Cellular Systems and Infrastructure-

Based Wireless Networks

 ABSTRACT
„ Infrastructure-based wireless networks have
base stations (access points).
„ Advantages over Ad-hoc networks :
- efficiently utilize network resources.
- single-hop routes, results in :
- lower delay and loss
- higher data rates
„ Examples : Wireless LANs, paging systems, and
cellular phone systems.
 References

[1] Andrea Goldsmith, "Wireless Communications",

Cambridge University Press, 2005.
[2] David Tse; Pramod Viswanath, "Fundamentals of
Wireless Communication", Cambridge University Press,
2004.
[3] Simon Haykin, "Communication Systems", John Willy &
sons, 2001.
[4] William Stallings, "Data and Computer
Communications", Pearson Education, 2004.
[5] Lucent Technologies; Bell Labs Innovations, "GSM
Introduction WL9001", 1998.
 OUTLINE
„ Cellular System „ Interference Reduction
Fundamentals Techniques

„ Reuse Distance D „ Dynamic Resource Allocation

diamond-shaped Cells Scheduling
Hexagonally-shaped cells DCA
Power Control
„ SINR & User Capacity „ Fundamental Rate limits
Shannon’s Capacity
Area Spectral Efficiency
Case Study
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Channel Reuse
„ Different channel sets Ci are
assigned to different cells.

„ Adjacent cells are assigned

different channel sets to avoid
interference.

„ Cells sufficiently spaced from

each other can use the same
channel set to in crease
system capacity ( co-
channels).
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Handover
„ is the process of
automatically
switching a call in
progress from one
traffic channel to
another to neutralize
the adverse effects of
user movements [5]
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Access Techniques
„ Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA), the time
axis is divided into non-
overlapping time slots,
and each user is
assigned a different
cyclically-repeating
timeslot to transmit during
it.
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Access Techniques
„ Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA),
the frequency axis is
divided into non-
ovelapping channels, and
each user is assigned a
different frequency
channel to transmit over
it. The channels usually
have guard bands to
overcome imperfect filters
effects and adjacent
channel interference
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Access Techniques
„ Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA),
information of different
users are modulated by
orthogonal or non-
orthogonal spreading
codes. The resulting
spread signals
simultaneously occupy
the same time and
bandwidth.
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Access Techniques
„ Space Division Multiple
Access (SDMA), user
can access the channel
at the same time and
the same frequency by
exploiting the spatial
separation of the
individual user.
„ multibeam (directional)
antennas are used to
separate radio signals
by pointing them along
different directions
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Cell Size
„ Shrinking the size
of a cell increases
the number of
users as long as all
aspects of the
system scale so
that SINR remains
the same.
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Cell Shape
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Reuse Distance D
„ the distance between the centers of cells
that use the same channels.

„ is a function of cell shape, cell size, and

the number of intermediate cells between
the two cells sharing the same channel.
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Reuse Distance D
„ For Diamond-shaped
cells;

D = R + 2RNI + R
= 2R (NI + 1)

NI, no, of intermediate

cells any two between
co-channel cells.
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Reuse Distance D
„ For hexagonally-shaped
cells;

„ E. g. cell G is located at
(0, 1), cell S is located at
(1, 1), cell P is located at
(−2, 2), and cell M is
located at (−1,−1).
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Cell Clustering
„ For diamond-shaped cells
a tesselating cell cluster
forms another diamond,
with K cells on each side
(K = 4 in fig.)
„ The number of cells per
cluster is N = K², which is
also called the reuse
factor: since D = 2KR, we
have N = .25(D/R),
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Cell Clustering
„ For hexagonally-shaped
cells:
„ total BW is broken into N
channel sets C1,..., CN,
,N =cluster size
„ Strating from origin,
assign channels as
shown (move i cells and
then move j cells
„ Then start from another
arbitrary cell, and so on
until cells assigned
channels.
Cellular System Fundamentals:
Cell Clustering
SINR & User Capacity
SINR
„ Orthogonal Channelization (TDMA & FDMA):
Intercell Interfernce (Co-channel interference)

„ Non-Orthogonal Channelization (CDMA):

Intercell Interference + intracell Interfernce
SINR & User Capacity
SINR
„ Pr is the received signal
power,
„ PI is the received power
associated with both
intracell and intercell
interference, and
„ N0B is noise power.
SINR & User Capacity
SIR
„ Good cellular system designs are
interference-limited [1]
i. e. PI >> N0B
N0B ≈ zero

SIR = Pr / PI
SINR & User Capacity
example: SIR (Uplink TDMA)
„ the simplified path loss model

„ d=propagation distance;
„ K is a unitless constant depends on antenna
characteristics and average channel attenuation,
„ do is a reference distance for the antenna far-field,
„ and γ is the path loss exponent,
the value of γ depends on the propagation environment:
for free-space model 2 ≤ γ ≤ 4
SINR & User Capacity
example: SIR ( uplink TDMA)
Setting do = 1 m for our calculations yields

γI = pathloss exponent (in-cell propagation)

γo= pathloss exponent intercell interference)
M = no. of interferers
SINR & User Capacity
example: SIR ( uplink TDMA)
For simplicity, If d = R, and all interferes are
located at reuse distance D, then

and if γI = γo = γ this yields

SINR & User Capacity
User Capacity (Cu)
„ The user capacity Cu is defined as the
total number of active users per cell that
the system can support while meeting a
common BER constraint for all users [1].

„ the user capacity Cu = Nc

,N c = No. of channels assigned to any
given cell.
SINR & User Capacity
User Capacity (Cu)
„ For orthogonal multiple access,

„ B=BW
„ Bs= channel BW
„ NT= total No. Of orthogonal Channels
„ N=reuse factor
„ G=Ratio of total BW to individual user BW
 Interference Reduction Techniques

„ Multipath can cause fading due to phase

cancellation between different propagation
paths which reduce signal power against noise.
„ Delay Spread results from differences in
propagation delays among multiple propagation
delay, this delay spread can lead to a
significant intersymbol interference in the
received signal.
„ Co-channel interference.
Interference Reduction Techniques
Antenna Sectorization
„ directional antennas to
divide up a base station's
360 omnidirectional
antenna to N sectors
„ interference to a given
mobile comes primarily
from its sector
„ reducing interference
power by roughly a factor
of N
Interference Reduction Techniques
Smart Antennas
„ consists of an antenna
array combined with
signal processing in both
time and space.
„ form narrow beams to
provide high gain to the
desired user's signal and
can provide spatial nulls
in the direction of
interference
Interference Reduction Techniques
other techniques

„ Interference Averaging.

„ Multiuser Detection.

„ Interference Precancellation.
 Dynamic Resource Allocation

„ Cellular systems are dynamic in the

number of users in any given cell and in
their time-varying channel gains.
„ As voice applications are migrated with
Multimedia data, user no longer have
uniform data rate requirements.
Dynamic Resource Allocation

„ a flexible resource allocation is required to

dynamically assign

channels, data rates, and power levels

relative to the current system conditions and

user needs.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Scheduling
„ dynamically allocate resources to mobile
users according to their required data
rates and delay constraints.
„ exploits multiuser diversity to allocate
resources to the user with the best
channel.
„ unfair to users with inferior channels.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Dynamic Channel Allocation

Falls into two categories,

„ Dynamic assignment of multiple channels
within a cell (intracell DCA).
„ Assignment of channels between cells
(intercell DCA) for orthogonal
channelization.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Dynamic Channel Allocation
Intracell DCA allows dynamic assignment
of multiple channels within a cell to a given
user.
„ In TDMA systems this is done by
assigning a user multiple timeslots,
„ and in CDMA by assigning a user multiple
codes and/or spreading factors.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Dynamic Channel Allocation

„ In intercell DCA, every channel is

available in every cell, i.e. no fixed channel
reuse pattern exists. Each channel can be
used in every cell as long as SIR
requirements of each user are met. Thus,
channels are assigned to users as
needed.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Power Control

„ The goal of power control is to adjust the

transmit powers of all users such that the
SINR of each user meets a given
threshold required for acceptable
performance.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Power Control
„ power control on the
uplink results in more
reduction of intercell
interference since the
transmission can come
from cell boundaries
which cause intercell
interference to neighbors
cells.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Power Control
In an uplink with K
interfering users we
denote the SIR for the
kth user as
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Power Control
Assume SIR requirement of the Kth user is

By substituting in the previous equation and representing it in matrix

form we get

Where,

is the transmitted powers vector,

Dynamic Resource Allocation
Power Control

u is the column vector of noise powers

scaled by the SIR constraints and channel
gain, and F is an irreducible matrix with
non-negative elements given by
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Power Control

The SIR requirements of all users are

satisfied with

which meets the SIR requirements with the

minimum transmitted power of the users.
Dynamic Resource Allocation
Power Control
Iterative Algorithm:

„ requires only SIR

information at each
transmitter.
Fundamental Rate Limits
Shannon's Capacity of Cellular Systems
C = B LOG2 ( 1 + SNR ) bps

„ a bound on the rate of data transmission and a

measure for the efficiency of the
communication system
η=R/C
„ trade-off between channel bandwidth and
received SNR.
„ a framework for comparing noise performance
between the different modulation schemes.
Fundamental Rate Limits
Shannon's Capacity of Cellular Systems

„ Under full base stations cooperation

assumption :base stations can be viewed
as a single base station with multiple
geographically-dispersed antennas and
treated. The system then can be treated
as MIMO ( in uplink an in down link)
Fundamental Rate Limits
Shannon's Capacity of Cellular Systems

„ and by characterizing the propagation

between mobiles and the multiple-antenna
base station (uplink) using AWGN model
with unity channel gain within a cell and a
channel gain of α, 0 ≤ α ≤ 1, between cells
Fundamental Rate Limits
Shannon's Capacity of Cellular Systems

„ Then, The per-user capacity which defined as the

maximum possible rate that all user can maintain
simultaneously is [1]

„ where B is the total system bandwidth, NoB is the noise

PSD, K is the number of mobiles per cell, and P is the
average transmit power of each mobile.
Fundamental Rate Limits
Shannon's Capacity of Cellular Systems

„ Under no base station cooperation Assumption,

„ So, receivers in each cell treat signal from other
cell as interference
„ reflects the practical design of cellular systems
„ Unfortunately, Shannon’s theory in channels
with interference is mostly unsolved [1].
Fundamental Rate Limits
Area Spectral Efficiency (ASE)
„ ASE is a capacity measure that allows the the reuse
distance, to be optimized relative to fundamental
capacity limits.

„ Since the reuse distance D, is the distance between any

two cells use the same channel, then the area cover by
each channel is approximately the area of a circle with
radius 0.5D, i. e.

A = π (.5D)² .
Fundamental Rate Limits
Area Spectral Efficiency (ASE)
„ The system throughput ( Sum-Rate) is
given by
Fundamental Rate Limits
Area Spectral Efficiency (ASE)
„ The ASE of a cell is defined as the
throughput/Hz/unit area that is supported
by a cell’s resources
Case Study: AWGN TDMA System
Uplink
„ K users
„ Cell Radius R
„ All user assigned equal time
slots
Tk = 1/ K
„ All user transmit the same
power P
„ 6 interferers (blue dots) to B.S.
of the center cell
Case Study: AWGN TDMA System
Uplink
„ Using Simplified Path Loss Model

Setting do = 1 m for our calculations yields

Case Study: AWGN TDMA System
Uplink
„ The received signal power of the kth user
(red dot) by his base station is

„ Interfernce caused by 6 interferers is

where 2 ≤ γ ≤ 4.
Case Study: AWGN TDMA System
Uplink
„ The maximum rate for the kth user in the cell Rk
is

and the ASC1 is

where Ck = Rk.
Plots [1] of Ae versus D for γ=4 and γ=2
with the cell radius normalized to R=1
Case Study: AWGN TDMA System
Uplink
„ If all interferers are at a distance D − R/2
from the base station of the center cell,
then the ASE2 is
Plots of ASE2 along with ASE1 for γ = 4
 CONCLUSION
„ Well designed cellular systems are interference-
limited.
„ The dynamic nature of cellular system in load
and channel conditions requires a dynamic
resource allocation to efficiently utilize these
resources.
„ Shannon’s Capacity of channels with
interference (Cellular Systems) is a long-
standing open problem.
„ The optimization of reuse distance D relative
capacity limits is based on ASE.
 References

[1] Andrea Goldsmith, "Wireless Communications",

Cambridge University Press, 2005.
[2] David Tse; Pramod Viswanath, "Fundamentals of
Wireless Communication", Cambridge University Press,
2004.
[3] Simon Haykin, "Communication Systems", John Willy &
sons, 2001.
[4] William Stallings, "Data and Computer
Communications", Pearson Education, 2004.
[5] Lucent Technologies; Bell Labs Innovations, "GSM
Introduction WL9001", 1998.