Key Physiologic Processes

Pompe C. Sta. Cruz, PhD

Crop Science Cluster, UP Los Baños
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

GROWTH AND RESPIRATION

DEVELOPMENT

 growth
mechanisms TRANSPIRATION
 hormones/
growth regulation TRANSLOCATION
 plant movements
 crop adaptation

MINERAL
NUTRITION
Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic System
 a system that converts solar energy into chemical
energy

 plant dry matter analysis

 CO2 and H2O are practically free while the mineral

elements have to be usually purchased

 The product (grains, root, tubers) are essentially

net products of photosynthesis
 VISIBLE

10-6 10-4 10-2 Wavelength/cm

X-rays UV Infrared Radio Waves

400 PAR 700

yellow far infra

UV violet blue green orange red
red red

599
380 455 500 560 640 700 795
Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic Organ
 Leaf – chief site of photosynthesis

 Structural parts:
 upper and lower epidermis
 mesophyll cells
 vascular bundles

 Mesophyll sheaths:
 upper side – palisade parenchyma (regular-shaped cells)
 lower side – spongy parenchyma (irregular shaped cells)
 In some crops (corn), the mesophyll is undifferentiated
translocation of materials
Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic Organ
Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic Reaction
 Photosynthesis starts when a photon of light strikes the chlorophyll
molecule and excites an electron, raising it to a high energy level
that makes it capable of transforming this energy to other
compounds in the photosynthetic system
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
sunlight

light
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O
chlorophyll

from air from soil sugar

plant organelles starch
(via stomates) (via roots) (glucose)

Photosynthesis occur in
LEAF any organ containing
chlorophyll

Organelle is chloroplastid
a (higher plants)
b a : b = 3:1
Chlorophyll c isomers
d
Accessory pigments  carotenoids (xanthophylls, carotenes)
Photosynthesis

Basic Processes during Photosynthesis

 Diffusion of CO2 from the air to the reaction
sites in the leaf
 Light reaction (photochemical reaction)
 Dark reaction (biochemical reaction)
Photosynthesis
Light Reaction
 Light energizes chlorophyll

 Produce high energy compounds, ATP and NADPH2

 Evolution of O2 through the photolysis of H2O and

photoelectron transport

 Involves 2 kinds of chlorophyll:

 chlorophyll a (bluish green) = 3
 chlorophyll b (yellowish green) = 1

 Other pigments: carotene, xanthophyll

Photosynthesis

Dark Reaction
 Assimilation of CO2 production of CH2O
 Use of ATP and NADPH2 in the process
 Occurs in 3 pathways:
 Calvin-Benson or C3 Pathway
 Hatch and Slack or C4 Pathway
 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) Pathway
 COMPONENT REACTIONS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Light CO2 CH2O + H2O

+3ATP
Reaction +2NADPH
* Membranes 2H2O 2NADP + 2H
* Photochemical Dark reaction
reaction
* Requires light 2 or 3 2 or 3 * Stroma
ADP 2NADPH
ATP * Blackman reaction
O2 4H+
* Occurs in dark and light
Two Photosystems
* Consists of thermocouple
FRS Ferredoxin NADPH2 reactions
Plastoquinone
ADP
ATP Cyt f H2O
ADP
ATP
I Cyt b II O2
H+
Plastocyanin
P670
P700
chl b
chl a main pigment
 Photosynthesis I = chl a (P700)
= ATP & NADPH2
= cyclic phosphorylation

 Photosynthesis II = chl b (P672)

= ATP
= noncyclic phosphorylation

 ATP/NADPH2 = used for fixing CO2

Occurs in 3 Pathways

1. Calvin-Benson or C3 pathway
2. Hatch-Slack or C4 pathway
3. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)
Photosynthesis
C3, C4 and CAM Pathways
Photosynthesis
General characteristics of C3, C4 and CAM plants
C3
Typically temperate species
e.g. spinach, wheat, potato,
tobacco, sugarbeet, soybean,
sunflower
Moderately productive
Cells containing chloroplasts do not
have Kranz anatomy, peripheral
reticulum, only one type of
chloroplast
Initial CO2 acceptor is RuBP, a 5-6
sugar
Initial CO2 fixation product is 3-C
phosphoglycerate
Only one CO2 fixation pathway
High rate of glycolate synthesis
Low High water use efficiency and
salinity (ion) tolerance
Photosaturate 1/5 full sunlight
High CO2 compensation point
Open stomates by day night
C4
Typically tropical or semi-tropical species
e.g. corn, sugarcane, sorghum, grasses.
Adapted to high light, temperature and semi-
arid environment
Highly productive ~ 80t/ha in sugarcane
Kranz anatomy and peripheral reticulum
Initial CO2 acceptor is PEP, a 3-C acid
Initial CO2 fixation product is 4-C
oxoloacetate
Two CO2 fixation pathways
Low rate of glycolate synthesis
High water use efficiency and salinity (ion)
tolerance
Do not readily photosaturate at high light
Low CO2 compensation point
Open stomates by day
CAM
Typically arid zone
e.g. cacti, agave, orchid, pineapple and
other succulents
Usually very low productivity; possible high
yield in pineapple
No Kranz anatomy; only one type of
chloroplast
CO2 acceptor is PEP in the dark and RuBP
in light
Oxoloacetate in the dark and
phosphoglycerate in light
Two CO2 fixation pathways separated in
time
Low rate of glycolate synthesis
High water use efficiency and salinity (ion)
tolerance
Do not readily photosaturate at high light
High affinity for CO2 at night
Open stomates by night
Photosynthesis
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
 External factors
 Light = intensity, quality, duration
 CO2 concentration in atmosphere
 Temperature
 Moisture
 Dust
 Insect pest

 Structural condition of leaves

 Number and distribution of stomata
 Abundance of leaf intercellular spaces

 Organic/inorganic conditions
 Amount/distribution of chlorophyll and enzymes
 Cell acidity
 Abundance of elements essential for the synthesis of chlorophyll (e.g. Fe,
Mg)
Respiration

Significance
 plants need energy to build and maintain
cells, protoplasm
 main source of energy
 Respiration
Respiration Process
 a slow process taking place in the mitochondria
 involves enzymes

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + 678 kcal/energy

 basically an oxidation process
(combustion/release energy in the form of heat)
Respiration

Measure of Respiration

Respiratory Quotient (RQ) = moles CO2 evolved

moles O2 absorbed

 if RQ = 1, glucose is being respired <1, some other

substances are respired (e.g. fats)
Respiration
Steps in Respiration
1. Phosphorylation - formation of sugar phosphates
2. Glycolysis - breakdown of sugar into pyruvate
3. Kreb’s Cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) -
completes the oxidation of pyruvate to CO2
Reducing potential is stored as NADH and FADH2
4. Phosphate Pentose Pathway (PPP) – aerobic
process
5. Electron Transport System
 where electron transport takes place
 particularly in formation of H2O - an oxidation-reduction reaction
 energy trapped in the process through conversion of low energy
phosphates into high energy phosphates
Respiration
Factors affecting respiration
1. Species
 Azotobacter chroococcum - 2,000,000 æl 02/gmdry weight
 Arum maculatum - 15,600-31,800 æl 02/gram
 Valencia orange - 20 mgm C02/kgm/24 hours
 Ripe tomato - 70 mgm C02/kgm/24 hours

2. Part of the plant - generally, plant parts that are highly

protoplasmic and are actively involved in growth or protein synthesis
have higher respiratory activity.

3. Physiological state - dormant organs or organisms respire less

than those that are actively growing.

4. Degree of hydration - tissues with higher moisture content respire

more than drier tissues such as those in dry seeds.
Respiration
Factors affecting respiration
5. Temperature - between 00C-350C, the respiratory rate increases at
the rate or 2 to 2.5 times for every 100C rise in temperature (Q10 or
temperature coefficient is 2 or greater)

6. Oxygen supply - with increasing 02, the aerobic respiration become

more dominant so that 02 uptake and needs increases.
 The external oxygen concentration at which fermentation is extinguished
is known as the extinction point.

7. Light, salts, injury, biologically active gases like ethylene -

may increase respiration.

8. Inhibitors like cyanide and high C02 - may reduce or inhibit

respiration.
Respiration
Summary Comparison: PS vs RN
Photosynthesis Respiration
Only in green plants In all living cells (plants and animals
Only in light During cell lifetime (light or dark)
Uses CO2 + H2O Uses food and O2
Releases O2 Releases CO2 + H2O
Solar energy to chemical energy Chemical energy to heat (useful energy)
Weight increase Weight loss
Food is produced Food is broken down
Occur in chloroplast Occur in cytoplasm and mitochondria
Transpiration

 A process wherein plants

use water through
evaporation in the form of
gaseous water diffusion
driven by net radiation
absorbed by the leaf.
Transpiration

Significance of Transpiration
 Transport and distribution of nutrients and
assimilates
 Dissipate plant’s heat load to maintain favorable
temperature for growth and development
 In excess leads to plant desiccation  conversion of
starch to sugar and proteins are hydrolyzed to amino acid
Transpiration
Two Stages of Transpiration
Evaporation of water from cell surfaces
 dependent on the heat of vaporization = 539 cal/gram
 energy to convert water from liquid to gaseous state w/o change in
temperature

Diffusion out of leaves through openings or barriers

 vapor pressure gradient --- driving force of moisture loss from
surfaces
 magnitude of loss --- resistance in the pathway due to barriers such
as cuticles and reduced opening of the tomates
Transpiration

Two Stages of
Transpiration
Transpiration
Types of Transpiration
 Loss of liquid water through the leaf surface
(hydathodes)  Guttation
 Most of the water lost by plants is through 
Transpiration (in 3 types)
1. Cuticular transpiration – water loss through epidermis
covered by a cuticle. About 5%-10% of the water lost
from plants may be lost by this pathway.
2. Lenticular transpiration – water loss through the
lenticels in tress without leaves, and in some fruits.
3. Stomatal transpiration – water loss through the stomata
can account for more than 90% of the water lost from
plants.
Transpiration

Examples:
 The daily water loss of a large, well-watered,
tropical plant such as the palm may run as high as
500 liters.

 A corn plant may loose 3-4 liters/day  99% of

the water absorbed by a corn plant during its life
cycle is lost in transpiration

 A tree-size desert cactus loses less than 25 ml/day

Transpiration
Factors Affetcting Transcription
 Since most of the water lost from plants occur through the
stomata, factors that would influence the opening and closure
of the stomata will invariably affect transpiration

1. Light intensity
2. Carbon dioxide concentration
3. Water content of the plant
4. Wapor pressure deficit of the air
5. Temperature which in turn affect RH
6. Air movement
7. Species which affect the stomatal density, degree of
cuticular deposition and other surface/stomatal
modifications (sunken stomates, presence of hairs
etc.)
Transpiration

Implications to Crop Production

 To sustain beneficial effects of transpiration,
crop should be:
 Given supplemental irrigation when needed
 Reduced competition from weeds
 Not fully exposed to winds – use of wind breaks
 Proper light management – based on crop light
requirement in relation to maintenance of
heatload
 Translocation
Significance of Translocation
 Absorption and transport of raw
materials used for photosynthesis
 Translocation of photosynthetic products
to areas of storage and consumption

Tissues Involved in Translocation

 Xylem --- water and solutes
 Phloem --- photosyntates
(sucrose)
Translocation

Principal Translocation System

 Water and solutes dissolved in it are transported
from roots to the other parts through non-living
conduits --- dead xylem vessels and intercellular
spaces --- apoplast
 Apoplastic Transport

 Photosynthates are transported in living conduits

like the phloem vessels that contain protoplasmic
strands or plasmodesmata --- symplast
 Symplastic Transport
Translocation

Principal Translocation System

 Upward movement of solution  roots  xylem 
stems  uppermost leaves --- Transpirational
Stream

With transpiration as primary cause of this

movement, water column during rapid transpiration
is usually under tension
 Translocation
Chemical
Composition of
Phloem Exudate
Translocation
Mechanisms of Translocation
Movement of materials in living plants have been observed to
occur in different ways:

1. Ordinary diffusion --- transports ions and molecules slowly

2. Cytoplasmic streaming --- which transports ions and

molecules within the cytoplasm at a considerably faster rate
than diffusion

3. Downward mass or bulk flow --- movement of materials

from the upper portion of the plant to the roots --- Munch
pressure flow hypothesis

4. Other mechanisms may include

 activated diffusion and pumping,
 interface diffusion and electroosmosis.
Translocation
Phloem Loading and Unloading
Translocation
Dry Matter
Allocation
and
Partitioning
Mineral Nutrition
Background
 60 elements present in plant tissues
 92 naturally occurring elements when
supplied to plants in available forms ---
plants may absorb them
 element may be present in plant tissue ---
but not necessarily essential
 importance of an element --- not proportion
to amount absorbed/uptake
Mineral Nutrition
Criteria for Essentiality (Arnon and Stout, 1939)
 Positive requirement of the element for normal
growth or reproduction or to complete the
plant's life cycle

 Function of the element cannot be replaced by

another element (i.e. the deficiency symptom
attributed to a particular element can not be
corrected by the addition of another)

 Element has a direct or indirect function in plant

metabolism
Mineral Nutrition
Nutrient Classification
 Macronutrients (N, P, K, S, Ca, & Mg)
 Major nutrients --- needed by plants in larger quantities
 Components of proteins, nucleic acids and wide range of
smaller molecules

 Micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Cl & Ni)

 Nutrients needed by plants in smaller quantities
 As enzyme cofactors or components of electron transport
proteins wide range of smaller molecules

 Beneficial Plant Nutrients (Co, Al, Na, & I)

 Elements which stimulate growth, but do not fulfill Arnon's
criteria of essentiality or which are essential only for certain
plant species
Mineral Nutrition
Functions of the Nutrient Elements: Macronutrients

Element Compounds in Tissues and Functions Available Form

N  Integral component of proteins (enzymes) NH4+, NO3-
and nucleic acids
P  Component of nucleic acids, phytin, H2PO4-, HPO42-
coenzymes, adenylases
 Regulatory function of synthetase reactions
K  Osmoregulation K+
 Activator of certain kinases, synthetases,
lyases
 Required for protein synthesis
S  Integral component of proteins, sulfolipids, SO4 2-
S-coenzymes, S- and Fe-S-proteins
Ca  Pectates Ca2+
 Regulatory protein (calmodulin)
 Regulates ion transport, senescence,
membrane permeability
 Activator of numerous enzymes
Mg  Integral component of chlorophyll, Mg-ATP Mg2+
 Activator of phosphorylation, Rub-P
carboxylase
Mineral Nutrition
Functions of the Nutrient Elements: Micronutrients

Element Compounds in Tissues and Functions Available Form

Fe  Fe-, Fe-S-proteins, cytochromes, ferredoxins Fe2+, Fe3+
B  Possibly cis-diol-type borate complexes with BO33-
proteins
 Enzymatic regulation of growth and
development
Mn  Activator of amino peptidases Mn2+
 Activator of photosynthetic 02 evolution (Hill
reaction)
Zn  Activator of carbonic anhydrase, Alkalne Zn2+
phosphatas, hexokinase, Alcohol
dehydrogenase
Cu  Activator of several oxidases, Activates Cu2+
synthesis of lignin
Mo  Component of nitrate reductase MoO42-
 Essential for nitrogenase in bacteria for N2-
fixation related plants
Cl  Activator of photosystem II Cl-
 Participates in e- transport in chloroplast
Mineral Nutrition
Plant Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms: Old Leaves
Symptom Deficient Element
A. Older or lower leaves of plant mostly affected; effects localized or generalized.
B. Effects mostly generalized over whole plant; more or less drying or firing
of lower leaves; plant light or dark green.
C. Plant light green; lower leaves yellow, drying to light brown color; stalks
short and slender if element is deficient in later stages NITROGEN
CC. Plant dark green, often developing red and purple colors, lower
leaves sometimes yellow, drying to greenish brown or black color,
stalk short and slender if element deficient in later stages of growth PHOSPHORUS
BB. Effects mostly localized; mottling or chlorosis with or without spots of
dead tissue on lower leaves; little or no drying up of lower leaves.
C. Mottled or chlorotic leaves, typically may redden, as with cotton,
sometimes with dead spots; tips and margins turned or cupped
upward, stalks slender
MAGNESIUM
CC. Mottled or chlorotic leaves with large or small spots of dead tissue.
D. Spots of dead tissue small, usually at tips and between veins, more
Marked at margins of leaves; stalks slender
POTASSIUM
DD. Spots generalized, rapidly enlarging, generally involving areas
between veins and eventually involving secondary and even
primary veins; leaves thick; stalks with shortened internodes ZINC
Mineral Nutrition
Plant Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms: Bud or Young Leaves
Symptom Def. Element
AA. Newer or bud leaves affected; symptoms localized.
B. Terminal bud dies, following appearance of distortions at tips or bases of young leaves
C. Young leaves of terminal bud at first typically hooked, finally dying back at tips and
margins, so that later growth is characterized by a cut-out appearance at these
points; stalk finally dies at terminal bud CALCIUM
CC. Young leaves of terminal bud becoming light green at bases, with final
breakdown here; in later growth, leaves become twisted; stalks finally dies back
at terminal bud BORON
BB. Terminal bud commonly remains alive; wilting or chlorosis of younger bud leaves
with or without spots of dead tissue; veins light or dark green.
C. Young leaves permanently wilted without spotting or marked chlorosis; twig or
stalk just below tip and seedhead often unable to stand erect in later stages
when shortage is acute COPPER
CC. Young leaves not wilted; chlorosis present with or without spots of dead tissue
scattered over the leaf.
D. Spots of dead tissue scattered over the leaf; smallest veins tend to remain
green, producing a checkered or reticulating effect MANGANESE
DD. Dead spots not commonly present; chlorosis may or may not involve veins,
making them light or dark green color.
E. Young leaves with veins and tissues light green in color SULFUR
EE. Young leaves chlorotic, principal veins typically green; stalk short
and slender, at extreme terminal leaves may be completely white IRON
Thank You