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    7 Hutchinson PDF

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    stefan morar

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 37
    Cultural Wars A saiking fentue of the contemporary period has been the explosion of deepened eral confets within many exalted nationl states. Tn the Fench presidential election of 2001 the Gauls Jueques Chirac had 10 Jeanie Le Pen, fn th appedl to his soit stuns the nef demog Greece Archbishop Chrstodouls Tuning campaign ofthe Socialist PASOK poverament to from i Ort titien® emit cad) Chia, aM act the nation afkation from enophobic peasant and autrchic fox heritage (by the removal of ee 1 the ation, domunsted by 3 7 “ison, hasbeen contested by a Southern decentralised iberal-democratc ns and thee dainctvelnguages ideal conte on the cout tain ofthe diaspora which sone the Chin alata TTosome itary identities chara fecesary cement of mature industl societies. foes omy (eda, 1995), sts this eruption of difference marks the end ofthe istic of the mse pesod that provided the ows ust to 8 neve portation word of ile attachments Postmederiss, however, have fed nor are they the tant etages we have cbse the senifcance of competion over th rises of development Such dsp al probleme of eelatvely new nat re no singular Bt nyered, and, jst pasts a too have prions f the nation, often ofa quasethe nate, that develop By clr wars’ To nt acon lsh dilly rapt witha nations These wll edu the nent chapter Rather wish to focus on eifference that seem to be temic that organise symbole and politcal project rund woo thiee ral conception a the nations ps taking on 2 quas-etnic frm, snd hat acute averse and changing set ‘ually take the form of eu athe han of church orpnitons thst none a igh derce a of se and gricances The ifr ntl and unfrty In reality india adopt «range of heterogeneous postions an, a we shale shift ewcen them, Nonetheless, the represen Important reference pint that have socal consequences With few excep tions (Hesking and Scho, 1997, Smith, 1984, Young, 1953), the saul cance of pensting differences has Been neglected because ofthe wiespea ssumton that ations are an ersodieat of longterm trend to altar homogenistion inthe modern world Such clr wars howe, impo tn determining how scetes modernise ‘Aer giving examples af such conic, Fall consider the fl How do we explain the gigi of such conflicts and Ae such confi postive in their fects by insttatonaising» sens ‘oF cultural lara, or negative polarising societies and instigating cel fe? 3. What prevents such conflicts from resting in nation 44 What explains che sure of suc eeperties in spite ofthe mene social changes ofthe modem period Although these conflicts are the res of Usep historical cleavages, they in tuen have had directive effets on the ways tht societies modernise, For in Modern Nati Lt me begin by giving snap shot of five French, Russian, Greek, English and Insh nationalisms Ish passing to several other ees: the stupa between Catholic snd Hare ‘radon in the Czech lands; between supporters of Nya and Rik language calor in Norway, and between Western liberal andl Eastern organi’ nationalist in German In France, the major divide was triggered by the Revolution of 1789 ais the anc ge of monarchy, crc and aristocracy The eapionee of the Reyolution produced three quite dlstinc versions of the French Jon. Although republican myth endowed France with + European and Indeed, universal mision ta free humanity from monrciea and socal eppeesson, alo sriclated French history atthe sragele between 0 enemy peoples ~ between» Friish nobility and 4 Gall-Reman third ‘etate who had preserved much of the heritage (incuing the republican tnadions) oF ancient Rone (Gey, 2002 20-2) Daring the revolutionary period Gallic ymbal (th cock) were ised to prominence slong Roma neo-asical models (Pastoueae, 1998: 417) Republicanism entaled the defence ofthe one and indie ation aginst provincial separatism, clerical supension [particulary in edition) an focll inequality, The counterrevoltionary myth presented France. a8 having an sncient and provident mission through I allince of Ceo, altar and nobility to defend the cause of Christan cision in Europe A third and lester tation wie of Bonaparte Esp invoking Napoleon Bonaparte a the national sso who, transcending the divisions of repub Ticonism and monarchism, established French leadership ofthe Bsropenn nations in the manner of¢medern Charlemagne, These competing projet dominated the modern history of France binning vee of socal con sutueacies and producing recurring politcal intabltes They produced the Fast Republic (1792-1808), Napoleon's Empire (1804-14), the Bourbon restoration (1815-30), consutiona monarchy (1830-48), the Second Republic (1848-51), the Second Empire (1852-70), the Thid Republic (1871-1940), Vichy (1941-45), dhe Fourth Republic (1045-5 and de Goulle’s ith Republic (1958) The Napoleonic invasion of Rusia was the catalyst of « modem Russian rationalise emerging within and ovtide the Imperial regime, which divided into ewo tendencies One ese "Westerer, which demanded that Russa be raised fom Antic backwardness by developing according to norms of Western Europe An ealy manifestation wa the Decembrst, military officers who, influenced by contemporary European ideas rebelled in 1825 to demand aconstatioal government. The other wae Russians for Slavophl, which sn the late 1830s rejected Western siti in favour of revving srl social order bed on Orthodox religious vals and har tmonious co-operation between Tet, sistocracy and. peasantry. The Slavophile Westemer debates occured fist within the pnts but widened ‘withthe extension of eduston (Neumann, 996: ch, 2) Dung the nine teenth century the Tari autocrat tate claiming to stand for the defence ofthe Christian acon nigne of Esrope and yet deeply Feel ofthe re oltionary forces developing, sought to co-opt these movements at ties Nations at Zones of Confit alying with Slvophiles and Pa-Slviete to defend the traditional soca trder an promote a Rusiiation ofthe Empire anda other tues (under he emancipation ofthe Alexander I) promoting led iberal reforms ysl By the 1805, gx Rusia tndensent pid industria, the een Was ao cononted by two ser) in rder to modernise the arctes of revolutionary socialist movements ~ one ura populit (snd Rca), the other urban and infenced by European Marta and faced tenor Rasnn nationals Defeat the hand of apan tg tered the 1905 revolution, which the eime suvived, bu catastrophic inthe Fst World War reed inthe Basted seizure of power in 191 In the Soviet regime Westerner Sl “Toy, who argued that communism could be rastaned in he USSR only by achieving evolution in Europe, and Stalin who advocated roils i one county Stain tuned Althn the egime invoked taiional Orchodox Rssan Wels times of cristo robilse the defence of the USSR agaist Hitler and to sustain the sate afer Khrushchev’ reputation ofthe Stalinist record eroded the legis sm [piles 1989}. Under Gasbachey although there wasa renewed swing to Westen ier] moder WestermerSlavopie le divisions opened up between do they constrict altemtives by polarising and possibly onachronsing Abate, thereby preventing the full exploration of dierent posses ‘Gwen that they expres at tines dametrialy opposed views ofthe ation, ul may use a reference pots pede of el or ethole warfare, what prevent societies disintegrating nto cv conic No etn ontined plorlity of traditions But what of those cates where the co into national debates but configures ante competion, fr sstane Intrance and Rusia? Even in thee enteme casts, ail gest we ea find fidence of patterns of alternation betwen val movements hit mobi (iferent socal energie by which to overcome cess, thereby stensthen i navigates the many challenes (pail, e logic) of he modera world Ts Face republican ha ben th compete withright-wing religions nationalist and Bonaparte ternative sch of which puts forward 9 vision of France as «society and defines = ‘Repulicantn defines France as nation one and invite a the goa anor ofthe democratic Hibertis of ts tiene and, Bees tionary heritage the bearer ofa world mision to spread enlightenment and 3 meeriy, destined rate European ciation, Khas produced Parsan br covers for politi eatin (Cade, 194. 169}, Anti-epublican opp nts whose cre institution has bren the Catolie Church, have aft tod a songly patarchal, elgous and rural viion of a Fance of ct n a golden medval age that stands against the eht to Fan it great legacy aa bulder and defender of European Chestendom fer ofthe Crusades, eestor of canonical the prestige of ts language anda the gest military poser of the on tien, Catholic France has retained power suppot in the West and Mid Jnson, 1983: 53-4) ‘The thi, Bonparts, aon » like Napoleon wh, nalliace with the Church, restored Wl France's military sleves and, drawing on the ezacy of chart social prder ‘Charlmagne established France athe np fal ulerof Europe, though on 3 (Fate, 2002), sence of atest thre that profes to expec the fiber of mati The perstencs of these traditions indicates Frances cach of which a vrious eres has become hegemonic: Although the Fist Republic disved in chaos, Napoleon used its misonary elight fenment ideology to usly his imperial expansion and at home he made ot with the Church and ertalshed hs Ciel Code But a usurpes, raise by his gems in arms, he was undone by malay defeat. The return of the Bourbon monarchy tht fallowed preserved the eustence of France 1. get power within «ested European balance of power stem. But the teationl Ancien Regime could ot be restored, ad ater the ‘ons of 1930 and 1848» Second Republic was declared. Socal breakdown ited Napoleon I's seizure of power in TBS, ua had is uocl's tnd he promised to estore order and revitalise Frinces mision to Europe ropprened nations. Hench intervention ws instrament nthe nationl wniistion af Ray. However, ust a5 mi tary defeat as destroyed Napoleon I, 20 hurl Bismarck shatered the peste of his nephew in 1870, bringing back a 7 atthe hands of hid) Republic tht restored a meclas democrat Determined to regenerate France, eepublicane sought to he people (esnsfrm‘pevsants int Fenchinen) by mas patriotic secondary ‘ucation, itary conscription and the econontc unification of the tere tory (Weber 1976) The extension of secular stat ection edo prolonged the Republic mvc depression. On the lei i list and syndicalst movements Counter once with the Church a the ate nnetecnth century a vs tested by Financ scandals and was challenged by las-bas ire under the ancien nine with Feeach nationl weaknes im the face of rth many sjnpathisers in the ars, contrast French ising Germany Splits occurred within the ight between monarchist and Protea, who favoured + racial, hierarchical, Cothoic nation and ttcmpted to coop socilit support of the lower middle and working Clases by tapping tradionsl anthemic and anteapitalist predic [Giles 1994 ch 6,7) Although victory in the Fist World War windiest the repli, which vas able to rly both the eight and the let, during the postwar period ‘lepression and mass unemployment eroded publican merale inthe face bf mobilation ofthe exteme let andthe right The hunting collapse France in 40 led to ite effective partion, snd és the “autonomous support tn repudiating secular republicanism nd promising » havoc) regeneration based on Catholic prety, respect for soil Menschy ond a superior Ife ofthe land. The Aled liberation of Fane, howeneyseaeg once ain a the marginlsation ofthe ight. the wiumphantreurnok he harsmati de Gaulle un the extablshiment of « Four Repub, Botha ferime as discredited by a return to the internal divtions of cue publi, humaine finaly the < Gaulle returned to power, marying honparet with republican en ns i establishing « ith Republic based on presidental demoey There is a compurable pattem of alteration ia Rusia dering. he nineteenth and wentith centuries as dapotic Impl state sought se co-opt a ifeent times Shvophile and Westerner projects tn defini Rassan development and its externa lations Neumann (2986; ch. 1) argues that tice main potions developed no rmeteenth contr. The st war the stat’ lestiminm that viewed exe aden is dynastic app sie Slvorile nation aks which auc that there was a ditintve Resi chureter deo from Orthodox Chastang and its rural comma insta fist of Rusian and then European development Ths of Eu ur ies, would look to counts ike Baitain at sucensl eonervocn models tht promote a socal progres fe by Crown ad the lon lead (pes, 1977-268, Risonovsty, 1952. 101-5) Ke would vee rom a mastic ret pow so (Lieven, 2000: 219 The third wis Western i far a argued that, fra backward and Asai sce to proses, Rossa Reacting aginst the Rusan enlighten sponsored by Catherine the the ne elghtenth century, ‘jeting French influences amon the lite and defining Ress by the ele a the poop w of Napaonk Free, preset the ko of + oly Ala Europe Chistian monarchs fr of European wider , so popular 2 otionl fay and the created porn ofthe bie Bu thi of eater dally the —— can ah fl democrcy po Europe ing the sought to defining this conevative nationalism in the 1820s and 18305. On the othe sid Deceit ofcers influenced by ther encounter in France with Enlight Pent ides, rebelled unsuccesflly ia 1825 after the state spp ‘hut about democracy and consttatioal government. “The sxc’ action, shaped bythe revolutionary waves in Europe i the ‘ea inctecath entry, wat t0 late Resi ae try 4 tearm i against frepeun ideas crboded inthe principles of Count Uvarov, the Miniter Er Buation, of sutocrary,arthodony and nationality. During the 183053 ‘Russian clea natioals anpied by German dels, presented Rs eMpultually ahead of Europe and stacked representative government 8 utzscratic and mercantile, tveatening the landed onder, Although the Sones argued forthe moral supenionty of Rasa and demanded ths the Shoot clases sbendan European fashions and rete to the people they abo weed the gap between nr and he land (and people) introduced by Peter the Greats state hureacrtsotion and continved by later administrations For Westerman Frer was Reo, and westematon wast be encouraged, ‘pecily the development of middle ess. During the 1830s and 1840s ‘Ge caged berween the Slavopales and Westerners oth of which were ‘Soprese by the sate aya dest to ts athonty (Neumann, 1996: ch. 3) Te capone tothe 1848 revolutions the regime intervened to save the Habsburgs and moved to coopt Slavophles' cult of Holy Russia, while Wenemers were shiken by the falure of liberal mc umpe, However the regime’ attachment to Slavophiles ended withthe CCimesn War which exposed Risa maltary infront to Europes powers Under Tsar Alexander I here wat a switch to Westerner pois from 1861 to vance the moderisiton of Rsson society, nchding the aba thn of terfdom, opening of educational opportunites tothe male clases Tinted politcal eedoms and indusraisauon. But no speci politcal, tpoce wr allowed toa cl sce, and Westemers went ito opposition, fiat dividing ino libel and soils wings, whale « Russian Populism femed that rejected industastion in favour ofa ral socialist society bas on the mir The assnation of Tear Alexander Tin 1981 was cased fut by Popul in despair a state-sponsored industrilation.Slavophles, Intl demoralized by the Crimean defeat, swung from spiritual into Specton during the 1880s into at aggressive PuSlvist foreign policy bet ‘Sis was not taken up by Alexander Il, who continued earlier oficial rationality and Resfstion policies together with pola! repression {Neumsnn, 1996; ch. 5; Pipes 1979: 268-78). Defeat in war with Japan tigered a ibeal revolution in 1905, which the Tear netlised, and the period to 1914 was marked by battles onthe let between a Mensheik Maris lakingto Wester models and patterns nd» Bolshevik Marais which serted Russs copay as catalyst The collage of the state during the Fist Warld War sword revolt brought the liter to power, and after Lenin's death, the Balshevis them sclvs divided between Staliysadsococy of Soils in One Country and Teoshy’s fled advocacy of World Revolution, A Eurasian alten developed sn the 1920s, arguing that Russia wis neither Entopean n olshenk einen the Orthodox Church were anathemstis ational Bolshevism sursived these later themes to mabilse support for the epime As disillusion with the eee tatesfed inthe postr peo uner Brezhnes,s0'4 popular neo-Slavophie 1 developed paned by dsident movements of Herat Westerns (Poisons, 1988) Inde Gorbachey, Boris Yetsn was ale to tap both current pen of government seas marked by a fllacale revival of the debe nlite defending Onthodony and. iberl In summary, the examples indicate tht these val tition offered repertoire for states and section of a developing cl society that aie Tie ing external ad lenges. Faure in warfare rele n sitching betwen aon af saving the ation ented social ses ere reeraited By diferent national factions and thelr ener ‘mobilised forthe nations cause nd dates aout opposing Wins har ned an understanding of the characters the nation and the polices ‘ment by presenting options ax anthers? The cae for polarisation tthe implied view ofthe national par hat oliter bscured the sythetc characte of ntona clr foked. The sso imparted a biteress and hardness t9 ideological dfernces by presenting them in terms ofa fundamental qua bilogieal divide dat made itil for opponents to adopt common ground fn shore, uch conf produced not cultural plasm but rather, pathologic! horlites that permanently weakened the national commniy ‘Certsny, the tone of debates in Rusia was marked by extremiso. The Slavgphile revival of the late 1850s was tnggcred bythe famous ter oF Peter Chaadaev who, deeply affected by Catholic thought, argued tht alone ofthe major nations Russia had contributed nothing to cation because it had Been cutoff fom European Christendom by the piled source of Byzantium, In response, Sliophiles denounced Resa la

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