to achieve unseen processing
speeds to the tune of a billion times per second,
making this the fastest chip on earth. We
are bound to see many nanotechnological
applications within the electronic industry in the
near future. These will undoubtedly increase the
quality of life of our society. Future of
Nanotechnology No one knows for sure. History
shows that science and technology impact society,
but there is no way to predict what new scietific
discoveries are next how technology will be used.
Electronic Paper
Nokia Morph
Contact Lens
Nanoelectronics increases the capabilities of
electronics devices while reduces their weight and
power consumption. Therefore the Nanoelectronics
is used in wireless radiation sensor since they need
small weight and low power consumption to
increase the life time of sensor. previously most of
the work has been done in developing a radiation
sensor using nanostructures material i.e. CNTs as
well as BNbased compound. The results for neutron
sensing showed that CNTs based sensors failed due
to uncontrolled helicity and small cross-section area
for neutron. BN-based sensor failed due to
polarization and non-uniform electric field. So in
order to develop a suitable radiation sensor for
neutron, the following challenges need to be
addressed:
1) The availability of the suitable material with
excellent electrical and mechanical properties.
2) The size of the sensor which affect the spatial
resolution.
3) High bias voltage.
4) Production of non-uniform electric field.
5) Polarization
phenomena in case the material used are made of a
compound of two different elements with different
electro-negativity. There is a possibility that
BNNTs array could be used in the sensor as a
sensing element because of the following reasons:
1) It has almost similar properties to CNTs.
2) BNNTs array consists of large number of
vertically aligned BNNTs. The tip of each BNNT
has a large number of electrons that produces
uniform electric field. The uniform electric field
thus produced is used to lower the bias voltage and
the smaller size of the BNNTs will result in high
spatial resolution.
3) The polarity in the case of BNNTs is
piezoelectric with a piezoelectric value of 0.25-0.4
C/cm2 , which is very small compared to Young
modulus (1.18 TPa), therefore the polarization will
almost be negligible, resulting in maximum
performance.
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