Chapter 33 Geosynthetics 33.1 A Man Made Product In Chapters 29 to 32, we have already learnt that when a Consulting Geotechnical Engineer encounters unsatisfactory soil conditions at a site, he/she has the option of increasing the soil density, mixing the soil with additives, reinforcing the soil or replacing the soil. Some of these processes use materials that belong to a group of materials known as geosynthetics, They are the focus of this Chapter. Geosynthetics are man made products. They are flexible and planar (sheet-like). They are manu- factured from synthetic polymeric materials and sometimes from natural materials. Geosynthetics are usually classified under five groups: geotextiles, geomembranes, geogrids, geonets and geocomposites. They find use in Geotechnical Engineering as separators, filters, drains, reinforcement, hydraulic barriers, protectors and erosion control systems. 33.2 Why Geosynthetics? To understand why geosynthetics have found wide usage i we consider a few examples of their application: (i) A water storage pond 100 m x 200 m has to be constructed at a site by raising an embankment 8 m high all around the area as depicted in Fig. 33.1. The subsoil at the site is sand and an impervious barrier at the base of the pond is required to prevent loss of the stored water by seepage. Traditionally a compacted clay blanket, 0.5 m thick as shown in Fig. 33.1(a), or a concrete lining would be considered. Suppose clay is not available nearby. Suppose, again, that a concrete lining is not considered a good solution since the base is likely to settle unevenly leading to cracks in the lining and consequent seepage. Use of Geosynthetics offers a viable solution. We could use thick impervious sheets of polyethene, known as geomembranes, thermally welded at the joints. These sheets would work as a seepage barrier and their integrity would not be affected by settlement of the subsoil because of their inherent flexibility—see Fig. 33.1(b). (ii) Trench drain constructed at the toe of an earth dam to carry away seepage and run off water, requires a transition filter placed between the surrounding soil and the gravel used in the trench Geotechnical Engineering in recent years,| A. 586 Ground Engineering Geomembnane Clay blanket Z () Lined with clay (6) Lined with geomembrane Fig. 33.1 Using geomembrane for a water storage pond drain as shown in Fig. 33.2(a). Local soils can be used as transition filters but often re screening and mixing so as to meet stringent requirements relating to grain size distribution of the filter material. Screening and mixing are expensive operations. Some times one can te | permeable geosynthetics made of porous fabrics and known as geotextiles when they meet te | filter criteria and cost less than the cost of modifying the available soil, see—Fig. 33.2/b). ‘Transition filter on Ga Geotextile Ce silt Silt (b) With geotentile filter Fig. 33.2 Using geotestile as filter for a trench drain (@) With sand filter (ii) Geosynthetics find wide usage as reinforcement in soil as discussed in Chapter 32. Ia mesh-like or grid-like stiff geosynthetics are used which interlock with the surroundin: shown in Fig, 33.3(b). They are used for reinforcing steep slopes as well as in ve walls. Steel strips Facia Facia elements elements of wall of wall (a) With stee! strips (6) With googtids Fig. 33.3 Using geogrids as reinforcement ‘There are many varieties of geosynthetics and they find variety of uses. ‘They also after asitional advantages: (i) being man-made, in factory controlled conditions, they have high uniformity’ ant quality Gi) they are light in weight and available in rolls, typically 3 t0 6 m wide andl sovoral tons of wettes Jong and can be transported with low effort, and (ii) they Jend themselves to easy and rapid installation, All these factors work in favour of using geosynthetics n many geotechnical applications.Geosynthetics 587 A | 33.3 Types of Geosynthetics 4 Several hundred varieties of geosynthetic products are available in the market and many new types are developed each year. In addition to the five types identified in Section 33.1, there are specialty products, such as geomattresses, geocells, geopipes and many more that have been developed for specific applications. Each of the five types are considered hereafter. i) Geotextiles are porous geosynthetics that resemble a thick strong cloth or blanket with its strands and fibers visible. They are planar, permeable, polymeric materials that are usually made from polypropylene and sometimes from polyester, polyethylene or from natural fibers such as jute. They can be woven, non-woven or knitted. Woven geotextiles are produced by weaving or interlacing, usually at right angles, of two or more sets of fibers or yarns as depicted in Fig. 33.4(b). Non-woven geotextiles shown in Fig. 33.4(a) are produced by mechanical bonding or needle punching of randomly oriented fibers, i.e., in a manner similar to that used in making blankets. In some cases non-woven fibers may be bonded thermally or chemically. Geotextiles can be 0.25 to 7.5 mm thick and have a mass per unit area of 150 to 2000 g/m? (grams per square meter that is often referred to as gsm), Plan Section ait — a (@) Non-woven (b) Woven (c) Geomembrane (4) Geogrid (©) Geonet geotextile geotextile bo (7-73 ) c ) (weeny (xxxxx) Fig. 33.4 Types cf Geosynthetics and symbols to denote them within brackets (i) Geomembranes are impervious geosynthetics that resemble thick, flexible plastic sheets and are usually smooth surfaced. They are relatively impermeable polymeric sheets as shown in Fig. 33.4(c). They are manufactured using high density polyethylene (HDPE), very flexible polyethylene (VFPE) and sometimes polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and other materials. They are 0.25 to 3mm thick and have a mass per unit area in the range of 250 to 3000gsm. (ii) Geogrids are mesh-like or grid-like geosymthetics with square or rectangular apertures that resemble plastic meshes often seen as garden fences. They are planar polymeric material consisting of regular open network of connected tensile elements (ribs) with square or rectangular openings that are larger than the thickness of the ribs as shown in Fig, 33.4(d). The linkage between the tensile elements can be by extrusion, bonding or interlacing. They are usually made from HDPE or polypropylene and sometimes from polyester. The percentage open area of geogrids lies between 40 to 95 percent with the width of the openings being typically 10 to 100 mm. The rib thickness ranges from 5 to 15 mm and the mass per unit area lies between 200 to 1500 gsm.A 588 Ground Engineering (iv) Geonets are similar to geogrids but have thinner members and angular apertures, not square or rectangular, but resembling parallelograms. They are planar polymeric materials consisting of parallel sets of ribs overlying and integrally’connected to similar sets of ribs at various angles thus having a dense network of openings as shown in Fig. 33.4(e). The width of the openings ranges from 5 to 15 mm, the rib thickness from 3 to 10 mm and the mass per unit area is similar to that for geogrids. ‘ (¥) Geocomposites are multi-layered geosynthetics attached or bonded to each other comprising of combinations of geotextiles, geomembranes, geogrids and geonets by themselves or along with other materials, They are integrally connected units of geotextiles and geonets as shown in Fig. 33.5(a), or geotextiles and geomembranes, or geotextiles, geomembranes and geogrids and many other combinations. In some cases geosynthetics are combined with other materials, for example clay or Bentonite is bonded toa geotextile to yield a geocomposite known as geosynthetic clay liner—see Fig 33.5(c). Since the individual elements of geocomposites are properly bonded! stitched/fused to each other, they function as single integral units and not as individual geosynthetics placed one over the other in the field, in which case slippage can occur between individual components. G Core (corrugated jeonet Geotestle _ POVMEFIESHECD) Ge ovextite Geotextile Geotextile Geotextile Bentonite (a) ) © Fig. 33.5 Typical geocomposites The symbols used to denote different types of geosynthetics in diagrams are indicated below the captions within brackets in Fig. 33.4. 33.4 Functions of Geosynthetics Geosynthetics are strong, durable and flexible materials, The} even if the soil settles and in this respect are clearly superi group, Geosynthetics are very versatile and can perform man can simultaneously perform two or more functions. Each o in tum. 'Y do not crack or separate from the soil ‘or to concrete or metallic material. As @ ¥ functions and some individual materials f the functions they perform is considered @ Separation: Porous geosynthetics when sandwiched betwe: panicle sizes perform the function of keeping them separate an example, when road pavements are constructed, a base course meee we es. Fg placed directly on the subgrade soil If the subgrade is soft clay, the gue it et Sravel sed the subgrade soil under traffic loads resulting in a mixed soi. The perfor eens eee ine deteriorates with time due to the mixing. This canbe prevented bh qc oF te base couse interface between the subgrade and the base course as shown in Fig fa tan a geosynthetic at a4 results in improved pavement perfomance. The performance of anuj ¢ fo Tt prevents mixing a by placing Separator ween the bills andthe subgrade solace pe on mg €n two soil types with vastly differen! id prevent the mixing of particles. FotInflated tyre q i Hi Base couse REC oye STS 7 (stones)L8, 7S grade soil (a) Beneath road Geosynthetics 589 A Rail track Tie Senator eRe zosta } soe Wy ZZ Sal grade soit (b) Beneath rl tack Fig. 33.6 Geosynthetics as separators (ii) Filtration: ‘Porous geosynthetics, when located in between two soil layers, one fine grained and the other coarse grained, through which water is flowing, perform the function of a transition filter. They allow water to pass through them without passage of fine particles of soil along with the water. Geosynthetics can be used in place of transition filters of soil, if suitable soil is not available near the construction site—see Fig 33.7, Filter (eeotentley Sand drain Backfill c Weep hole geotextile Drain pipe (b) Edge drain below road (© Erosion control shoulder Fig. 33.7. Geosynthetics as transition filters (iii) Drainage: Porous geosynthetics with high in-plane permeability perform the function of drains here these are placed within a soil mass to intercept seeping water and carry it rapidly along the in- plane direction without migration of fines, For example, when seepage water has to be intercepted behind a retaining wall and carried to,a weep hole, a geosynthetic can be used to perform the function —see Fig. 33.8. Water Filter (geotextile) Drain (geonet) Filter drain (geotextle) Filter (geotentile) &. Drain (geonet) (b) Downstream of core (© Beneath surcharge inadam ‘on soft soil Fig. 33.8 Geosynthetics as drains Backfill | Weep Surcharge Sol soit Low flow Hi () Behind retaining wall, RREANH Oe PO ~ we ron nine Pra He RW HHAPiaf A. 590 Ground Engineering (iv) Reinforcement: Geosynthetics with high tensile strength perform the function of teinforcement in a soil mass when these are placed in single or multiple layers to improve the engineering behaviour of the soil mass as shown in Fig. 33.9. Soil by itself behaves well under compression but is poor in tension and the performance of the soil is enhanced by the tension carrying capacity of geosynthetics, Geosynthetic reinforcement improves bearing capacity of soft soils, enhances stability of steep slopes and reduces earth pressure behind retaining structures. Reinforcement Reinforcement rn (geogrid) (geotextile) (ecocells! 7. ‘geomattress) Facia - Soft clay (a) Retaining wall (b) Steep slope (©) Embankment on soft soil Fig. 33.9 Geosynthetics as reinforcement (¥) Hydraulic barriers: Geosynthetics that are impermeable in the cross-plane and in-plane directions perform the function of hydraulic barriers when placed in a soil mass by preventing seepage of water through the soil mass. For example, reduction or elimination of seepage of water through a ‘water retaining embankment is achieved by placing an impervious geosynthetic on the upstream slope of the embankment as shown in Fig. 33.10(a). Similarly seepage of water from canals can be controlled by placing a geomembrane at the base and along the sides of the canal as depicted in Fig, 33.10(b). Seepege barrier Cover eepage ibrane + soil eeaieeey (geomembrane + soil) Liner (geomembrane) Waste Vertical cut-off (Geomembrane) (a) On upstream face of (b) On base and sides (c) Around and on top of embankment of canal waste dump Fig. 33.10 Geosynthetics as hydraulic barriers (vi) Surface erosion control: Geosynthetics can be used for temporary or perrianent erosion control measures along side slopes. Temporary erosion control geosynthetics comprise of natural biodegradable fibers such as jute. They are spread on the slope in the form of grids or mats and they prevent erosion until vegetative growth occurs; thereafter they degrade—see Fig 33.11(a). Permanent erosion control geosynthetics are porous synthetic polymeric products that furnish erosion control, aid vegetative growth and become entangled with the vegetation to provide reinforcement to the root system. They can also be geomattresses which cover a slope permanently as depicted in Fig 33.11(b). (vii) Encapsulation/Containment: Geosynthetics are used to encapsulate soil or sediments to a svecific geometry and prevent the loss of material as shown in Fig. 33.12,Geosynthetics 591 Turfing mat Geomattress ( (@) Temporary (b) Permanent Fig. 33.11 Geosynthetics used to control erosion 7 Geomembrane as Soil Fig. 33.12 Geosynthetics used for encapsulation _ Wild) Protection: . Geosynthetics are sometimes used to prevent an underlying layer from damage __ that may occur due tothe presence of angular material suchas gravel and stones above the layer. Such seosynthetics operate as localized stress reduction layers us depicted in Fig. 33.13. ane Protector (Thick non- ‘woven geotextile) QAGS]) ELEN Soil Separator (woven geotextile) Fig. 33.13 Geosynthetics used as protectors In this Chapter we will focus our attention on the first five functions listed above, 33.5 Properties of Geosynthetics | The performance of soil under a given set of conditions is determined by fi of soil—both physical and engineering—and then by analysis forthe impos also have to determine the properties of geosynthetics before we can asses 8 set of functions. However, for geosynthetics the number of relevant properties that have to be {termined are much larger. These properties can broadly be grouped under six types as listed in ble 33.5 the table also lists the parameters that have to be evaluated for each of the vx Physical and chemical properties help us understand the nature and type-of geosynthet Mechanical properties quantify the strength and deformation behaviour of the yeosynthet sed to assess whether the geosymthetic will perform satisfactorily under the imposed lond wit Yielding, tearing, puncturing and without slipping at the geosyntheti Hydraulic properties help in identifying the quamtty of water that ca in the cross-plane and in-plane directions. rst evaluating the properties ed conditions. Similarly, we s their suitability to perform id are thout soil interface, an flow through the geosynthetic =] (the navy reat ition tion ion heen teater BREAMNH 2> VO ~A. 592° Ground Engineering Table 33,1. Parameters that Indicate the Properties of Geosynthetics aaa Parameters 9 Chemical — filler material, carbon black percentage, plasticizer and additive desis manufacturing process for fiber and geosynthetic. Mechanical Tensile strength, compressibility, elongation, tear/impacU/puncture resistance, burst strength seam strength, fatigue resistance, interface ftiction with soil, anchorage in si Hydraulic Permittivity (cross-plane permeability), transmissivity (in-plane permeability), clogging : potential, Endurance Installation damage potential—tear/impacUpuncture resistance, abrasion resistance, creep, Degradation Resistance to ultraviolet radiation, temperature, oxidation, aging, chemical and biological reactions, Endurance properties elate to construction survivability and the creep behaviour of geosynthetics. The latter is important to study to avoid lon; Seosynthetic or due to objects falling on it. These stresses often call for greater strength than that required for performance of its primary function, Degradation properties focus on change in properties with time, For example, Violet rays in sunlight or oxidation with time may cause loss of strength or the become more brittle with time and this would affect its performance. We will not look at the range of values that are exhibited by geosynthetics for all the parameters listed in Table 33.1. The range of values of a f J few selected parameters are Presented in Table 33.2. It is suicient for you to recognize hata very lege numberof penne have to be evaluated for each | Beosynthetic material. The laboratory test methods for ah Parameters are standardized and the | manufacturer provides certified values ofthe properties fy each product, | exposure to ultra geosynthetic may Table 33.2 Ran; 1g¢ of Values for some Properties of Geosynthetics We Thess ag gg Ot Ultimate or ‘Apparent ee eee ae -enEepere (gsm) strength (kNim) (%) (mm) Non-woven Geotextile 025-75 100-2099 5—100 og 06 Woven Geotextile 025-30 100 - 1509 20-4 20 - 100 0.02 - os Geomembranes 025-30 250 - 3009 10-50 10-50 0.05 - 2. Geogrids 50-150 200 - 1509 oon 50 ~ 200 + a Geonets 30-100 100 ~ 1009 5-25 a oo = - 5- In Table 33.2 the range ofthe ultimate tensile a ——— ullimate values, Our interest is usually notin the ulimar alae bu Sanda aborstory tes aie value is converted to allowable value by use oy Fannin the allowable value, The uma? Reduc tensile strength (7,1) is converted to allowable tensile pet (RA), For example, the uit ‘al aS follows:DS BS Geosynthetics 593 A Ty = Tot ——o (33.1) RF (ID) x RF(CR)x RF(CD)x RF(BD) where, 1D = Installation damage (RF (ID) ~ 1 - 2.5) CR = Creep (RF (CR) ~ 15 = 4) CD = Chemical degradation (RF (CD) ~ 1.0 ~ 2.0) BD =Biological degradation (RF (BD) ~ 1.0 - 1.3) 1, Tay may thus be as low as a A Safety Factor is further applied to 7,,,in the design-by-function approach as we shall see later. You may also have noted that in Table 33,2 thatthe tensile strength of geosynthetics has been given in units of kN/m rather than in units of kN/m? as is done for strength of other materials suet as soil, Concrete and steel. Why is this so? The reason is not hard to surmise. Geosynthetics are planar Products that do not always have a solid cross-section. If you examine the cross section of a Seosynthetic you will see fibres, filaments, yarus, ribs etc. The cross sectional area is not a constant, When a sample of a geosynthetic is mounted on a tensile test machine, the grips that hold the seosynthetic at both the ends apply normal pressure on the material thereby reducing its cross sectional area. The tensile strength could be expressed by dividing the failure load by the cross-sectional area Of the ribs or the total cross sectional area. This would result in different values of strength being reported due to different cross sectional areas. To avoid this confusion, the tensile strength of a seosynthetic is usually reported in kN/m ie. the failure load in tension divided by the width of the Product. This value gives us an idea of the load that can be withstood by Im width of the product. One could convert this value to KN/m? by dividing it further by the thickness of the product. 33.6 Functional Requirements All geosynthetics have to fulfill certain minimum requirements relating to endurance and degradation :0 that they do not undergo damage during installation and also continue to perform satisfactorily for their designed life. In addition they must have the desired properties to satisfy thei primary function The properties that are important for satisfactory performance of different functions are summarized in Table 33.3 along with the types of geosynthetics that can be used for the different functions, Separators: geotetls are well suited because they ate porous and strong enough to prevent mixing of soils. The tensile strength of geoextiles ies in the range of 50 to 400 kN/m with elongation at lure oF 10 to 100 percent or more. Woven geoextles usually exhibit higher strength and lower elongation in comparison to non-woven geotextiles and are thus often preferred as separators, In certain situations, they are used in combination with non-woven geotextiles or geogrids to enhance puncture resistance or strength respectively. Filters: both woven and non-woven geotextiles are used since they exhibit the range of cross-plane Permeability required for free passage of water an have pore size distribution small enough to retain the fine particles of soil. Typically, their permeability lies in the range of 10° to 10? nvsec and their 95% pore size, Oys, lies between 0,02 to 2.0 mm. This implies that such geotextiles can allow passage Of water similar to silts and sands and retain soil particles much finer than their pore sizes. It may be noted that cross-plane permeability is often expressed as permittivity which is equal to permeabilityA 594 Ground Engineering Table 33.3 Functional Requirements of Geosynthetics Function Primary Requirements Type of Geosyntheti a Used | ‘Separation @ High tensile strength Geotextiles (usually woven) () Allow flow of water but no mixing of sil (©) High burst strength (@) High tearfimpacy/puncture resistance Filtration (a) Cross-plane permeability higher than base soil Geotextiles (usually non-woven) {b) Pore size small cnough to enable retention of fines “(© Low-logging potential Drainage (a) Requirements of filtration satisfied for cross- Geotextiles (thick non-woven) plane direction or geonets sandwiched between (b) High in-plane permeabity to handle in-plane geotextles or Beocomposie flow under anticipated normal stress sheet drain. Reinforcement (a) High tensile strength Geotextiles (low elongation) or (b) Low elongation (high stiffness) Geogrids (©) High shearing resistance along soil-reinforcement interface Barrier (a) High imperviousness (very low permeability) Geomembranes (b) Leakproof welding along seams (©) No slippage when laid along sloping ground divided by the thickness of the geosynthetic and thus has units of sec". Geotextiles have permittivi in the range of 10° to 10° sec". Drains: amongst geotextiles, nonwoven geotextiles with large thickness have higher inlet permeability than woven geotextiles and therefore make effective drains. In-plane permeability # usually expressed in terms of transmissivity that equals permeability multiptied by thickness a therefore has the units of m/sec. For requirement of very high in-plane flows, even thick non-wovet arerrnadequate and we adopt geonets sandwiched between geotextles as shown in Fi. 335(0)F ae higher flows, geocomposite sheet drains such as comrugated polymeric sheets sandwich between geotextiles are used—see Fig. 33.5(b). Typical range of in-plane permeabilities of non 808 geotextiles are 10" to 10 misec (transmissivity 10° to 10° m/s), The transmissivity of geo! aearee between 10° t0 10° mlsee and for geocomposite sheet drains it of 104 to 10% mifsec. s even higher, in the Reinforcements: geogrids ae often used because they have sufficient strength of up © 200 wn eeinMaton at failure of 5 025 pereent and beter soil-geogrd interfacial ee esance Sn Geosynthetics arising ffom interlocking of soil grains within the o ngs of the S208 srmgation type woven geotexiles are also used as reinforcements in ie Barriers: the permeability of geomembranes is very low and they thus make ideal bs! riers (OF il and vapours. It is not easy to measure their permeabilit: asi : Coe to wal aver vapour t their permeability ies in the range of 10" to 10-8 a pee Rs ares preGeosynthetics 595 of clays. They can be joined by thermal welding. The welded seams are as impervious as the parent raterial and have a tensile strength which is 80% or more than that of the parent material. Geomembranes have tensile strength in the range of 10 to 50kN/m, HDPE geomembranes can withstand elongations as high as 200% or more in one direction thus making them suitablen situations where the base subsoil may show high settlement, Geomembranes usually have smooth surfaces and thus have a tendency (0 slip along steep side slopes. They, therefore, have to be anchored at the top af the slope. For special situations, geomembranes are given a textured finish to increase their shearing resistance along the interface with soil, Erosion controllers: meshes and nets made of jute and coir function satisfactorily to temporarily control erosion. For permanent measures, special geogrids, geomattresses and geocellular systems arc used. Protectors: thick non-woven geotextiles perform well as protective geosynthetics when laid over geomembranes Or over woven geotextiles to prevent damage from overlying gravel, stones etc. Some geosynthetics can perform more than one function simultaneously when placed in soil. For example a non-woven geotextile when used as a drain behind a retaining wall or on the downstream ofa core, acts both as a filter in the cross-plane direction and a drain in the in-plane direction. Similarly, 2 geomembrane when placed at the base of a waste dump acts as a barrier to flow of contaminated water into the soil as well as a separator that prevents mixing of the particles of waste (or sand drain particles) with the soil undemeath. There are also situations in which a single geosynthetic is not adequate for a single function and nultiple geosynthetics or geocomposites are more effective. Some geocomposites that are used often include: (i) geotextile-geogrid composites: in which the geogrid enhances the strength of the geotextile, Gi) geotextile-geonet composites: in which the geonet enhances the in-plane permeability of the geotentile, Gi) geomembrane-geotextile composites: in which the non-woven geotextile enhances the puncture resistance of the geomembrane, and (iv) geomembrane-clay composites: in which the clay enhances the imperviousness of the system. 33.7 Designing with Geosynthetics Asmentioned earlier, there are several hundred types of geosynthetics available in the market. Even Within each group of geosynthetics, a designer will find a wide variety of materials. This enormous ‘hice, can often be quite bewildering for the designer. To help in decision making, regulatory "uortes in most countries have laid down minimum specifications with respect to the properties that have 1 be satisfied by the products for different applications. For example, in Indi, the Ministry of anport has issued some guidelines for use of geosynthetics in road works and the Cental Pollution Gono! Board has stipulated the minimum requirements 0 be met by geomembranes for use as ydrulic barriers at waste containment sites. Table 33.4 lists typical values of some parameters so ‘ecified by different regulatory, authorities for different functions. These vary from country to Sway. These values are the minimum acceptable values and designers are expected to adopt "°\ynthetics meeting these or higher specifications. ov ence abA 596 Ground Engineering Table 33.4 Typical Minimum Values of Some Properties as Specified by Regulae tory Authorities Function Type of Tensile Puncture Others Geosynthetic strength — Separation Woven geotextile > 1400 N* Perminivity 2 0.02 sec"! Oy, £06 mm Filtration Non-woven 2 700N" 2250N 2250N Permiuivity geotextile 0.1 sec? Ors $0.22 mm Barer HDPE 218 kNim™* 2 150N. 2250 N Thickness = ‘geomembrane 15mm rab" tensile test specified-results are reported in 'N’ ‘wide width” tensile test specified-results are reported in kN/m. These two tests are not comparable. The design process thus involves the following steps: @ The designer first decides on the group or sub-group of geosynthetics that maybe suitable for the desired function—see Solved Example 33.1. @) From this group, he/she collects data on the properties of different products as certified by the manufacturers and selects those products that meet the minimum specifications aid down by the regulatory authorities. (G) The designer then conducts an analysis to confirm which product an perform the required function for the site-specific conditions. This is known as the design-by.function approach, (iv) If more than one product meets all the requirements, he/she chooses the more economical product. In the design-by-function approach, the allowable value of the property of the geosynthetic is | Compared with the required value computed from design considerations and the Safety Factor is evaluated as allowable value (from Eq. 33.1) Safety Factor = ied value (fom design) The acceptable range of Safety Factor usually lie in the range of 2 to 5. The upper value ‘unusually high but isa reflection of the fact that in some situations the magnitude of Uncertainty is very large. You may recall that the allowable value is much lower than the ultimate value as discussed in Section 33.5, For each function to be performed by a geosynthetic material, the design-by-function assessment of Safety Factor is carried out for different parameters, For example, if we are de ning a separator, the adequacy of tensile Strength, puncture resistance, tear resistance and burst resistance are all evaluated by comparing the allowable values with the required design values, To demonstrate how the design-by-function approach works, we now look at some selected functions, specifically filtration, drainage and reinforcement, The three conditions that have to be satisfied by a filter material are listed in Table 3 at the first two conditions, We lookuhetics $97 ‘To enable free flow of water, itis required that Kreosmeic (erss-plane) > Ky Soil behind the geosynthetic) k sy etic — > 5 to 10 (minimum acceptable) sil ‘The Safety Factor = ox permitivity of geosymthetc > 5 to 10 times the permitivity required As per Darcy's law, Q= ki A For cross plane flow = AHIt nk ata= AHA Q=yAHA where, y is permittivity (sec™) 1 is thickness of geotextile (m) Imay be noted that product information relating to ross-plane per available in terms of permittivity To ensure that fines do not pass throus! aecessary for 2.5(Dgs) of soil to be Targer smeability of geosynthetics is usually fa the geosynthetic, investigators have reported that itis than ys of geosynthetic 25(Dss) os Safety Factor = 5" > 1.0 (einimum acceptable) Ir we have a range of geosynthetics available for filtration that meet the minimum specifications of sable 33.4 we ean use te above two conditions to select a product that meets the design requirements. ied Example 33.2 shows how one can check the suitability of a geotextle for filtration. Let us now see how the design-by-funetion approach is applied to the drainage function. The in- plane permeability of geotentiles and geoncts is evaluated through special permeability tests in the Faboratory and their properties are expressed in terms of allowable transmissivity, @ (flow rate per unit width per unit hydraulic gradient) which has the units m/sec. ‘As per Darcy’s law, Q= ki A For in-plane flow, Aswxt Q=ki (rx) = (ix w) = OX Ww) transmissivity (m*/sec) where, ‘width of geotextile (m) c For any in-plane flow problem, Orin i Obzined from the flow net. We thus obtain y= 2a rel = 8 seonyec Eseoswshetic 5 5.0 (minimum acceptable) eed function approach for the dra Safety Factor = age function. Solved Example 33.3 illustrates the design-b seties th in the heavy different aplication situation ituation geberveen be greater em EdEn es wa Base aweee es 8A 598 Ground Engineering You are already familiar with the function of reinforcement that was fe in detail in Chapter 32. If you look back at Solved Example 32.2, you will find we have used steel strips fora reinforced arth wall in that example. We could have, instead, used a geotextile or @ Beogrid. The geotextile op geogrid would not be a strip of narrow width of 100 mm as in the case of steel but would run continuously perpendicular to the wall surface along the alignment of wall as shown in Fig. 33.3, Tp select an appropriate geosynthetic, we need to know the tensile strength which the material should possess. Solved Example 33.4 shows how one can compute the required tensile strength which would help one choose a satisfactory material. In Chapter 36 you will be introduced to the use of geomembranes as hydraulic barriers beneath solid waste landfills. Some Solved Examples in that Chapter will demonstrate the design-by-function approach for geomembranes SoWwedExampley Example 33.1 : - (a) Can one use_a_geomembrane as a separator instead of a geotextile beneath a road? (b) A geotextile of thickness 1.0 mm and mass per unit area of 500 gsm is recommended for use at a It is not available in the local and nearby markets. Instead a lower grade material of the same type but having a thickness of 0.5 mm and mass per unit area of 250 gsm is available. Can one use two' layers of the latter geosynthetic, placed one above the other as a substitute for the recommended geotextle? Solution (a) A geomembrane would be effective at keeping particles of the soils separated and thus prevent thet mixing, Despite this, 2 geomembrane should not be used because it will intercept all water seeping in from the sides of the road and cause it to accumulate above the geomembrane. This accumulation would result in saturating the base course and its performance wilt be adversely affected, Hence only a geotextile should be used. : (b) Two geotextiles, placed one on top of the other, cannot replace a thicker geotextile because the thinner geotextiles will have lower puncture resistance, tear resistance, impnet resistance and thus lower endurance. Slippage between the layers would not allow them to behave like a bonded monolith resulting in inadequate tensile strength. 7 [Example 33.2 For « 12 m high zoned embankment, the seepage estimated using flow nets is 12.5 x 10°? m/sec for kof 5.x 10 misec for the core. It is proposed to provide a non-woven geotextile to act as a filter between the Shell and the core, The soot is a 10 mm thick, 2000 gsm geosynthetic with an allowable permittivity of | 0.05 sec"! and Oss of 0.04 mm. The sol of the core i clayey sift with Dye of 0.03, a thet | be satisfactory as a filter? 3 ‘mm, Will the geosynt Solution We frst check adequacy of water Now seross the plane of the geotextite of the geotextile = (Kseyeyp)/thickness = 0.05 se"! k, = 0.05 x thickn geoenle ess = 0.05 x 10/1000 =5 x 10" msec, ms Permit Keeosynhetic _ 3X10 Factor of Safety = kon sxioe = 10" >5 10; Hence OK108 Geosynthetics \ Rock/soil Shotereto Geotextile Geomembrane Geotextile Conerete lining Underdrain Figure 4.25: Cross-section of a tunnel vault showing the general arrangement of the lining system, 4.5 DESIGN OF GEOTEXTILES Geotextiles are permeable, polymeric textile products in the form of flexible sheets. Growth in the use of geotextiles has surpassed that of all other systems in civil engineering and heavy construction industry. In this section, the design with geotextiles has been discussed with different problem to civil engineering profession, 4.5.1 Geotextile Properties In this section basic properties of geotextiles have been discussed in brief considering its application to civil engineering. The factor of safety can be defined as: FS = Allowable property/Required property Allowable Property is the value based on a laboratory test that models the actual situation Required Property is the value based on a design method that models the actual situation Propertyallowable = PropertyTest (I/ (FS, x FS, x FS3 X.......) where FS,, FS,, FS, are the various partial factors of safety needed to account for difference between the laboratory test and in-situ conditions. The values of partial factors of safety will be greater than one and reflect such items as: Installation damage Creep-induced stress relaxation Chemical degradation Biological degradation Soil clogging Biological clogging Major properties of geotextiles are: Physical properties Mechanical properties Hydraulic properties Endurance properties Degradation properties nor ae B 8— 2 YOU Jone. SS liar wis Geosynthetics 109 Physical prope All the properties discussed in this subsection refer to Hi. fabric in its condition. They are all index properties. Specific gravity: Specific gravity of the fibres from which geotextiles a gravity of the polymeric feed stock (see ASTM D792). ASTM stands for the American Society for TTesting and Materials. As customary, specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the. substance’s unit value weight to that of distilled, de-aired water at 4°C (40°F). Some typical values of the specific gravity of commonly used polymeric materials made into geotextiles are the following (Cotton, glass and steel have been mentioned for comparison): Polypropylene 0.91, Polyester 1.22-1.38, Nylon 1.05-1.1 Polyvinyl chloride 1.69, Cotton 1.55, Glass 2.54, Steel 7.87. Note that the specific gravities of some of the polymers are less tha when working with geotextiles under water (as some of them will float). Mass per unit area: Fabric cost is directly proportional tothe mass per unit area. So it is the most important property of geotextles. Fabric mass per unit area is measured in grams Per Sq metre red to the nearest 0.01% of the total specimen mass and the (g/m?). The mass should be measur Jength and width should be measured under zero fabric tension. The range of typical values for most geotextiles is from 135 to 680 g/m”. ‘Thickness: I is measured as the distance between the upper and lower extremes of the surface, measured at a specified pressure. The standard pressure for thickness measurement is 2.0 kPa. ‘Thickness of the commonly used geotextiles ranges from 0.01 inch to 0.3 inch. mined as the initial portion of the stress-versus-strain curve. In this f the interaction between fabric weight and fabric stiffness. The method ric specimen and slides it out lengthwise over the horizontal surface. easured when the tip of the fabric bends under its own weight and just touches an inclined plane making 27 angle of 41.5° with the horizontal. One half of the length ie the bending length of the specimen. The cube ofthis quantity multiplied by the mass per unit area of the fabric i its flexural rigidity or stiffness. The value is expressed in mg-cm units, ‘s manufactured or ‘as-received’ re made is actually the speci 4, Polyethylene 0.91-0.95, is a drawback n 1.0, whi Stiffness: Stiffness is dete test, stiffness is a measure of uses a 25 mm wide strip of fal The length of an overhang is m ‘ommended engineering fabric stiffness values for varying degrees of Table 4.4: Rec required workabilly, after Haliburton, et al. (1980) Workability Field ‘Sub-grade benefit of workability Minimum fabric stiffness** CBRA%) vegetative cover requirements ‘img®em) _(Ib.* mils) CBR $0.5 Poor Very high 25,000 22 Good High 15,000 13 0.5 < CBR S10 Poor High 15,000 B Good Moderate 10,000, 87 1.0 < CBR $2.0 Poor Moderate 10,000 87 Good Low 5,000 43 CBR > 2.0 Poor None 1,000 09 Good None 1,000 09 California Bearing Ratio, which isa test done routinely in geotechnical engineering to evaluate th, It is standardized as ASTM D183. y in geotechnical engineering to eval (75), using a stip 30 em long and 5 em wide (ie. 12° by 2") “CBR refers 10 soil sub-grade strengt s+Test conforms to ASTM D1388 ° » 0%Geosynthetics Mechanical properties Compressibility: Compressibility of a fabric is its thickness at varying applied normal pressures. The compressibility is relatively low for most geotextiles. Tensile Strength: In this test, the fabric is placed within a set of clamps or jaws, and this assembly is put in a testing machine. The fabric is stretched with increasing strength until failure occurs and the fabric starts deforming, Fabric failures are easy to identify. Generally, the stress-strain curve is obtained from this test. Stress is usually given as load per unit width and strain is the deformation divided by the original specimen strength. From tensile strength the following parameters can be obtained. © Maximum tensile strength © Strain at failure © Toughness: work done before failure * Moduius of elasticity: Slope of initial portion of the stress-strain curve Typical response of geotextiles made from different manufacturing process is given in Fig. 4.26. 0.340 Ibn, at 30% strain 40 ‘Tense sass (bin) 0 80 700 Strain (%) Figure 4.26: Tensile est responses of various geotexties manulactured by diferent processes. All are polypropylene fabrics; specimens were 8 in (200 mm) wide and 4 in (100 mm) high. Fatigue Strength: It is the ability of the fabric to withstand repetitive loading before it fails. The tensile test specimen usually of a large width variety is stressed longitudinally at a constant rate of extension to a predetermined length and then back to the zero load. This cycle of loading and unloading is repeated till the failure occurs. The cyclic stress-strain response can be used to calculate a cyclic modulus. Burst Strength: In this test, an inflatable rubber membrane is used to distort the fabric into the shape of a hemisphere. Bursting of the fabric occurs when no further deformation is pos testis essentially an index test and is widely used for quality control._—_ ~~» Geosynthetics ny ‘Tear Tests: Genérally, three tear tests are commonly undertaken: trapezoidal, tongue and elmender, ‘Trapezoidal tear test: Trapezoidal tearing toad isthe force required to break individual yarns in a fabri. In this tet the fabrics put in a tensile testing machine and is tested by tearing progressively. ‘An initial 0.625 in cut is made to start the process. The Joad actually stresses the individual fibres gripped in the clamps rather than stressing the fabric structure, The value is reported by all manufacturers. ‘Tongue tear test: ASTM D751 uses a3 in by 8 in fabric specimen with a 3 in long initiation cut. ‘The fabric is placed in a testing machine with the cut ends in the jaws of the machine. An increasing tensile force is applied to make the fabri tear along the initiation cut, The test configuration permits the yarns to rope up and work together to resist tear propagation. The values from tongue tear tests are much higher than those from trapezoidal tear tests. Elmendorf tear test: The Elmendorf ear tes is covered in ASTM D1424 and involves 8 procedure for the determination of the average force required to propagate a single-rip tongue tyPe tear starting from a remade cut in a woven fabric, The cutis then continued by means of @ falling-pendulum apparatus, The tearing force is the force required to continue the tear previously started in the specimen, The strength is calculated as the work done in tearing the specimen divided by twice the length of the tear. Impact Tests: In this test the fabric is clamped firmly in an empty container such as the CBR mould. ‘The amount of cone penetration into the fabric is indicative of its resistance to impact stress. Puncture Tests: This test is ‘known as an index test. This is required for an assessment of geotextile resistance to objects such as rocks or pieces of wood under quasi-static conditions. This test is described under ASTM D3787. To conduct this test a penetrating rod of size 0.31 in diameter is used. The fabric is clamped in an empty cylinder of 1.75 in inside diameter and the rod is pushed through it via a compression testing machine. Resistance to puncture is measured in force unit. ‘The following empirical equation is a correlation between the breaking force of the CBR test and the wide. width tensile strength for isotropic non-woven geotextiles. T= F, 2mr . where 7; is the tensile force per unit width of fabric in kN/m, and F, is the puncture breaking force in KN. "According to the DIN standard of Germany, the tensile elongation at failure (&) is calculated as follows: (x-a) =F x10 & a ofthe geosyntheti at failure, and ais the horizontal distance where, x is the diagonal elongation ger and the inner edge of the mould. between the outer edge of the pluny Friction behaviour The direct shear test is us experimental arrangement. the other half. After the norma ad to know the soil-to-fabric friction behaviour. Figure 4.27 shows the First the fabric is firmly fixed to one-half of the test device, with soil in T stress is applied, a shear force is mobilized until the sliding occurs between the fabric and the soil with no further increase in required shear foree. When the test is repeated at different normal stesses, a trend is established from which the shear strength parameters can be obtained. Efficiency is used to express the portion of the soil shear strength parameters that is mobilized as: Y YGeosynthetics / E () x100 f (=) x100 f (ane, where _E, is the efficiency in cohesion Egis the efficiency in friction angle ¢, is the adhesion of soil to fabric c is the cohesion of soil Bis the friction angle of soil to fabric is the friction angle of soil. N Geotextile ‘on block <= Tonal where 8= friction angle geotextile to soil (@) | ' Geotextia j Soil 1900000010094 10 1X —$ F } Soil Ao 3 (0) : Figure 4.27: Schematic diagrams of test setups for friction and pullout ‘evaluation of geotextles in soils. (a) Soll-to-fabric friction test ‘and results. (b) Fabric pullout (anchorage) test. Pullout test or Anchorage test Geotentiles can be used to provide anchorage for many applications within the reinforcement function. Anchorage usually has the fabric sandwiched between soils on each side of it, The resistance can be modelled in the laboratory using a pullout test. The pullout resistance generally’ depends on the normal force applied to the soil surrounding it, which mobilizes shear forces on both ‘sided of the fabric.BES SUMtin s Geosynthetics 13, Hydraulic properties Hydraulic testing of geotestiles has required completely nev and original test concepts, methods, devices, interpretation and data bases, Porosity Geotextile porosity is defined as t of water to flow through fabric, an the ratio of void volume to total volume. It is related to the ability dis expressed in the form of: ae pr where 1 is the porosity, m is the mass pet fabric thickness. ‘The measurement of pore size can be 2 glass beads by the use of image analyzers. .- unit area, / is the overall fabric density, and ¢ is the .ccomplished by careful sieving with controlled-size Per cent open area area (POA) is a fabric property that has applicability only for wou fabrics and sit is a comparison of the total open area (the void spaces erween the adjacent fibres) to the total specimen area. A convenient Wa¥ to measure the open area is to project a light through the fabric onto a large poster-size piece of cardboard. The total area must be measured at the same magnification as the voids measurement. The test is not applicable to non-wovens, since the overlapping fibres tend to keep any light from passing directly through the fabric. Permittivity (cross-plane permeability) One of the major functions that geotextiles pe the fabric into crushed stone, pipe, or some oth allows for this flow and not imped ‘As was seen in the compressibi permittivity (y), is defined: Per cent open even for monofilament woven fabric ‘form is that of filtration. Here water flows through er drainage system. It is important that the fabric i. Hence the fabric’s permeability (cross-plane) must be quantified. section, however, fabrics deform under load. Thus a new term, 1 fg is the permeability coefficient (hydraulic conductivity) normal tothe where is the permittivity, n fabric, and fis the thickness of the fabric. It is used in Darcy's formula as follows: qzakta ls 7 Tana) j where q is the flow rate, ithe hydraulic gradient, Af isthe head lost, and is area of fabric under ! test. ‘The formulation abo y permeability testing. Typically, ve is used for constant head tests in an identical manner as with soil ee cae (q) is measured alone Yale of Ah, and then the test and x% Geosynthetics 4 om Ey ’ is repeated at different values of it. These different values produce | correspondingly oo of ¢. When plotted (i.e, AhA versus q) the slope of the resulting straight line yields the . value of y. The test can also be conducted using a falling (variable) head concept as is also ees : ils, Here, Darcy's formula is integrated over the head before and after q is measur é used in the following equation, ay k, a, b fe a y=23- 10g), ey 1 N28 ge ty where y is permittivity, Ce 4s the area of igid supply standpipe, A is the area of fabric specimen, ‘rs the time change between fg and hy is the head atthe beginning of test, and hicis the head 5S, atthe end of test neither case, the permittivity ean be mulipied by the fabric thickness to obtain the traditional permeability coefficient, a Transmissvity (in-plane permeability) “Forth ow of igi within the Dlane ofthe fabric (ein the utilization of drainage function), of, sition of fabric thickness (its compressibility unis oa) is again problem, Thus a new | tem transmissvty (),isintaduced which is determined via Dany fren follows: ‘ay ah we 97h id= ky Haye) fe Sen, @w _¢ % Kyt=0= pe uh (ang) “iw Yoj, here, ® isthe transmissivity en 4's the permeability coefficient in plane of the fabric 20, "is thickness of fabric "so, ‘is the hydraulic gradient ‘his the head loss : wis width of the fabric tes, ‘isthe flow rate, Lis the length ofthe fabric ve Temperature degradation ery says mene Practice D794 describes bigh temperature testing for plastics, However, end The a ete or bet expose an method is governed by the potential Up of ete td by an oven th airflow controlled) and with fresh at intake. Two : airsted here: Continuous heat and cyclic heat. In continuous heat, heat is : Failures defined a a change Ape aa My ige in appearance, rial to degree that is no longer serviceable forthe pure, Th est oe Weeks, depending on the rate of temperature Hesige © of pene etl applies heat toa constant value until lure. When Pacing hot materials ee Mes tehabilitation, Hj Terme Such as asphalt melts a 5ge0. 8 e™PEFaLTES should be i ; 08: ‘uring conditions of extremely high temperature, oak wement It on construction fabrics as in highway plese avoided as polypropylene melts at 165°C am