ge COS UURED an AR ALND ' Scanned By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24.» _ aWorkshop Manual Dr. Vipin Professor and Head Department of Mechanical, Production & Industrial and Automobile Engineering Delhi Technological University, Delhi. Dr. Yuvraj Professor Department of Mechanical, Production & Industrial and Automobile Engineering Delhi Technological University, Delhi. Scanned By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 REVAAN 4am AKN LearningCONTENTS 1, Casting 1 23 Classification of Welding issues 1 Processes 25 1.2 Basic Steps in Casting Process 1 i pode —_ ba 13 Application of Casting Process. 1 pun as ‘ene Welding x0 1.4 Advantages of the Casting Process 2 30 yokes Sing Pasa 1 .5 Disadvantages of the Casti : : Is Posen) e 2 28 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 34 1.6 Pattern Materials 2 29 rn Welding uu | ; f Patt 17 Types of Pa ue 2 2.10 Gas Tungsten Are Welding 8 Pattern Making Allowances 5 (GtAW) 45 1.9 Moulding Tools and Equipment 6 : | 1.10 Moulding Sand 12 2a} Soldering 6 : B Sands 2.12 Brazing 31 1.11 ‘Types of Moulding Sand 2 2.13. Welding Positions 38 J 1.12 Properties of Moulding Sand 13 2.14 Welding Defects 38 ; ames 7 2.15 Testing of Weld 39 114 Chaplets 13 2.16 Welded Joints 39 15 Core Print 3 2.16 Badge Preparation 0 i 116 Gating System 4 2.17 Important Terminology Relating | 117 Risers 1s with Electric Arc Welding | 1.18 Moulding Processes Based on Process 41 the Methods Used 15 2.18 Safety Precautions in Welding 42 ' 1.19 Moulding Processes Based on 2.19 Questions B { the Moulding Materials 15 1.20 Special Casting Processes 17 3. Sheet Metal 51 | 121 Safety in Casting 7 3:1 Tieoaétion 31 i 1.22 Questions 18 3.2 Metal Used for Sheet 31 i 2. Welding 25 3.3 Measuring and Marking Tools 52 I 2) eeedess 3.4 Cutting / Shearing Tools 35 = emeduetion 5 3.5 Forming / Striking Tools 56 2.2 Weldability 253.6 Holding, Supporting and Forming Tools 3.7 Miscellaneous Tools 3.8 Sheet Metal Machines 3.9., Sheet Metal Joints 3.10 Sheet Metal Allowance 3.11 Sheet Metal Operations 3.12 Questions 4, Bench Work and Fitting 4,1 Introduction 4.2. Tools and Equipments 4.3 Fitting Operations 4.4. Questions 57 59 59 61 61 mn nan. 7m 86 89 5, Smithing and Forging 5.1 Introduction 5.2. Forging Materials 5.3 Tools and Equipment Used in Forging 5.4 Forging Temperature of Different Materials, 5.5 Forging Operations 5.6 Power Hammer and Presses 5.7 Heat Treatment 5.8 Questions 97 103 103 107 107 108By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 CASTING V1 Introduction | | Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually: poured into a mold, which contains a ‘llow cavity of the desired shape and then allowed to solidify. After cooling down, the solidified fart known as casting, and it will be of the same shape as that of mould which is ejected or pulled out of the mold to complete the process. £12 Basic Steps in Casting Process ‘The steps in making a casting can be set forth as follows Patter Making. Mould and Core Making. Melting and Pouring.“ Cleaning of the Casting. ' Pattern Making: The process of making a wooden or metallic pattern is known as pattern making, Pattern acts as a principle tool during the casting process. It can be defined as a model of desired casting, The constructed pattern that may be used for forming an impression or cavity called mould. The success of a casting process depends a lot on the, quality and the design of the pattem, 2. Mould and Core Making: Mould is the cavity which is formed with the help of the pattern in a suitable mould ‘material, commonly the moulding sand. Sometimes a hole or a recess is required in the casting. This is achieved by placing a suitable core in the mould. The shape of the core corresponds to the shape of the hole or recess. The cores are usually made of sands having compositions much different from the moulding sand. 3. Melting and Pouring: Once the mould is made, it is ready to receive the molten metal. At this stage, the metal is melted in a suitable furnace depending upon the amount and the nature of the metal. When the metal is ‘completely molten state, itis tapped in a suitable ladle and then poured in the mould. 4, Cleaning: After the metal has been poured in the mould the whole thing is allowed to cool thus solidifying the metal. When the process of solidification is complete, the casting is taken out. The casting at this stage, however, isnot in the same form in which itis desired and its cleaning is very essential. The process of cleaning is done in two steps as given below: ; (® Allextra parts like sprues, gates, risere etc, are removed. Gi) The surface of the casting is cleaned by removing the sand and other foreign particles clinging to its surface. raePS 073 Application of Casting Process ‘Casting process is used to manufacture the following parts: Machine Tools: Lathe bed, Tailstock, Carriage, Planer bed, Milling machine base, Shaper body, Ram ete. Automobiles: Engine block, Gear box body, Wheel drum, Crank shaft, etc. Miscellaneous Generator body, Turbine ‘Vanes, Agricultural parts, Sewage pipes, Motor body, etc. |$1.4 Advantages of the casting process ‘The main advantages of the casting process over other fabri 1 2. Parts with very intricate shapes can be produced by casting at a cheaper rate. Certain metals and alloys, due to their certain metallurgical properties, cannot be shaped by mechanical working, whereas, they can be cast without any difficulty, Cast iron; for example, is difficult to fabricate by mechanical working because of its britle behaviour, but it can be easily cast into various shapes. In most of the cases, the process of casting, if done with accuracy, reduces the machining time to a great extent. ‘As compared to other manufacturing processes, the casting technique is simple, because number of operations in this technique are minimum. ~ It gives a faster rate of production and thus the total time per unit production is minimized. Castings exhibit uniform properties in all thie directions i.e. longitudinal, lateral and diagonal: Machinability and vibration damping capacity are better in cast metals, for example cast iron. Incertain light metals, strength, lightness and good bearing qualities can only be produced by casting. ‘A better and controlled metal distribution is possible in casting, thereby increasing the fatigue strength h of the product. A wide range of alloys having various compositions and properties can be cast easily. \y.5 Disadvantages of the casting process ‘The disadvantages of the casting process are as follows L 2. Casting is not economical when parts to be made are very small in numbers. Castings are susceptible to various defects like internal porosity, shrinkage, blow holes, segregation and hot tears. e.6 Pattern Materials Following are the materials which are very common in pattern-making: 1 4 Wood 2. Metal 3. Plastic Rubber 5. Plaster 6. Waxes Due to abrasion of sand, ramming and rapping all patterns are subjects to wear. For selecting a particular material for Pattern making, the following factors must be taken into consideration: @ Number of castings to be produced. (ii) Mould material used. (ii) Type of moulding process. (Gv) Degree of accuracy and surface finish required. (v) Minimum thickness required. ¢*7 Types of Patterns Selection of a particular type of pattem depends upon size and shape of work piece, type of moulding method to be used (Hand or Machine), quantity of work pieces to be produced and problem of withdrawing pattern. ‘Most common types of pattems used for casting are as follows |. One piece or Solid pattern 2. ‘Two piece or Split patter }. Multipiece or Loose pattem 4, Match plate pattem . Cope and Drag pattern 6. Follow Board pattern . Gated patter 8. Sweep pattern ‘Skeleton pattern 10. Segmental or Part pattern.One Piece or Solid Pattern ‘These pattems are constructed without any joints or loose pieces as shown in the Figure. It is simple in construction, cheap and used for few and large sized castings. When completed, the mould will be either entirely in cope or entirely in drag. €) Alwo piece or Split pattern ‘Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece because of the difficulties encountered in '“______—J moulding them. To eliminate this difficulty, and for castings of intricate design or unusual Fig. 11 Solid pattern shape, split patterns are employed to form the mould. ‘These patterns are usually made in two parts, as shown in Figure, These patterns are made in two pieces which are joined atthe parting line by means of dowel pins. This splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the withdrawal of the pattem. Upper part will produce upper half of mould in cope (upper flask) and lower portion of pattern will produce lower half of mould jn drag, (ower flask). Parting Line. Fig. 1.2 Split pattern \Multipiece or Loose pattern Certain patterns, which are complicated in shape, cannot be withdrawn from the moulding sand. In such cases the pattem is made of a number of loose pieces as shown in Figure. Thus loose pieces are assembled with the help of dowel pins which helps in easy withdrawal of pattern from the mould. Loose Pieces Fig. 1.3 Loose pattern Match plate pattem “Match plate patterns are made in two pieces like split patterns. It consists of a wooden or metallic plate, called match. plate. Both the parts of split pattern are mounted on both sides of this match plate i.e. for group of pattems on one side is prepared in drag while the other side group of patterns in copes as shown in the Figure. Number of different sized and shaped split patterns can be mounted on the same side of the match plate. Runners and gates are also fixed ‘on the match plate. Match plate Fig. 1.4 Match plate patternCope and Drag pattem ‘These are used for mass production of large and heavy castings to be handled by one operator. The pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates. Cope and drag patterns are built separately and mounted on individual plates or boards in which suitable holes or slots are made to fix the moulding box. follow Board pattern . It is used to support thin and collapsible pattern when rammed with pressure as shown in the Figure. Thus sagging of pattem is avoided by constructing a wooden block which fits inside the pattern and supports it while ramming, CAA Fig. 1.5 Follow board pattern Gated pattem In mass production, a number of castings are prepared in a single multi-cavity mould by joining a group of patterns. Insuch type of multi-cavity mould, gates or runners for the molten metal are formed by connecting parts between the individual patterns as shown in Figure. These are made of wood or metal and specially used for mass productions of small castings. Fig. 1.6 Gated pattern \ Sweep pattern ‘These are used for producing large sized symmetric workpieces. The sweep pattern is made up of a wooden board having shape same as that of the desired casting. The pattern is rotated (or swept) about a central axis in the sand all around its axis to obtain the desired shape as shown in Figure. This type of pattern avoids construction of large three- «dimensional pattems thereby saving money, time and labour. Sweep Sand Fig. 1.7 Sweep pattern\ Skeleton pattern For production of large size casting, skeleton pattern is used in which full pattern is not manufactured. Instead of only frame is produced to get contour and size ofthe desired casting. The frame is made up of the strips of wood (called ribs) with square or rectangular opening between ribs which form a skeleton outline of the pattern as shown in Figure. The frame is thus filled by sand (clay or loam) and strickle board is used to scrape off excessive sand above the ribs. Skeletons patterns are generally built in two halves, one for drag and the other for cope. They are used for ‘manufacturing water pipes, pipe bends, chutes, valve bodies etc. Strickle board 1.8 Skeleton pattern ~—Segmental or Part pattern This ype of pattems are generally used for circular castings, eg. wheel rims, gears, rings tc. Such patterns are sections of a pattem so arranged as to form a complete mould by being ‘moved to form each section of the mould. The movement of segmental pattern is guided by | the use ofa central pivot. A segmental pattern for a wheel rim is shown in Figure. [Poo +448 Pattern Making Allowances ‘The sizes of a pattern are not made the exact same size as the desired casting for several reasons. This is because of the fact that during cooling the casting is subjected to various « Fig. 1.9 Part pattern effects and hence to compensate for these effects, corresponding allowances are given in the Pattem. These allowances are as follows: 1. Shrinkage allowance 2. Machining allowance 3. Draft or Taper allowance 4. Rapping or shake allowance 5. Distortion or camber allowance Shrinkage allowance Metals used for casting usually shrink and contract due to solidification and cooling, Different metal and alloys have different contraction rate. To compensate for contraction or shrinkage pattern is made slightly larger than required finished casting. This allowance is termed as shrinkage allowance. The shrinkage rates of the different metals are as following: Cast iron 1.0 percent (10 mm per metre) Gi) Cast steel 210 percent (20 mm per metre) (ii) Brass 1.6 percent (16 mm per metre)Gv) Aluminium 1.7 percent (17 mm per metre) . (¥) Lead 2.4 percent (24 mm per metre) A separate scale called contraction rule is prepared. Thus a pattern maker uses a contraction rule measuring about 17 mm longer per metre than the usual scale while constructing a pattern for aluminium. A separate contraction rule is prepared for each metal. Machining allowance This is also a positive allowance, This allowance is given to compensate for the amount of material that is lost in machining or finishing the casting. I this allowance isnot given, the casting will become undersize after machining, ‘The amount of this allowance depends on the size of casting, method of machining and the degree of finish. In ‘general, however, the value varies from 3 mm to 18 mm, Draft or Taper allowance ‘To faciitate easy and early withdrawal of pattem from the mould without injuring the vertical surfaces and edges of mould. This is also a positive allowance and are given a slight taper on all vertical surfaces. This slight taper inward on the vertical surfaces of a pattem is known as the draft or taper allowance, Draft allowance may be expressed either in degrees or in terms of millimeter per metre on a side. Its amount varies from 10 mm to 20 mm per metre on extemal surfaces and from 40 mm to 60 mm per metre on internal surfaces, Rapping or shake allowance ‘When a pattem is withdrawn from a mould, rapping is used in the pattern, As a result of this rapping, the cavity in the mould is slightly increased. Therefore, a negative allowance is to be provided in the pattern to compensate the same, Rapping or shake allowance is provided for making the pattern slightly smaller than the actual size to compensate for the rapping of the mould. Distortion or camber allowance Some castings, because of their size, shape and type of metal, tend to warp or distort due to uneven shrinkage of casting during the cooling period. Thus oné portion cools rapidly when compared to another portion of the same casting. To avoid this, pattern is bent in opposite direction. To compensate for this condition, the pattern is made in such a manner that the legs converge but as the casting cools after its removal from the mould, the legs straighten and remain parallel. U, V, C, I, F etc. like shaped casting has tend to distort or warp while cooling. -#1.9 Moulding Tools and Equipment Moulding tools and equipment may be classified into three groups, namely, hand tools, flasks, and mechanical tools. Hand tools ‘The hand tools used by moulder are numerous and the most important tools are as: Shovel A shovel is used for mixing and tempering moulding sand, I is used for moving the sand from the pile to the flask as shown in Figure. Fig. 1.10 ShovelRiddle A riddle or screen, consists of a standard wire mesh fitted in a circular or square wooden frame. It is used for removing foreign materials such as nails, shot metal, splinters of wood, etc., from the moulding sand. Both hand ‘and power riddles are available in the market. Power riddles are used where large volumes of sand are to be riddled. Fig. 1.11 Riddle ‘Trowel A trowel is made of a metal blade fitted with a wooden handle as shown in Figure. Trowel js used to smooth or sleek over the surfaces of moulds. A moulder uses trowel for repairing the damaged portions of a mould. The shape of the trowel is rectangular, round or square end, Fig. 1.12 Trovel Rammer A hand rammer is a wooden or metal tool used for packing or ramming the sand into the mould as shown in Figure. ‘One end is called peen, is wedge shaped, and the opposite end is called butt, has a flat surface. Floor rammer is similar in construction but have long handles. Pneumatic rammer is used for large moulding and is saving considerable labour and time, Fig. 1.13 Rammer Strike-off bar ‘The strike-off bar isa piece of metal or wood with a straight edge as shown in Figure. Its used to strickle or strike-off ‘excess moulding sand from the mould after ramming to provide a level surface.SSS Fig. 1.14 Strike off bar Sprue pin ‘A sprueis a tapered peg as shown in Figure. Its pushed through the cope to the joint of the mould, After withdrawing the peg, it removes the sand and leaving an opening for the metal. This opening is called the sprue and is used for the pouring of the metal. The sprue pin forms the riser pin. Mallet . Arraw hide mallet is used to loosen the pattern in the itiduld so tht it can be withdrawn without damaging the mould. Swab - <= A simple swab is a small brush having long hemp fibres. A bulb sWab has a rubber bulb to hold the water and a soft hair brush at the open end and is shown in Figure? Swabs are tised for moistening the sand around a pattern or for applying paint. Vent rod vita es A vent rod of wire is used to make a series of small holes. These holes permit the gases to escape while the molten ‘metal is being poured. Fig. 1.17 Swab Fig. 1.18 Vent rodDraw spike or screw ‘The draw spike is a pointed steel rod, with a loop at one end. It is used to rap and draw patterns from the sand. Two kinds of draw spikes are illustrated in the Figure. The draw spike is threaded on the end to engage metal patterns. Fig. 1.19-Draw spike or sorew Lifter Lifters are made of thin sections of steel of various widths and lengths. Lifter one end is bent at right angle as shown, in Figure. They are used to clean and finish the bottom and sides of deep, narrow openings in moulds. Slick Iisa small double-ended tool having a spoon’9ii ‘on the other end as shown in Figure. This tool can be made in a variety of shapes. Oval spoon is most commonly used tool. Slicks are used for repairing and finishing small surfaces of the mould. tolleM BFF git Qs neat ven ich FAQ AZN Sek ny | Bellow Bellow is used to blow the loose particles ‘of sand from pattern and mould cavity and a hand blower is shown in Figure. Moulding machines are also provided With a compressed air jet to perform this operation. Fig. 1.22 Below Gate cutter [isa small piece of tin plate shaped as shown in Figure. This tool is used for cutting gates and runners in the mould. Fig, 1.23 Gate cutterRapping plate A rapping or lifting plate is used to facilitate rapping and lifting of the pattern from the mould. The plate must be firmly attached to the pattern by long screws or even bolts in larger patterns. The moulder places a draw spike in the rapping hole and raps it to loosen the pattern, Then fixes draw screws into the screw hole on the plate, Gaggers Gaggers are iron rod bent at one end or both ends and is sometimes called lifters. They are used for reinforcement of sand in the top part of a moulding box and to support hanging bodies of sand. Se Fig. 1.25, Gaggers Clamps Clamps are used for holding together the cope and drag of the completed mould. It prevents the'cope from floating or rising when the metal is introduced into the mould. Fig. 1.26 Clamps Spirit level The sprit evel is used by moulder to ensure that his bed of sand moulding box or moulding qa machine table is horizontal. Fig. 1.27 Spirit level Moulding board and bottom board A moulding board is a smooth wooden board on which the flask end pattems are placed when the mould is started. ‘When the mould is tured over, the function of this board is ended the mould is placed on a similar board called a bottom board, which acts as a support for the mould until itis poured,‘Moulding boxes Sand moulds are prepared in specially constructed boxes called flasks. The purpose of the flask is to impart the necessary rigidity and strength to the sand in moulding. They are usually made in two parts and held in alignment by dowel pins. The top part is called the cope and the lower part the drag. If the flask is made in three sections, the centre is called the cheek. These flasks can be made of either wood or metals depending upon the size required and the purpose the flasks must serve. Metal flasks are used for large production. If few castings are needed, wooden flask is the most economical. A flask is made of metal or wood. It is made with the hinge on one corner and a lock on the opposite comer for removing the flask from the mould before itis poured. The flask has the advantage that many ‘moulds can be made for the same pouring from a single flask. Fig. 1.28 Snap and box flask Mechanical tools ‘The mechanical tools in the foundry include the many types of moulding machines that will ram the mould, roll it over, and draw the pattern. There are power operated riddles, sand mixers, sand conveyors, etc. The mould is even poured and shaken out mechanically. Casting is taken by machine to the cleaning department. The amount of mechanization, however, varies considerably from one foundry to the other. Mass-production foundries making large quantities of relatively few types of castings are in a position to mechanize more completely than the job-shop foundries. ¥ 1.10 Moulding Sands ~ © ‘The moulding sand constituent’s silica sand, binder, additives and water, and are described as: Silica Sand: Silica sand is the main constituent of moulding sand. It is a product of the breaking up of quarry stone ‘or decomposition of granite. Silica sand imparts refractoriness, permeability and chemical resistivity to the moulding sand, Silica sand is specified according to the size and average shape of its grains. Binder: Binder is used to provide the sufficient strength and cohesiveness to the moulding sand, so that it retains its shape after ramming. The common binders are as: (@ organic binders ii) inorganic binders Molasses, dextrin, linseed oil and resins are organic binders and are usually used in core making. Clay, Portland cement and sodium silicate are inorganic binders. Amongst all, the clay binders are widely used. Additives: Additives are added to the moulding sand to improve its existing properties or to include certain new Properties. Coal dust, wood flour, mollases, cornflour and pitch are used as an additive. ‘Water: Water is added to the clay and it furnishes the bounding action of clay. It penetrates the mass of clay and form microfilm. The bonding quality of the clay depends on the maximum thickness of microfilm it can hold. Generally, Water quantity is varies from 2 to 8 percent, AAI Types of Moulding Sand Moulding sands are classified according to their use and are described as: Green sand: It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having quantity of water 6 to 8 percent. Green sand in its natural state contains enough moisture to give sufficient bonding property to the sand. It is fine, soft light,porous. It retains the shape easily when squeezed in the hand. Moulds prepared by this sand are known as green sand moulds. This sand moulds are used for small and medium castings only. Dry sand: Green sand mould is dried or baked after the mould is made is called dry sand mould. By drying the mould in moulding box it becomes stronger and compact. They are suitable for larger and heavy castings. Loam sand: Loam sand has clay percentage as high as 50%. Loam sand is used for large castings and loam moulding (Generally used for skeleton and sweep patterns.) Facing sand: This sand is used directly next to the surface of pattern. It must possess high strength and refractoriness because it comes in direct contact with the hot molten metal, It is made of silica sand and clay in fine powder form, ‘and unused sand is added to it. The layer of facing sand over pattern ranges from 20 to 30 mm depending upon the size of pattem. Backing sand: Backing sand is the used to back up the facing sand. and is used again and again, It is used to fill up the moulding box. Old and repeatedly used sand is generally used as backing sand, Parting sand: Parting sand is fine dry sand. It is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern. It is alsom. used to keep parting surface of the drag and cope to separate without clinging. Clay-free silica sand can be used as parting sand. Core sand: Sand used for making cores is called core sand. Silica sand is mixed with core oil i.e. linseed oil, light mineral oil, resin and other binding materials, sometimes, it called oil sand. For the sake of economy, pitch or flours and water may be used in case of large cores. Aaa Properties of Moulding Sand fies ‘ Good moulding sand must possess the properties such as porosity, flowability, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, refractoriness and collapsibility etc. All the properties aré. supposed not only. by the chemical composition, but by its moisture content, by the amount of clay and lastly by the size and shape of the silica sand grains. Porosity or Permeability: The molten metal comes in contact with the moist safid, generates stean these gases and water vapor evolved by the moulding sand do not find opportunity to escape comy ‘mould, they will form gas holes and pores in the casting. So, the Sand must be porous to provide a path for free escape of the gases or moisture which is already present and continuously generated in the mould when the hot molten metal is poured. Sand has more permeability if it contains coarse grains, if ramming is soft and if clay content is less. This ~ property of sand is called porosity or permeability. Flowability or Plasticity: Flowability of moulding sand refers to its ability to behave like a fluid so that, when rammed, it will flow to all portions of a mould to acquire the required shape under pressure and retain the shape when pressure is removed. Good flowability is required of a moulding sand to get a uniform density and to obtain good impression of the pattern in the mould. Flowability increases with increase in clay and water content. Adhesiveness: It is the property of sand which enables it to stick or adhere to another body i.e, they should cling to the sides of the moulding boxes. Thus, due to this property, sand mass can be successfully held in a moulding box and sand does not fall out when the moulding boxes are inverted (Turned over). Cohesiveness or Strength: The ability of sand particles to stick together is known as cohesiveness or the strength of ‘moulding sand. Thus, due to this property, mould retains its shape even after the molten metal is poured in the mould. In green or moist state, this property of sand is termed.as green strength, while for dried or baked state is termed as- dry strength. Cohesiveness property is largely affected by the clay and moisture content, and size of grains, /Refractoriness: It is the property of moulding sand which enables it to withstand high temperature of molten metal without fusing. Refractoriness is measured by the sinter point of the sand rather than its melting point,Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible so that free contraction of the metal occurs. This will naturally avoid the tearing or cracking of the contracting metal, 1.13 Cores 7 ‘A coreis a mass of sand of pre-determined shape to obtain the desired eavity and recess in mould, If made from green ‘and, they are called green sand cores and if made from dry sand and baked, they are called dry sand cores. Types of cores “Method of supporting core inside the mould is taken into consideration before selecting type of core. Core prints are provided on pattem to support core. Core print isa sort of projection atthe end of pattem which supports the core in position inthe mould, Coe prints help to locate the core accurately in mould prevents sagging and resists the molten- metal pressure. ‘The following are the important types of cores. Horizontal core ‘Vertical core ‘ Drop or wing core Balancing core ‘Cover or hanging core 1.14 Chaplets Cores which are used to obtain cavities should be tightly held to withstand force of molten metal, otherwise the core will shift and work piece will get rejected. To keep cores in proper place, Chaplets are used which supports the cores. Fig. 1.29 Chaplets 1.15 Core Print Sometimes castings are required holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These impressions are obtained by using sand cores. For supporting the cores in the mould cavity, a core print is an added projection on a pattern. It forms ‘seat in the mould which is used to hold and locate the core. The cores are used to produce through or blind holes and recesses in the casting. The shapes and sizes of these impressions depend upon the shapes and sizes of cores. q © Fig. 1.30 Core point1.16 Gating System All the channels or passages through which actually the molten metal is delivered to mould cavity is termed as gatin system, Gating system inludes the runner, riser, pouring asin and gate ee. The functions ofa gating system ae: (@ To provide the molten metal with the least disturbance to reduce erosion of the mould material. (®) To facilitate complete filling of the mould cavity. (© Tofill the mould cavity with molten metal at the earliest possible time to avoid temperature gradient, Spru Casting Gate Extended portion of runner to stop impurities Fig. 1.31 Parts of gating system (@ _Toprovide the proper molten metal to the mould for achieving the directional solidification and optimum feeding of shrinkage cavities. (©) To prevent the formation of oxide and dross in the molten metal while flowing through it. () Toprevent the entry of slag, sand and the other particles from the mould. ‘A gating system is usually made up of (1) pouring basin, (2) sprue, (3) runner, and (4) flow-off gate. They are shown in Figure. Pouring basin: This is made on the top of the mould or the sprue in the cope of funnel-shaped opening to serves as pouring basin. The purpose of the pouring basin isto direct the low of molten metal from ladle to the sprue. It helps in ‘maintaining the molten metal flow rate and reduces turbulence and vortexing atthe sprue entrance. This should be made large and placed near the edge of the moulding box to fil the mould quickly. ‘Sprue: The vertical passage that connects the pouring basin with the runner or gate and passes through the cope, is called the Sprue, The cross-section ofa sprue may be circular, square or rectangular. The sprues are generally tapered ‘downward to avoid aspiration of air and metal damage during casting. A round sprue has a minimum surface exposed to cooling and offers the minimum resistance to the flow of metal. The aspiration and turbulence are minimized ina rectangular sprue. The round sprues are upto 20 mm diameter and rectangular sprues are of larger size. Runner: In large castings, molten metal is carried from sprue base to several gates around the cavity through a passageway is called the runner. The runner is generally located inthe drag, but sometime it located in the cope. This depends on the shape of the casting. It should be streamlined to avoid aspiration and turbulence. Gate: A passage through which molten metal flows from the runner to the mould cavity is known as gate, The gates wn and size are so arranged that they can feed molten metal to the casting at a rate consistent with the rate of 1ot be provided in a gate, they may break during passage of the molten metal. should be located where they can locatio solidification. The sharp edges should n ‘The sand particles may pass into the mould cavity with the molten metal. The gates be easily removed without damaging the casting. Gates may be classified according to their position in the mould cavity as (1) top gating, (2) parting-line gating, and (3) bottom gating. However, different types of gating are shown in Figure.1.17 Risers ‘The function of ariseris to feed the casting during solidification so that no shrinkage cavities are formed. Risers serve as a heat source so that they freeze last and promote directional solidification. The requirement of risers depends on the type of metal poured and the complexity of the casting. Risers also permit the escape of steam, gas, and air as the mould cavity is being filed up with the molten metal. ‘The main requisites of an effective riser are: Itmust have enough reservoirs to feed the molten metal in order to feed the last part of the casting to freeze. ‘The solidification time of metal in the riser should be greater than that in the mould cavity. Itshould gain sufficient feeding pressure either by atmospheric pressure of by metallostatic pressure. Itshould be designed that it establishes the suitable effects of temperature gradients for directional solidification towards the riser. 1.18 Moulding Processes Based on the Methods Used ‘The different moulding processes may be classified as follows Bench Moulding: Bench moulding is applied to mould on a work bench of a height convenient to the moulder. It is used to prepare the mould of small and light items, which are to be casted by non-ferrous metals. Floor Moulding: Floor moulding is commonly used for preparing the mould of heavy and large size of jobs on the foundry floor in the same way as green-sand or dry-sand moulding. In floor moulding, the floor itself acts as a drag. Itis preferred for such rough type of castings where the upper surface finish has no importance. Pit Moulding: Moulds of large size of jobs which cannot be accommodated in moulding boxes are moulded in pits. The pit itself acts as a drag. Generally, cope is sufficient to complete the mould. Runner, riser, gates and pouring basin are cut in it. Machine Moulding: Machine moulding method is used for mass production of identical casting. The moulding operations such as ramming of sand, rolling over the mould, and gate cutting etc. are performed by the moulding ‘machine. This method of moulding is more efficient and economical in comparison to hand moulding. 1.19 Moulding Processes Based on the Moulding Materials ‘The different moulding processes may be classified as follows Green Sand Mould Green sand moulds are made with green or moist sand which contains silica sand, clay and water. They are homogeneously mixed and give the desired properties for the desired type of work. For making a green sand mould, the two piece pattem is taken and its one half is placed over the moulding board or floor. The drag or lower portion of moulding box is kept around the pattern such that the pattem lies at the centre of drag. A small layer of parting sand is sprinkled over the pattem and then facing sand upto 15 to 20 mm is placed Over the pattern, followed by backing sand tll the flask is full. The sand in box is rammed with pen hammer and then with a flat hammer til the sand Send becomes compact. A strickle is used to scrap away excess Dag Secours a] made on the top which facilitates easy escape of gases. The drag is then rolled over and placed on clean moulding board. Leila 1 ‘The cope is fitted over the drag as shown in Figure. Moulding board Fig. 1. 32 Green sand mound (a) drag‘The second half of pattem is fitted over the first half and sprue or runner and riser pins are fitted as shown in Figure. The cope is then filled with facing sand followed by backing sand. The sand is rammed and vents provided as done previously in drag. The pouring sprue and riser are then withdrawn and funnel shaped opening is cut with a trowel to form a pouring basin. The cope is then lifted and placed besides drag on moulding board. Riser Runner | WILDPro I ea Fig. 1.33 Green sand mound (b) Cope and drag To withdraw the pattem from mould, itis slightly rapped sideways and then removed from mould. After gate cutting, loose particles of sand are blown away by a hand blower (bellow) or machined operated blower. The cope is then fitted over the drag and the mould is ready for metal pouring. Riser Runner at | ea | LH Dad Marng bod Fig. 1.34 Green sand moulding for ca Green sand moulding is used for small and mediuin sized castings. Green sand moulds are easy to prepare, economical and are mostly preferred. —Kavantages of green sand mould 1. Green-sand moulding is the least expensive method of producing a mould, 2. There is less distortion than in dry sand moulds because no baking is required. 3. Flasks are ready for reuse in minimum time. 4, Dimensional accuracy is good across the parting line. 5. There is less danger of hot teraing of casting than in other types of mould. ddvantages of green sand mould 1. Sand control is more critical than in dry sand moulds. 2. Erosion of the mould is more common in the production of large castings. 3. Surface finish deteriorates as the weight of the casting increases. 4, Dimensional accuracy decreases as the weight of the casting increases, ‘The Principal methods of green-sand moulding are as follows: 1. Open-sand method 2. Bedded-in method 3. Turn-over methodDry sand Mould The procedure for making dry sand moulds same a that of green sand mould exept the sand used is pure silica ‘with binding material, The mould is baked or dried in an oven and only metal moulding boxes are used. Skin-Dried Mould Thisis a process that dries the moisture from the surface layer of the rammed sand toa depth of about 25 mm or more by using gas torch or heater. Ithas the advantages of both green sand and dry sand moulding toa certain extent, Since the time required for drying is less than the dry sand, the method is less expensive, Skin-drying mould is particularly adapted to very large moulds, or to works which require accurate details. Loam Moluld Itis preferred for making very large sizeof castings as conventional pattem and mould boxes are unsuitable for large castings. Large gears, pulleys, cylinders, pans etc. are made by loam moulds. Clay and silica sand are mixed with water in definite proportion. Core sand Mould Mixture is prepared with silica sand, carbon, olivine and chamotte sands for core sand moulding,. Sand that contains more than 5% clay may not be used as a core sand, For making core, the core sand is filled and rammed in the core box properly, This operation takes a short time afier that the core box is withdrawn and the core removed. 4.20 Special Casting Processes Die casting In Die-casting, molten metal is forced into a die or mould or cavity at high pressure for rapidly producing accurately dimensioned parts. Because of high pressure the molten metal fills the cavity quickly and all minute details of die are Sbiained. As the die is cooled by external sources, the casting solidifies quickly and then the die plates are separated and the casting is ejected out. Ifthe parts are small, several parts may be cast at one time and is known as multiple- cavity die. This process is suitable for non-ferrous metals i.e, lead, magnesium, tin, and zine alloys, etc. Permanent mould casting In the sand castings, the moulds are destroyed after solidification of castings, but in the permanent mould castings, the moulds are reused a number of times. The mould material should have high melting point. Steel and Cast Iron are ‘widely used as mould material, For making hollow castings, cores made up of metal are used, No external pressure is applied and hence this process is also called gravity die-casting. Centrifugal casting Centrifugal casting employs the centrifugal forces (instead of force of gravity) to keep the metal under pressure as i cast. The pressure exerted on the molten metal provides a denser and more uniform structure of the caging, The metal is poured atthe centre of the mould and is thrown towards the periphery ofthe mould. Solidification of metal takes place from the outer surface, thus developing an area of weakness in the centre of the wall. Cestrifugal casting is employed for producing sewage and water supply pipes, gun barrels, symmetric objects like flywheel, pulleys, gears ete. s Investment casting . ‘This process of casting is referred to as “Jost wax process” and “precision casting process”. Casting made by this process is very close tolerances and do not require subsequent machining. 1.21 Safety in Casting 1. Castingis like any other primary forming processes involve hazardous operation involving red bot or molten metal 2. Protective head gear, safety foot-wear, protective glasses must be worm in the working area. s3. All precautions taken against fire must be available there. 4, Itmust be seen that at no time hot or molten metal comes in contact with water as it may generate steam at an explosive rate, 5. In the shop floor adequate ventilation must be provided. 6. Bum injury cases must be treated immediately by medical personnel, 1.22 Questions 1, What are the common materials used for pattern-making? 2, What are the factors which govern the selection of a proper material for pattern-making? 3. What is pattern? Name some of the materials of which pattern are made, 4, What are the common allowances provided on pattern and why? 5, How are patterns classified? 6, What considerations are necessary while designing a pattern? 7, How is layout of a pattern made? 8, Write short notes on: (a) follow board, (b) strickle board, (c) stop-off pieces, (4) loose-pieces, (e) core prints and ® core boxes, giving suitable sketches wherever necessary 9. What is moulding? What are the main characteristics, which a good moulding sand should possess? 10. What is a core? Name different types of cores. 11. Classify and name different tools and equipments used in foundries. 12, What are the main characteristics which a good moulding sand should posses? How these characteristics influence the performance of a moulding sand during moulding and casting? 13. Explain how the grain size and shape affect the performance of a foundry sand. 14, What is the function of additives in moulding sands? Explain the effects of various additives used in moulding sand. 15. Explain the process of sand preparation and sand conditioning. 16. What do you understand from the term ‘Gating system’? 17. What are the main characteristics of good core sand? 18, What are the main core binders? Discuss their uses in making core sand. 19. State different types of cores. 20, Write short notes on the following (i) segmental pattern (ii) sweep pattern (iii) cope and drag pattern 21. Classify different types of moulds 22. Draw a sketch of atypical mould and name its principal pars. 23, Distinguish between green sand moulding and dry sand moulding. 24, Write short notes on the following (a) floor moulding, (b) bench moulding, (c) pit moulding, (d) sweep moulding, (©) plate moulding, and (f) machine moulding. 25. What do you understand by the term gating system? 26. What is meant by the term ‘risering’? State the advantages that are provided by a riser. By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 WELDING 2.1 Introduction Welding is process of joining similar o dissimilar metals by the aplication of hea, with or without the application of pressure and / or addition of filler material) The fusion of the metal takes place by means of heat and obtained from . Flame can be easily controlled. 2. Welding can be done outdoors and in remote areas. 3. For welding thin sheets, 4, Heating, welding, metal cutting, brazing etc. can be performed by changing the nozzle tip. Disadvantages 1, The cylinders have to carefully handle. 2. Gases are expensive. 3. The process is slow. 4, Heat affected zone is more and hence distortion problems arises after cooling. 5, Rarely used for higher thickness upto 30 mm. 2.6 Arc Welding ‘Are welding isa fusion welding process in which the heat is generated by an electric arc between the workpiece (base metal) and electrode. The electric arc is produced when two conductors (anode, which is the positive pole of D.C. xa ing (direct current) separated by Seer the cathode, the ngative pole) fan elecc cic ar touched roger and then oe een at there is sufficient voltage inthe circuit to maintain the flow of current through towards the anode. These electror 1a, an electric arc is formed. Electrons are accelerated from the cathode and moved oe sttike the anode at high velocity, and large amount of heat is generated. Electrons a moving through thes gp Between he decode, eal he column, They cli ih he i in jonzed gs cnuma ben te elses The ea ofthe ars the enprte of hepart etal ch i aan “ a ‘The electrode metal is melted and is transferred into the metal in the form ‘metal surface 1e deposited metal serves to fill and bond the joint or to fuse and build up the parent Electrode ———— Direction of travel ‘Are Crator Penetration | EK oton meal Solidified weld’etal Le pse meta Fig. 2.6 Arc welding Arc welding equipment ‘The most commonly used equipment for arc welding consists of AC. or D.C. machine Electrode Electrode holder Cables, cable connectors Cable lug Chipping hammer Earthing clamps Wire brush 9. Helmet 10. Safety goggles 11. Hand gloves 12. Aprons, sleeves the following SN AAALNE Are Welding Machine Both alternating current and. direct current are used for electric arc welding. Bach machine is having its particular applications. D.C. welding supply.is obtained from generatcr driven by electrie motor OF By internal combustion To oe walding supply i obtained from transformers and used for all are welding, where main electricity supply is available. They hhave to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal i For light manual welding, a 100 to 200 ampere machine is used, open circuit welding voltage (50-90 volts) cere is portable and satisfactory. For manual welding of average work, a 300 oF 400 ampere size is suitable. For automatic welding, between 800 and 3000 ampere capacities requires either in a sing'e unit or a number of small units in parallel is used.ARC welding with A.C. and D.C. ‘The advantages of direct current welding are higher arc stability and the degree to which the work is heated. With direct current, the greater heat is generated at the positive pole (i.e. 2/3) and less heat is generated at the negative pole (ie. 1/3), In metal-arc welding, the work is connected to the positive pole of the D.C. generator and the filler rod to the negative pole, in order to melt the greater mass of metal in the base material. On the other hand, certain types of modern electrodes due to their coating and material properties, are connected advantageously to the positive pole of the generator. Table 2.1 Comparison of A.C and D.C welding process Properties _| D.C. Welding Process ‘A.C. Welding Process 1 [Power tis easily used with A.C. mains and with any | It is most preferred with A.C. mains supply. Supply generated D.C. power supply also. 2 [Polarity | Ithas fixed polarities. Its polarity is interchanged in every change of| cycle of power. 3__| Current value | Itis better suitable with lower current value also, | Mostly suitable with higher current value. Are ‘Comparatively easier to develop an arc. It| In some cases it is comparatively difficult to consists almost every time problem of arc blow | develop an arc. and maintaining of arc is little etc. In D.C. welding process, maintaining of arc | difficult than D.C. are welding. It consists very is comparatively easier. rarely any problem of arc like arc blow etc. 5 |Blectrode | In this process bare and coated, both types of | Bare electrodes are not suitable so only flux electrodes, can be used easily. coated electrodes are mostly used. 6 | Arclength | Maintaining of small arc is easier than A.C. arc | Maintaining small arcis difficult only with iron welding. powder electrodes are exceptional. 7 |Welding | Ithas relatively more voltage drops so welding | Voltage drops are less as compared to D.C. distance _| is preferred to do at nearest to the D.C. mains | supply at a distance from mains power supply supply. so for distance welding from power mains supply, A.C. arc welding is mostly preferred. 8 | Welding | Thin sheets can be easily welded by this process. | By this process welding of thin sheets is difficult. ‘capabilities | Tt has distinct polarities so it is easier to weld | Welding capability is limited upto only ferrous different metals also other than ferrous metals. | metals generally due to change in polarity in every cycle. Mostly it is not suitable for !non- ferrous metal welding. 9 [Installation | Generally the D.C. welding, equipments are | Itconsists generally cheaper welding equipments cost costlier than A.C. are welding. like welding transformer etc. 10 [Maintenance | More costlier and critical. ‘More economical and easier. Are Welding Current and Voltage Open-circuit voltage (no load voltage), ic., the voltage needed to strike the arc, is higher than the are voltage in order to facilitate easy starting of the arc. With direct current, the open-circuit voltage must be at least 30 to 35V, while with alternating current is should not be lower than 50 or 55V. Open circuit voltage usually ranges from 50 to OV. The voltage falls after the arc is established. The voltage necessary for proper arc maintenance depends upon the composition of the electrode rod, its coating, the type of current, but the main factor is the length of the arc. The current for manual operation of the metal arc welding usually ranges from 30 to 500A, and for automatic operation, from 75 to 600A. _3Te fable 2.2 Usual voltages for machines used in arc welding Current (A) Voltage (¥) ‘upto 100 15 over 100 to 250 20 over 200 to 250 25 ‘over 250 to 350 30 over 350 to 500 35 over 500 40 A large current produces are blow. The space around the arc and in the adjacent metal is always threaded by ‘magnetic fields which tend to deflect the are. This is known as are blow. When large currents are used, a the magnetic field intensity is directly proportional tothe square of the curent, doubling the current will increase the assorated ‘magnetic ficld four times. The presence of arc blow causes the arc to become erratic, unstable, and in general, undesirable for good-quality welds, Polarity In Arc Welding With alternating current, the reversal of the current, the heat generated at each pole is the same, and thus changing over the connections to the electrode does not have any effect on its performance. On the other hand, polarity of alternating curreat has a great bearing on electrode performance. "The conductor from which the direct current passes into the arc is designated as the positive terminal and the other conductor as the negative terminal. The heat generated by the flow of current is spit into two parts, in the ratio 67 per cent at the positive pole and 33 per cent atthe negative pole. Ifthe ligt-coated electrode is connected fo the negative pole and the work tothe positive pol, the molten pool will become the source ofthe higher heat content the electrode remaining below the critical heat value. On the other hand, if light-coated electrode is connected to the postive poe it quickly becomes red-hot and welding s impossible This also provides the reason why alerting current equipment is not suitable for most light-coated electrodes. For direct current, welding heavy ‘material the lectrode made negative and for welding thin material the work s made negative. This rules not applicable carbon- arc welding where carbon rod is always made negative. ¥f denoting the connection to the electrode. When the For welding with direct current, there are several ways o re, the term electrode positive is employed and is referred as reversed polarity. electrode is connected to the positive pol is ‘Similarly, when the electrode is conneéted to the negative pole, the term electrode negative is employed and is referred as straight polarity. Electrodes Coated electrodes serves several purposes as follows: 1. facilitate the establishment and maintenance of the arci protect the molten metal from the surrounding ar by producing a shield of gas around the are and weld pool; provide the formation of slag o protect the welding fom rapid coo provide the alloying elements not contained in the core wires Provide some elements that are required fr stabilization of the ac also added inthis coating. deere namable electrodes are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten which do not consume during welding process The carbon and graphite elecodes are used only in D.C. welding, whereas fangsten electrodes are used eee AG. and D.C. welding. The filler metal requied has to be deposited through a separate filler rod. Thus, itis posible to properly contol the heat input as well asthe amount of filer metal deposited, since both are separately controlled.Workshop Manual 2.7 Arc Welding Processes Various arc welding processes commonly used are: 1, Carbon-are, 2. Metal are. Gas-metal-arc (GMAW) ot Metal-inert-gas arc (MIG). Gas-tungsten-arc(GTAW) or Tungste Atomic hydrogen are. Plasma are. ‘Submerged are Electro-slag welding ‘Thermit welding Some of the welding processes briefly explained below. yee eens 2.8 Shielded Metal Arc Welding In the shielded metal-are welding, a metal rod is used as electrode, and the work being welded is used as another electrode. The temperatures produced between these electrodes are 2,400°C on the negative and 2,600°C on the Positive electrode respectively. During the welding operation, this metal electrode is melted by the heat of the arc. The melted electrode is fused with the base metal, thus forming a solid union after the metal has been cooled. Both ACC. and D.C. may be used. A metal-are welding circuit is illustrated in Fig. Welding rod Electric holder Cra Cable clamped to work Fig. 2.8 Shielded metal arc welding circuit ‘The welding operation is started by adjusting the machine to the correct amperage which is determined by the Size ofthe rod to be used. The correct welding speed is important. Various currents can be used for deciding effect on the forming of proper beads. A welding shows bead characteristic under différent conditions: 1. Welding current too low - excessive piling of the metal. 2. Welding current too high - causing excessive splatter, 3. Voltage too high- bead too small 4. Welding speed too slow - cause excessive piling up of weld metal, 5. Proper current and timing - create a smooth, regular, well formed bead, Undercutting is also a result of too much current. No enough current results in overlapping and a lack of fusion with the metal. 2.9 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) This process was previously called as metal inert fed consumable electrode and the material to As shown in fig. a wire is fed from reel provided which passes current to the wire fro gas welding (MIG) High heat of an electric arc between acontinuously be welded is utilized. Gas shields the place around metal arc. continuously in the gun through two rollers. An electric conductor is ym power control unit, Inert gas is supplied to the gun from cylinder whichnh dudlate doesn'tcombine wth ‘metal and keeps the air away from weld space. For welding steel, carbon aoa xed and Te cope num and oppe, argon or argon lim mint is se, Foe Tain pare 8 nickel and high nickel allo -t oxture fing stainless es apoOnyeen Sheena ist eka alloy angel mire i wed or weing Fig. 2.9 GMAW process ‘The welding guns either air cooled or water cooled depending upon amount of current being used. The wire which is continuously fed ranges from a diameter of 0.9 mm to 3.2 mm.The current ranges from 100 to 400 A, depending upon the diameter of wire used. Speed of melting wire is upto Sm/min, The workpiece, is gradually moved forward tocomplete the whole weld. Advantages 1. Welding speed is very high. 2. For producing quality welds, little operator skill is required. 3.._No chance of moisture trap. 4, No slag is formed 5. No flux is required 6. Quite economical. 7. Corrosion resistor. 8. Easily weld ferrous as well as non-ferrous metals. Disadvantages 1, Equipment is costly and not portable. 2. Difficult to weld small comers and complicated shapes. 3, Mechanical and metallugical properties affected due to high cooling rate. 4, ‘The equipment maintenance is difficult. 2.10 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) GTAW was eatlier called as Tungsten inert Gas (TIG) welding. Air contains hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, etc. which reduce the weld quality. Thus an inert gas is used t0 shield the weld area. Intense heat of electric are between a non-consumable Tungsten electrode and the metal parts produces the weld. In GTAW process the non-consumable tungsten electrode is held in a special electrode holder which permits flow of inert gas around electrode and the arc. ‘The electrode is held in a water cooled torch as shown in the fig. The other end of electrode is connected to the power supply unit through a cable. Inert gas is supplied by gas cylinder through a pressure regulator.‘Non consumable ‘tungsten electrode Torch Gas Gas shield: Inert gas cylinder Fig. 2.10 GTAW process Welding is performed by striking an arc between the workpiece and tungsten electrode. ‘Tungsten electrode (having melting point of about 3300C*) operates in an atmosphere of inert gas such as helium, carbon dioxide, argon etc. The shielding gas displaces the air surrounding the arc and the weld pool thereby preventing contaminations of weld by gases like oxygen and nitrogen. Aluminum magnesium based alloys, titanium, stainless steel etc. can by easily welded by this process. Advantages of GTAW Process 1, Heat affected zone is very low. 2. It produces high quality welds in nonferrous and unlike metals easily e.g. Brass and copper, mild steel and stainless steel. . 3. Cleaning is not required, due to the absence of slag and splatter,. 4, Are and weld pool are clearly visible to the welder. Disadvantages of GTAW Process 1. Argon or helium gas cost is high. 2. High skilled worker is required. 3. For thicker materials, multi-runs are required, 2.11 Soldering Soldering is the process of joining two metals with the help of a fusible alloy or metal called solder (used as a filler metal). The solder is applied in the molten state. The melting point of filler metal is below 420 °C. Generally lead and tin alloys are used in solder and are as: 1. Soft solder - Lead 37% and Tin 63% 2. Medium solder ~ Lead 50% and Tin 50% 3. Electricians solder ~ Lead 58% and Tin 42% 4, Plumber's solder ~ Lead 70% and Tin 30% Soldering are of two types: soft and hard. Soft soldering: Soldering is used for sheet-metal work. The parts are not exposed to high temperature or heavy loads and forces. The melting point of solder is in the range from 50 to 350°C. Flux is used after cleaning the workpieces to prevent oxidation, Although corrosive, zinc chloride is the most common soldering flux. A soldering Iron or blow torch is used to melt the solder and join the parts.ctlengbebed oon ‘Sven ay used hav higher meling point. They are tongs thn sof solders iver about 600 to 900°C. A blow torch is sed to par i ese The hard solders temperatures are var fom anditen sls isplaead eee and al traces of il reas, di, scale et. re removed, Fux applied the joints filed. th the help of soldering iron or blow pipe, the solder is melted and Oe ag eee Fart olering and but joint are avoided. The clearance ranges between the two workpieces anu .25 mm. For increasing the strength, interlocking seams or edge reinforcement or crimping, etc. is performed. Applications of Soldering 1. Electrical and Electronic components joining Ii i i transis it ining like soldering of radi 7 2. Soldering of metal containers of food packing industry, buckets mice . oe 3, Automobile Parts:- Soldering cable sheets, body soldering of de : i nobile Pa ring of dents and seams, radiator fins, etc. 4, Soldering of pipes, tank leaks, measuring cans etc. 2.12 Brazing Brazing is similar to soldering, but it gives a much stronger joint than soldering. It is the process of joining metal pieces by adding a harder filler material called Spelter. Spelter fuses at temperature above red heat (427°) but below the melting point temperature of the parts to the joined. Bonding medium is made in the molten state to flow between the joints before solidification. In this process, the pieces to be joined are never melted and the parts are not deeply fused with filler metal. The molten filler metal is drawn into the close fitting joint by capillary action after the joint is cleaned and flux is applied. The widely used flux is Borax. The parts are then allowed to cool slowly. Filler metals used in this process are as: 1. Copper base alloys. 2. Silver base alloys. Copper Base Alloys Copper alloys like spelter (brass, a mixture of copper and zinc), bronze (copper, tn alloy), are used as filler metals. Silver Base Alloys ‘The process using silver base alloys is also called hard soldering or silver soldering. It uses silver alloys (Silver and ‘copper or Silver, copper and zinc) having low melting point and better flow ability. ‘The heating is done in a number of ways: (@ Fumace Brazing: Done in controlled atmosphere in a furnace. The furnace may be of box type, mesh belt, roller hearth conveyor type, etc. Gi) Torch Brazing: It is the easiest and most commonly used method in which heating is done by a torch. Gases used are oxyacetylene, oxy hydrogen, oxy-coty gas etc. (ii) Resistance Brazing: Electric current is passed through the parts to be brazed. Used for small parts and mass production, iv) Induction Heat Brazing: Itis performed to confine the heat to the joint to avoid overall heating of the workpiece, ‘The time taken is very shor, it s economical and there is no flame hazard hence even a semi skilled labour can perform this process. (¥) Metal Bath Brazing: It is a dip process used for mass production. The parts are cleaned, flux applied, parts are then clamped together and dipped in a tank of molten spelter. Used for small workpieces, for example, joining of wires. . Applications 1. For joining of Tips of cutting tools, die punches, etc. 2. For joining carbon steels with non-ferrous metals.3. For joining pipes of bicycle frames, stream turbine blades. 4, Forrepairing tank leaks, pipe fittings, radiators, heat exchangers, electrical parts, heavy castings, etc. 5. For joining hard metals like Tungsten carbide, stellate, etc, to steel. Advantage ‘Any complex shape can be joined by this process. Cast Iron and wrought iron metals can be easily joined. {As there is no uneven heating and cooling, stress free condition is achieved. Metals of different thickness can be easily joined. Process is simple, economical and can be done in remote areas. weer Disadvantages 1. Joint is weak when compared to welded joint. 2. Can be used only for thin cross sections. 3, Cost of joint preparation is very high. 2.13 Welding Positions ‘According to the position during welding, all welds are classified as: 1. Down hand or flat welding: In this welding, weld is deposited in any direction on a horizontal surface, so that the welding is done above the face of the weld. This welding is mainly used for butts, fillet welds and padding welds. 2. Horizontal welding: In this welding, weld is deposited on a vertical surface in a horizontal direction (left to right or right to left). This welding is used for vessels and reservoirs welding. ‘Vertical welding: In this welding, weld is deposited on a vertical surface in a vertical direction (vertical-up or vertical-down). Vertical-up welding is used where deep penetration welds are required. It produces stronger welds and is preferred for higher strength. Vertical-down welding is used for sealing operation and for welding sheet metal. 4, Inclined welding: In this welding, weld is deposited up or down on an inclined surface or at any angle less than 90° with horizontal plane. 5, Overhead welding: In this welding, weld is deposited on a horizontal surface in any direction so that the face of the weld is above the operator's head. In this position the welding is most difficult than other methods. The molten metal tends to fall down away from weld due to gravitational force. So, generally heavy coated electrodes are preferred for overhead welding, PUR, Fig. 2.11 Positions of welding ((a) Down hand (b) Vertical {c) Inclined (d) Horizontal (e) Over head 2.14 Welding Defects ‘The principal objective of inspection or quality control is to find the defects in the welding to ensure the high quality of products through the careful examination ofthe component parts at each state of manufacture. The defects observed during the inspection of a welded joint are as:(a) Poor Fusion: {tis the lack of thorough and complete union between the weld deposit and workpiece. It is due to insufficient heat and too fast travel of torch or electrode, (®) Porosity: Itis the inclusion of gases which are entrapped in the weld. Porosity is caused due to damp electrode, ver longa improper current intensity, wrong type of electrode, dampness of workpiece, moisture presence in lux, etc. (c) Cracks: They are formed due to uneven stresses because of non-uniform heating and cooling. The reasons are ‘excess of sulphur or phosphorous in weld metal, due to incorrect welding technique, uneven cooling rate. (@)_ Undercut: Itis a groove melted into the base metal next to the toe of the weld Itis because of non-uniform feed of weld rod, excessive heating, improper position of torch tip or electrode, use of bigger size of electrode, etc. (e) Slag Inclusions: Itis the presence of non-metallic substance like dir, slag, etc. in Tie weld. This defect reduces the strength of the weld. It is due to non-uniform melting of electrode coating, high viscosity of slag, use of very high or very low current, bad direction of arc ahead of weld, use of very large electrode etc. () Overlapping: Itis the protrusion of weld metal beyond toe or root of the weld, Itis due to insufficient weld speed (thus metal being stacked at the same place), incorrect electrode angle. (@) Gaps from Incomplete Fusion: Gaps are created in weld there by producing discontinuous joints. It is due to high speed of electrode, use of bigger electrode size, low current, poor joint penetration ete. 2.15 Testing of Weld Non-Destructive tests 1. Visual Examination 2. Magnetic Particle Test 3. Sound Test (i) X-Ray Test Gi) Gamma Ray Test 4, Radiographic Test 5. Ultrasonic Test 16 Welded Joints ‘The following are the basic types of joints used to weld the material, : (a) Butt joint @® Lapjoi (QT -joint (@ Comer Join (© Edge Joint jut Joint . Cs used to join two metals whose edges or ends are approximately located inthe same plane as shown in the fig. ie members are placed side by side and welding is done from one or both sides depending upon the thickness of workpiece. atin : ge Weld Fig. 2.12 But joining Lew Joint ' Ttis used to join two overlapping plates (one above the other) as shown in the fig. The edge of each plate is welded to the surface of other plate. The joint can be single lap (only on one side) or double lap (on both sides) for more strength,£ Plates 1 a Fig. 2.13 Lap joining T Joint It's used to weld two plates or sections where axis are at right angles to each other (approximately). Plates f Weld Fig. 2.14 T joining Corner Joint tis used to join edges of two plates whose edges are at approximately right angles to each other. Weld oa [ Plates: Fig. 2.15 Corner joining Edge Joint tis used to join two plates which are having parallel axis. 2.16 Edge Preparation Edge preparation is necessary to have sound welds. It is done by bevelling the edges s0 that weld material can be filled in Butt joint. The edges should be free from oil, dirt, grease etc. ‘The following types of edges are prepared: Square Edge Itis used for butt welding. The thickness of sheet metal plates varies from 3 to 5 mm. The edges are spaced at distance of 3mm before welding. c3acS Fig. 2.17 Square edgeSingle V Joint This wpe efit ee for ates above 8 mm thickness and upto 16mm thickness. The edges are made in the form lepending upon the welding technique to be used as shown in the fig. cM Fig. 2.18 Single V joint Double V Joint Itis used when the plates are over 16 mm thick and welding is done on both sides of the plates as shown in fig. LC] Fig. 2.19 Double V joint Single U and Double U joint ‘This type of joint is used when the thickness of plate is more than 20mm. They have more strength and requires less filler material but the edge preparation is difficult. cy Lm] Fig. 2.20 Single U and Double U joint Similarly, other joints are Single Bevel, Double Bevel, Single J and Double J, etc. 2.17 Important Terminology Relating with Electric Arc Welding Process 1. Open circuit voltage: This voltage may be called the voltage at electrode when no arc is formed and! machine is switched on condition. Gemally it remains 60-100 voltage. 2. Are voltage: This voltage may be defined as the voltage on el operation. 3. Duty cycle: Duty cycle is Jlectrode when regular Arc is formed during welding the time duration up to which that specific machine can supply a specific current and voltages for specific time duration without making any hazard toa welding machine, 4. Power factor: Itis the relation in between the current used and total current supplied to machine. Power factor = Current used / Current supplied = KW / KVA 5. Polarity: This term is mainly associated with D.C. ‘Are welding because, D.C. current has fixed polarity i.e. +ve and -ve terminals and for the A.C. the polarity is interchanged at every cycle. 6. Polarity may be defined as the relation of (+ve) and (-ve) terminals with respect to the electrode and job. It may be classified in following types 7. Straight polarity: Work piece is attac Itis used for more thick plates, etc. ‘hed to positive terminal and the electrode is attached to negative terminal.8, Reverse polarity / Negative polarity: Work piece is attached to negative terminal and electrode is attached tp positive terminal. It is used with thin plates welding, etc. ¥ wus 9. The polarity has a considerable effect in welding because heat generated at positive terminal is much more than the negative terminal, Heat generated at positive terminal is about 2/3rd and heat generated at negative terminal is about 1/3rd 10. Arc Blow: It may be defined as the deviation of arc during welding due to development of magnetic field around electrode. It generally happens in D.C. are welding due to having fixed polarity. Arc blow generally occurs in three directions, forward, backward and side. 11, Are tarter: It may be defined as the penetrations of arc in base metal. It depends upon arc length, electrode width and thickness of base metal. 12, Spatter: Molten metal dispersed around the welding beads in small drops form is known as spatters. 13. Chipping: Removing the spatters and slag etc. formed on and around the welding bead on metal surface during ‘welding is known as chipping. The slag is formed as a by-product due to use of coated electrode in welding rocess. 4 Edge Preparations: For making different types of joint, some sides of work metal has to be grinded in specific shape and size. The grinding at edge/side of work metal is known as edge preparation. 15, Weaving of Electrodes: This term is related with forward motion of welding electrode on the welding plane, Weaving means tilting of electrode simultaneously along with forward motion of electrode. This is used for increasing width of deposition of molten metal ewer weld. As per requirement of joint, these are of different type as shown in fig. 16. Arc Length: Arc length may be defined as the distance of electrode tip from work metal during welding process. Actually itis better known by practice about the correct length of arc. The distance between the electrode tip and work metal depends upon the voltage and current etc. used for various welding process. Normally about 3 ‘mm distance is assumed as correct distance. Less than 2 mm is counted as short arc and more then 3 mm up to ‘6 mm is assumed as long arc. 17. Blow hole: Itis a type of defect formed during welding operation due to presence of any inpurity or air bubble etc. or any space remains unfilled by molten metal during welding process. 18. Buckling: It is also a type of defect. When work metal is twisted or deshaped in unwanted direction during welding process, itis called buckling. 19. Hard facing: Hard facing may be defined as the process of hardening the surface by welding process. 20. Heat affected zone: During welding process sometime weld metal looks separated from work metal. It happens due to improper heating, This effects called heat affected zone, or we may say the place which had been effected by improper welding heat is known as heat affected zone. 21. Padding: This is the process of making number of layers of metal on a used part of metal to increase its dimensions. 22, Penetration: It may be known as depth of fusion during welding process. 23. Slag: When a flux coated electrode is used in welding process then a layer of flux material is formed over welding ‘bead which contains the impurities of weld material. This layer is known as slag. It is removed by chipping of weld. 2.18 Safety Precautions in Welding ‘Adopt right tool and right procedure for every operation in welding. Don’t wear any loose clothes and wear always safety goggles, apron, gloves and safety shoes etc. while working. ‘Make distances from any inflammable material storage ftom welding place. Never look at are with naked eyes. Use proper length of welding cable / hose pipe during welding. Work place should be clean and avoid any grease or oil etc. to disperse on floor. suseBefore operating any machine it is most important to know well about the application and limitation etc. ‘Tools / Equipment etc. should be placed at their respective places, Always put any suitable fire extinguisher nearly, Ifany confusion, immediately contact the shop incharge. If any abnormal sound or odour is coming from any machine / gas plant, shut off the machine / gas plant immediately and contect the shop incharge. ESeen 2.19 Questions 1, Define welding. What is resistance welding? 2. How the welding is classified? Explain them briefly. 3, What do you understand by gas welding? (b) Describe in brief the equipment required for oxy-acetylene welding. (©) How are neutral, oxidizing and reducing flames obtained in a welding torch? 4, What is the principle, it operation of electric are welding? 5, Write short notes on (a) Straight polarity (b) Reverse polarity (©) Rightward welding (@) Leftward welding (©) Horizontal welding (Vertical welding 6. Difference between the following (@ AC. &D.C. arc welding (b) Pressure & Non-pressure welding (©) Are welding and oxy-acetylene gas weldi 7. Draw the working diagram of electric arc welding setup with equipments. 8. List the equipment required for HL.P. oxy-acetylene gas welding setup. 9, What type of transformer is used in A.C. & D.C. electric arc welding set ? 10. Making weld with thin M.S. sections, what type of welding will you prefere and why ? 11. Name any ten safety precautions which should be followed while working in an arc welding plant. 12, What safety precautions should be followed while working with L-P. & H.P, oxy-acetylene plant ? 13, How you will specify an electrode used in A.C. arc welding process ? 14, Explain flame and different temperature zones ? 15, Name welding defects. 16. Describe voltage and ampere used while A.C. arc welding process. 17, What do you understand by waving of electrode ? 18, How much temperature is produced during A.C. arc welding process ? 19. Explain advantage of oxy-acetylene gas welding over various other gas welding processes. 20. Describe common operations carried out in welding shop. 21. How do you ac and de compare for arc welding? (b) What are the advantages of each of the several sources of current for are welding? (c) What do you understand by the term ‘polarity’ and what is the advantage/disadvantage of having different polarities? 22, What are the functions of coatings on shielded electrodes? 23. Describe in brief the methods/procedures used for welding different metals. 24. What are welding joints and edge preparation, and welding representation and what they do? By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 TAL SHEELIG 3.1 Introduction Sheet metal work is generally regarded as the working of metal from 16 gauge to 30 gauge, with hand tools and simple machines into various forms by cutting, forming into shape, and joining, It has its own significance as a useful trade in engineering works. Articles such as funnels, boxes and can etc. which fulfil our day-to-day needs are generally made from metallic sheets or plates. Tn sheet metal work the knowledge of geometry, mensuration and properties of metal is most essential since nearly all pattems come from the development of the surfaces of a number of geometrical models such as cylinder, prism, ‘cone and pyramid. A good pattern drew properly means saving of time and money. 3.2 Metal Used for Sheet ‘The metal used in sheet metal work are black iron, galvanized iron, stainless steel aluminium, copper, tn, lead ete. The sheets are specified by standard wire / sheet metal gauge numbers and each gauge designates a definite thickness. ‘The smaller the gauge number, higher the thickness. The extensively used metals for sheet metal work are a: Black Iron ‘The cheapest type of metal sheet is black iron, The iron is rolled into the shect of the desired thickness. The sheet fadually. It has a bluish-black appearance and is often is annealed in the furnace until red hot, and then set to cool gr refemedto as uncoated sheet. Since it i uncoated, itcorrodes rapidly. The use ofthis metal sheets limited to articles that are to be painted or enameled after fabrication work such as tanks, pans and pipes, etc. Galvanised Iron Zinc coated iron sheet is known as ‘galvanized iron’. This soft iron sheet is popularly known 3s GI sheet. The zine eating resist rst, improves the appearance ofthe metal and permits i @ be soldered easly. But welding is ot so easy a zinc gives toxic fumes and residues. Itis coated with zinc, galvanized ion sheet withstands contact with water and exposure to weather. It is used for making pans, buckets, furnaces, heating ducts, cabinets, etc. Stainless Stee! Stainless steel used in the sheet metal shop can be worked as galvanized iron sheets; but is tougher than GI sheets. Stainless steel is an alloy of steel with nickel, chromium, ‘and traces of other metals. It has good corrosive resistance and can be welded easily. The cost of stainless steel is high. This is used in dairies, food processing and chemical plants and kitchen wares, etc. Aluminium ‘Aluminum annot be used in pure form. But it can be used with a small amount of copper, silicon, manganese and iron Tie what in colour and ight in weight. It is highly resistant to corrosion and abrasion I is widely used in the manufacturing of lighting fixtures, household appliances, refrigerator rays, construction of airplanes, fitting and fiture of windows and doors, and electrical and transport industries.Copper Copper sheets are commonly used in sheet metal shop, and are resistant to corrosion. They have a better appearance than other metals. Copper sheets cost is higher in comparison to GI sheets. Copper sheet are used in expansion joints, roof flashing, hoods and Gutters. Tin Iron sheet is coated with tin to protect it against rust. This is used for soldered work, as itis the easiest metal to join by soldering. The special marks are used for denoting the tin plates size and thickness. It is not specified by gauge numbers. This metal has a very bright silvery appearance. It is used for making of cans, food containers, dairy ‘equipments, roofs, furnace fittings and pans, etc. Lead Lead is vaey soft and heavy material. Lead sheets are used for highly corrosive acid tanks, Lead sheet can be worked by hand without the use of any mechanical device. 3.3 Measuring and Marking Tools ‘The common tools used for marking and measuring in sheet metal work are scale, calipers, Slip gauge, Standard wire gauge, divider, scriber and punch, etc. Scale Steel scale is used for measuring linear measurements of small work. It is made of stainless steel or spring steel, having line graduation engraved at interval of fraction of standard unit of length. It is usually marked in centimeters and inches. It can be measure with accuracy of 0.5 mm. Seale Fig. 3.1 Steel rule Folding Scale: This is very useful in measuring and laying out larger work. Steel circumference Scale: This rule is used to find out directly the circumference of a cylinder. Swing blade protractor: It is used for measuring and marking angles. Vernier caliper: This is used for measuring dimensions upto 0.02 mm. Inside jaw Clamping screw S a “s Main scale Sep |p wma aw © surface espe 7&6 190 110 129 130 140 140 CI Vernier Fine adjustment — screw Fixed jaw Monable jaw ‘Vernier Caliper Fig. 3.2 Vernier CaliperMicrometer: This is used to meas, ess sheets accurately upto 0.01 mm. t sure the thickness of metal sheets accurately ely upto 0.01 Lock nut Spindle{ Sleeve Main nut Adjusting nut for main nut Thimble ‘Thimble adjusting nut Frame Outside Micrometer Fig. 3.3 Micro meter ‘Thickness or Slip gauge: This is also called sli is doring assembly. slip gauge and is used to measure the clearance between the parts Slip Gauge Fig. 3.4 Slip Gauge Sheet metal gauge or Standard wire gauge: This is used to measure the thickness of sheets. It is a piece of sheet in rectangular/cireular shape having slots holes on its outer periphery from 1010 thirty six gauge number. The diameter of slots increases as the S,W.G. number decreases. ‘Sheet metal gauge Fig. 3.5 Sheet metal gaugeScriber: Its a Needle type tool used for scratching the line over job during marking. Itis made up of hardened ‘and tempered high carbon steel, tips of scribers grinded at 12° to 15° angle and generally available in sizes 125 min to 250mm. QE Qe Seriber Fig. 3.6 Scriber ‘der: This is used for drawing circles or arcs on metal sheet. They are also used to mark a desired distance between points and to divide lines into equal parts. Spring Adjustable: of Screw Divider Fig. 3.7 Divider Permanent manner. Punches may be divided in two types (@) Prick Punch or Dot punch Centre Punch Prick punch is used to make small marks and centre punch is used to make punch is used to mark the centre ofthe hole to be drilled, Bie Paneth mani lager. Comte60° or99° Prick Punch Center Punch Punch Fig. 3.8 Punch 3.4 Cutting / Shearing Tools ‘The tools used for cutting of jobs are known as cutting or shearing tools and are as: Chisels ‘These are generally used for cutting and chipping operations and are made of high carbon steel. For sheet metal work, the flat and round nose chisels are widely used. - = ———— Saas a= Flat chisel Fig. 3.9 Chisel Shears or Snip oo In shee#t metal work, generally shearing process is widely employed. Its used for cutting thin and soft metallic sheets, Shears may be divided into following types on the behalf of operating mechanism as: 1. Hand Shear 2. Power Shear Machine 3. Bench Shear. Trans nea igh carbon steel. Its shape is jut ik the scissor excep thats cutting blades are small in compavison of handles, tis specifed by its length from tip tothe end of handle, Hand shear may farther be classified into following types: : i i ‘Straight Hand Shear: It contains shearing edge in straight postion and widely used in near shearing. jj—_—_—— ens ———41 Cutting blade Handle Fig. 3.10 Straight hand shearin aradius and generally employed where shearing is required (Curved Hand Shear: Its shearing edges are curved i in radius/curve position. Curved Blade Be and “ey 3 Y Fig. 3.11 Curved hand shear Power Shear: The working principle is same except that its size is comparatively larger. Itis operated by electrical/ ‘mechanical power. Itis mostly used in large sheet cutting. It is more accurate than the hand shearing, Its capacity to shear is more as compared to hand shear. ‘Bench Shear: The size and shearing capacity lies between hand shear and power shear. It is operated by a lever fitted on bench foundation. It can cut larger size than the hand shear but smaller than the power shear. It is specified by its blade length ete. Its cutting blades are made up of tool steel or H.S.S. The body is made up of mild steel. It consist one fixed blade mounted on Mild steel frame. Other movable blade fixed on the top of frame and is operated by a lever. Shearing Machine Fig. 3.12 Shearing machine 3.5 Forming / Striking Tools These tools may be defined as the tools which are used for striking purpose. Hammer ‘To suit the different types of work on thin sheet, different sizes and shapes of hammers are used. They are made to hhave square or round heads to suit for hammering the round and comers surfaces respectively. Soft face hammer like mallet, rubber face hammers, leather face hammers or plastic hammers etc. are frequently used for avoiding the damage of sheet,Fig. 3.13 Hammers Mallet Thisis also used for striking purpose and made of raw hide, hard rubber, lead, copper or mostly of wood. 3.6 Holding, Supporting and Forming Tools The tools used for holding, supporting and forming of jobs are as: Stakes ‘The commonly used tools for supporting the jo top of stake as per the requirement and a shank Beak Hom stake: This stake consist taper-cylindrical face at one end and taper-rectangular atthe other ‘end, Its top is ‘made of tool steel and body is made by mild steel. It is used in forming long taper-cylindrical jobs. Hatched Stake: This stake consist a triangular cross-section. It is used in forming, bending and seaming etc. the edges. ; Hollow Mandrel Stake: This stake consist a long half round horn ato nd. It is used in seaming, forming and circular bending etc. Bevel Edge Stake: This stake consist a bended shank and a fat top face. Itis used in making deep sections etc. Needle-case Stakes: This stake consist taper-hom of small diameter at one end and taper-rectangular hor of small Size at other end. I is used in taper job of small size of fine sheet metal work, (Creasing Stakes: This stake has flat taperhoms at both ends of top face. It is used in bending, creasing and comer/ ge making etc, Common Square Stake: This stake consist a rectangular top with straight shank. Its sed for flattening the work. ‘bs in sheet metal shop are stakes. These are of different shapes on the ‘which helps in mounting on table etc, Some of them are as: ne end and half rectangular horn at the otherCandle Mould Stake: This stake has taper-homs at both ends, rectangular and circulars. It is used in seaming, forming, flaring articles ete. ‘Tea-kettle Stake Set: This stake consist a bended shank at one end and a straight shank at other end with four adjustable heads, Itis a multi-purpose stake, used in making round forming in difficult objects. Double seaming: This stake consist circular hollow parallel horns at both ends. It is used for making cylindrical objects etc. Bottom Stake: This stake consist heavy rectangular bottom horn fixed parallel with straight shank. It is used for bottom operation in circular and spherical objects etc. T EL Creasing, Beak hom Hatched Needle case Bevel Edge Hollow Mandrel Candle mould Double seaming ve pote Tea-kettle Stakes Fig. 3.14 Stakes Hand Groover This is used for groove and flattens a seam. This is available in many shapes, Fig. 3.15 Hand Groover Rivet set This is a hardened steel tool with a hollow in one end. It is used to shape the end of a rivet into a round smooth head.3.7 Miscellaneous Tools ‘some other tools used in sheet metal work from time to time are as: Soldering irons Soldering irons are used for soldering work. It consists of a forged piece of i it it en handle. They are made in various sizes and shapes. ete 3.8 Sheet Metal Machines For mass production by using thick sheets, hand operation like shearing, punching ir i is consuming and uneconomical. To deal with this problem, both power ea aad Se eee ‘These machines are performed a wide variety of operations, required in a sheet metal shop. : ‘The various machines used to perform different operations are as follows: 1 Shearing machine. 2. Burring machine. 3, Tuming machine. 4, Wiring machine. 5. Forming machine. 6. Setting down machine. 1. Bar folder. Shearing Machine Machines are used to cut or shear metal sheets in many ways. The selection of particular method depends on the shape and size of the parts required and the numbers needed. A large number of machines are available for shearing etal sheet, The common machines are (a) flat blades for the cutting and (b) rotary cutters. The most commonly used ‘machine using flat blades, known as guillotines. Burring Machine Iis used to make a burr on the bottom edges of a can or end of a cylinder. For making of such burrs by using burring ‘machine, isthe fist step in making a double seam with a double seaming machine, Tuming Machine ‘Taming machine is similar to the burring machine bu double seaming. it produces a rounded edges for bodies of cylinders and for Wiring Machine Taming machine made the edges of the work overalitle with mallet. The edges of the metal rounded. Then wire is placed into the rounded edges and hammered are completely pressed over the wire with a wiring machine. Forming Machine Pipes and stove ete. are formed out of fi rollers atthe bottom have fixed position while the third one (Top ‘just the required pressure and give the fixed curvature to the sheet. fat sheet on a forming machines. It has three rollers. Out of three, two Roller) may be adjusted in vertical direction to siting Down Machine hae ae made by a burting machine, ble seaming facilitates a better seaming job. the seams are closed or set down by setting down machine. The operationIts used for folding and bending the edges of the metal sheets to form the joint at the seam. It is used for shaping metal sheets into cylindrical shape. 3.9. Sheet Metal Joints Sheet metal working incorporates a variety of hems and scams. Hem is an edge or border made by folding of the sheet, Itstiffens the sheet of metal and does away with the sharp edge. Seam isa joint made by fastening two edges together, Hem Hems are of three types: 1. single hem, a 2. double hem, 3. wired edge. * The single hem is made by folding the edges of the sheet metal over to make it smooth and stiff. ‘+ ‘The double hem is made by folding the edges over twice to make it stiff and smooth, + The wired edge is smooth and very strong. Step by step process of making itis shown. Seams Seams are of different types: (@) lap seam. (®) grooved seam, (©) __ single seam, (@ doubie seam, (©) dovetail seam, and () burred bottom seam. ‘+ The lap seam is the simplest type of seam and can be prepared as lap joint by means of soldering. * The grooved seam is made by hooking two single hems together and then locking them by a groover. + The single seam is used to join a bottom to vertical bodies of various shapes. ‘+ The double seam is similar to single seam with the difference that its formed edge is bent upward against he body. ‘The dovetail scam is similar to dovetail joint in carpentry and is used to join flat plate to a cylindrical piece. ‘The burred bottom or flanged seam is used to join he bottom of a container to its body, The flange on cylindrical jobs is often referred to as a burr and the process of making a narrow flange is known as buring. Single hem Open fold Making a wired edgeStep 1 Step 2 Making a grooved seam Step 1 ‘Step 2 Step3 Double seam Setting down ‘Making a double seam Step 1 ‘Making a comer fold Pattern Fig. 3.16 Hems and seams 3.10 Sheet Metal Allowance Sheet metal allowance is an essential allowance that is to be given for making joints. These allowances are necessary to obtain following: 1. Correct size of finishing part. 2. Better strength at joints of all edges. 3. To avoid cracking or warping. 4. Smooth finish, For preparation of edges and seams allowance must be provided. An extra metal provided inthe job, is called tab. For making of the different types of hems and seams, no allowance is necessary for thinner sheets of 26 gauge cr more, while a certain allowance is necessary for thicker and heavier sheets. For wired edges an additional metal equal 0.25 to 3 times the thickness ofthe sheet is provided and for seam objectives, 3 times the thickness. General allowance for hem is 6 to 9 mm. 3.11 Sheet Metal Operations Sheet metal works lies in making jobs of different sizes and shapes by adopting different operations. The various ‘operations used in sheet metal works are as follows: (®) Bending and forming (@) Shearing (©) Drawing (@ Squeezing Shearing Shearing is a general name for most sheet metal cutting operation in a specifi sense. It designates a cut in a straight line across a sheet, bar or strip. It sheared clean edges on the metallic job.‘Some of the basic shearing operations are as follows: Cutting-off: Cutting-off means cutting a piece from a strip with a cut along a single line. Blanking: Blanking means to cut a whole piece from given metallic sheet just sufficient scrap is left all around the ‘opening to ensure that the punch has to cut the metal along its entire edge. Parting: Parting signifies that scrap is removed between the two pieces to part them. Punching: Punching is the operation of producing circular holes on a metallic sheet by using punch and die, The punched out metal is removed as a scrap or waste, Piercing: Piercing is the process of producing holes of any desired shape. Notching: Notching is the operation to remove the metal in desired shape from the side or edge of a metallic strip or sheet is known as notching. Slitting: Shearing is conducted between rotary blades; the process is referred to as slitting. It cuts the sheet metal Tengthwise. Lancing: Lancing makes a cut part way across a strip. Nibbing: Nibbing is an operation of cutting any shape from metal sheet without special tools. It is done on a nibbling ‘machine. ‘Trimming: Trimming is the operation of cutting away excess metal in a flash or flange from a piece. TS) Eh Ce} (o4 Nothing Slitting Lancing Nibbing LLLLLLlee, Line of cut Fig. 3.17 Shearing operations Bending and Forming Bending and forming are synonymous terms. Bending occurs when forces are applied to localize areas, In bending case, a piece of metal turn into a right angle, while forming occurs when complete parts or items are shaped. Inall bends of metal, the metal is stressed beyond the elastic imit in compression on the inside and in tension o8 the outside of bend. Only one line, known as neutral line, retains its original length. Generally, angle types of bending and roll bending are used in practice.am FP OWS Single bend Double bend Straight ange Edge hem Emlarged section ! FZ 6 Ll Beading Curling or wiring Double hem or lockseam Fig. 3.18 Sheet metal bends Drawing Operations Drawing is the process for making of cup or thin walled hollow shaped parts from flat blank of metallic sheet. The blank is heated up to a required temperature just to provide necessary elasticity for working then the heated blank is placed in fixed position over the dic. Die will remain stationary by exerting a calculated pressure from punch against the blank. The punch will push the metal through the die to form a cup. Pressure Pad Die Block GY Finished Cup Fig. 3.19 Drawing operation Squeezing ‘Squeezing means to press the metal closely. The squeezing operations such as sizing coining, hobbing and riveting etc, mostly used on sheet metal, This is normally a quick and widely used way of forming for ductile metals. Sizing: Sizing operations is used to finish the job of forged steel, aluminium and other ductile nonferrous metals in thickness,>—~ ‘metal. Itis the process of forming designs on both De (b) Cotning (©) Hobbing (a) Sizing Undoformed @ Riveting 20 Squeezing operation Coining: By comparing to sizing coining involves the impression and raising of images from punch and de nto the side ofa blank at the same time, as is done in making money coins. Riveting: Riveting is a process of joining two metallic pieces by compressing an auxiliary joining component, ice. rivet. Riveting process may be of two types (a) Cold Riveting and (b) Hot Riveting. 3.12 Questions 1 2 yay Now 10. M1. 12, Gi 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. [Name the metals commonly used in sheet metal work. Define various operations carried out in sheet metal work. Explain the difference between indirect measuring method and direct measuring method. Discuss about various types of marking used in sheet metal shop? What do you mean by stakes? Explain with neat sketch the working of different types of stakes. Explain various kind of joints used in sheet metal work. Explain the following in brief (a) Hand shear (b) Machine shear (c) Piercing and blanking (4) Edge forming (c) Bending (f) Drawing Why snips are used? Give a description of some of them with sketches, ‘Make a brief note on following tools used in sheet metal shop (a) Measuring & Marking Tools (b) Cutting Tools (©) Bending & Supporting Tools Differentiate between Hand Shear and Bench Shear. Give a detail list of hand tools used in sheet metal work. ive the brief description about curved hand shear along with a neat sketch. ‘What are (a) hems and (b) seams? Give the uses of some of them with neat sketches? ‘What are punches and shears used for? Explain the following in brief: (a) Piercing and blanking (b) Bending. Describe the common sheet metal operations or processes with suitable sketches. Sketch and describe the joints used in sheet metal work stating their uses. Explain applications with advantages of sheet metal work in our daily life. Explain various safety precautions used in sheet metal working. By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 ZBy Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 BENCH WORK AND FITTING 4.1 Introduction ‘The term ‘bench work’ denotes the production of a job by hand on the bench. ‘Fitting’ is the assembling of two or more parts and removing the extra materials to secure the necessary fit and may or may not be carried out atthe bench. Tn engineering, bench work and fitting play an important role to complete and finish the job to the desired accuracy. For finishing the job, we may use various machining operations to get a good degree of accuracy in a reasonable time, but they still require some hand operations to be done on them to finish the job. "Automatic machines are used to remove the extra material from the job to produce the finished job, ready for assembly. For assembly, tasks are required for machining and fitting while some parts require only fitting work. A fitter’s work has its own importance. For assembly of finished parts in its position like setting of bearing, engine slide valves and alignment of machine parts, etc. always call for a fitter's work 4.2 Tools and Equipments ‘Tools and equipments in the fitting shop are classified as follows: (@ Marking and measuring tools. (@ Cutting, filing and scraping tools. (Striking tools. (©) Drilling, dicing, reaming and tapping tools. (©) Holding and supporting tools. (Miscellaneous tools. Marking and Measuring Tools ‘The common tools used for marking an‘ V-block, scriber, try-square, punch, etc. .d measuring in bench work and fitting are scale, calipers, surface plate, Steel rule Steel rule is used for having line graduation engraved at interval of fraction of st and inches. It can be measure with accuracy of 0.5 mm. 24 25 26 27 289 30 0a Fig. 4.1 Scale measuring linear measurements of small work, It is made of stainless steel or spring steel, tandard unit of length. It is usually marked in centimeters Vernier Caliper ‘Vernier caliper is used for precision measurement. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and other jaw is formally the part of vernier scale. Vernier scale has some divisions which are responsible for least count of vernier caliper. Least count may be defined as the minimum dimension which can be measured by the instrument, It can be measure with accuracy of 0.02 mm. Vernier caliper is made of nickel-chromium steel. Itis available in size {6 inch to 24 inch,Inside jaw Clamping serew ow ew ew Gp wm 10 Vernier scale Fine adjustment serew Fixed jaw Movable jaw Fig. 4.2 Vernier Caliper ‘Vernier height gauge Working principle is almost same as vernier caliper equipment with aspecial base block and Clamping clip other attachments which make the instrument Frame suitable for height measurements. Vernier adjusting no height gauge isused for precision measurement | |“ , ” i and marking of any object placed on true machined and leveled surface i.e. on surface ‘Magnifying glass plate etc, It is made of Nickel-chromium steel. eaten It s specified by the maximum height that can be measured by it and generally available in 6 inch to 24 inch. Fine adjusting thread nut Threaded rod: Magnifying glass ‘mounting base] Clamping screw 2 Seribing Main scale Depth bar Fig. 4.3 Vernier Height GaugeMicrometer : Migometer is used for measuring precision measurement. There are of different types 1. Outside Micrometer 2. Inside Micrometer 3. Depth Micrometer 4b serew tread Micrometer use Miromeer Itisused for measuring precision measurement forex i ape fee threads ead and pitch Iconss one aw o avid oa are eae tb ape of round Bar called spindle ands half poston housed in sleeve, This sles ae ae isi game and housed in thimble containing upto 1/2 mm raduation/alibaton oer sleveinhorizo pep aa ene contains 50 divisions in circular position perpendicular to spindle. When wo full revotons ae made by ‘Tatheove spindle, it covers one mm distance in horizontal direction, So the least coun of outside micrometer i: ai These ae available in mm and inches. Is specified by minimum and maximum measurement that an ie measured by this measuring tool. Lock nut inate Aqvil Ratchet sorew Thimble Fig. 4.5 Outside Micrometer Combination set ‘A combination set consists of arule, a square, a centre head and a protractor. The rule is made of tempered steel with a groove cut onthe length of one side along which the other parts may slide. Bach part is provided with a knurled tut for locking it into position. This tool may be used asa rule square, depth gauge for marking and for locating the tantreon the end of round bars and for measuring angles. Its a measuring tool used for measuring linear dimensions, angular dimensions etc, Its specified by the length ofits rule or blade which is generally upto 300 mm. Fig. 4.6 Combination Set Surface Plate ae Plat is used for marking and for testing the flatness or trueness of the work. Its top and bottom surfaces are sha ete o keep both ina perfect horizontal plane. Its made of grey cas ron, having a square or rectangular Surface plate is specified according to the size of top surface.Fig. 4.7 Surface plate Scriber ; Lae Itis a piece of hardened steel about 150 mm to 300 mm in length and 3 to 5 mm in diameter which is pointed out at tne on both end like needle. Seriber, having one end in straight shape aind the other in bent shape is also used along swith surface gauge. Its used to scratch the lines on a given surface. The bent end is used to seratch line in that place where the straight end cannot reach. It is used for temporary marking. (— (epee ———— rrr Fig. 4.8 Scriber Surface Gauge ‘A surface gauge is a tool consisting of a steel base with rotating head that holds a steel spindle. Scriber is mounted ona spindle fitted on the base at 90° to each other. The base has a V-Shape groove that makes it convenient for use on cylindrical work. It is used for temporary marking and for job centering process in machine shop. Scriber ‘Clamping nut Spindle Base Fig. 4.9 Surface Gauge Universal Surface Gauge Itis quite similar to surface gauge except ofits adjustable column, This is a . precision measurements. Its generally used with surface ole for poe ‘feck and inosine Theat cagd base whose bottom surface is made perfectly fat. It is used to scribe parallel lines sr manor Ge surface. It consists ofa cast iron base, perfectly machined and planed at the top tango eens from a plane provided at the top of base. Spindle can be swung and locked in any desired position ty ee ee Rocker may also be adjusted along the base with the help of rocker adjusting screw, Sento fee en means of sriber nut ands capable of beng adjusted at any inclination and hig slo fed onthe pind bY 8 the spindle.File adjustment Fig. 4.10 Universal Surface Gauge Punch ‘This is also made by hardened steel. Punches. Punches may be divided in two types (@) Prick Punch or Dot punch (®) Centre Punch Prick punch is used to make small marks and centre punch is used to make prick punch marks larger. Contre punch is used to mark the centre of the hole to be drilled. ‘are used for locate the centre, marking out work in a permanent manner. 60° or 90° Prick Punch ° Center Punch Fig. 4.11 Punch V.Block Tisablock of stel with V-shaped grooves. Itis used to provide support for round object during marking and machining etc. Iti true machined at 90" at every edge. ‘tis made up of gray cast iron or high carbon steel. Fig. 4.12 V-block-square ; 7 Here used to check the 90° angle between two adjacent surfaces, It has two pars, i. blade and stock: Both the parts ae fastoned to each other at 90° ange by iveting. Inthe absence of surface plate, flatness of any surface may also be checked by it. Fig. 4.13 Try square Calipers ‘These are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer, linear and radial dimensions e.g, length, width, height and diameter etc. Both legs are opened to desire dimensions whether outside or inside and measured with the help of scale and transfer the same to another desired place. Generally made up of case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered of low carbon steel. These are specified by the length of legs from end point of legs to joint at another cends of legs. Three types of caliper are widely used as: (i) outside caliper, (li) inside caliper, and (ii) hermaphrodite oF odd-leg caliper. Spring Spring Adjustable: Screw XN Spindle O ‘Legs ‘Harmaphrodite Outside Inside Caliper Fig. 4.14 Calipersvider consists ofa pair of steel legs adjusted by a screw and nut and held together by a circular spring (at one end) in which is inserted a handle. Itis available in sizes from 2 to 8 inches. This size is the length of legs from the pivot to the point. This is used for drawing circles or arcs on metal shect.Itis used for measuring the distance between points. They are also used to mark a desired distance between points and to divide lines into equal parts, Striking tools Striking tools have a wide use in fitting work like punching, chipping, cutting ete. ‘These types of operation need striking on chisel and punch. Normally, light striking is done by striking tools, known as hand hammer. The hand hammers used in ftter’s work are ball peen, cross peen and straight peen etc, Hammer Hammers are used to strike a tool or a job. All hammers consist of the following parts namely peen, head, eye and face. The eye is normally made oval or elliptical in shape and it accommodates the handle or shaft. They are made of various sizes (weights) and shapes to suit various purposes (hammer blow and work metal). Depending upon the nature of work, hammers can be categorized as power hammer and hand hammer. Hand ‘hammers are designed in different size and shape of different materials. Power hammers are made in similar shape commonly having different capacities as per requirement. Fig. 4.15 Divider Peen Eye hole Wedge Striking face Fig. 4.16 Hammer Classification According to Shape: According to shapes, hammers are classified as: 1, Ball Peen Hammer 2. Cross Peen Hammer 3. Suraight Peen Hammer 4, Sledge Hammer Ball peen Cross peen Straight peen_ ‘Sludge hammer hhammer hhamamer hammer Fig. 4.17 HammerBall Pen Hammer: The peen has a rouned at one end and straight face at other end, It is used for riveting ang chipping, ete. These are available from 100 to 900 grams. sy at one end and straight face at other end and its peen is perpendicular Cross Peen Hammer: It consists a cross pee! and bending ete. These are available from 200 to 900 grams, the handle, It is used for hammering, stretchin, pew at one end and straight face at other end and its peen is parallel hy © Straight Peen Hammer: It consists cross ‘are available from 100 to 900 grams, handle. Tis used for stretching and peening ete. These Sledge Hammer: I has double stiking faces at both ends. It may be square or hexagonal etc, It is generally used for heavy work in black-smithy Two operators are required for working with this hammer. Generally it is available from 2 kg to 10 ke. Holding and Supporting Tools “The tools used for holding and supporting of jobs are known as holding and supporting tools and are as: Bench-vice This vice isthe most commonly used vice and is also known as engineer's parallel jaw bench vice or fitter’ vce. Tis firmly fied othe fiter’s bench with nuts and bolts, or wth serews. It consists of cast iron body, jaws (fx javv and movable jv), a mild steel handle, a mild steel square-threaded serew, and a bronze or gun rata ew plates made of cast steel (hardened and tempered) are fixed to the jaws by means of set screws. Jaw plates % Feplaced when wor out. The holding faces ofthe aw plates have teeth for holding the work firmly. These wee ane ‘ome disadvantage for soft metal which may be damaged when firmly held between the faces. The movement of movable jaw is caused by the movement of the screw through the nut, fixed under the movable jaw. The si te 7 is specified by the width of the jaws. b Se mire a ice Different types of Vices: Bench Vice. Pipe vice, pin vice, Hand vice, _ . Ciemustpnie Pi Machine Vice, Tool makers’ vice, Leg vice, Knurled Plate Spindle —_[ ular Box nut ZA Handle Caller Body Fig. 4.18 Sectional view of Bench Viceing, Filing and Scraping Tools cutti giles and scrapers etc, tools are used for cutting, filing and scraping operations, Chisels Casal sally used for cutting and chipping surplus material fr ese are generally ‘material from any object which is generally diffi ‘Ree sawing etc. These are made of high carbon stcel and highspeed stel and specified by its wid it cstnieio mest Tength. These are available in rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal cross section The cuting edge is rough vd by smithy of forging and then sharpened tothe correct cutting angles on grinder, ¥ Chisels are of two types: Cold Chisel: It is hardened and tempered and used for cold working, (i), Hot Chisel Its not hardened and tempered and used in hot working, ‘at Chisel: Its the most common of ll the chsels used in cutting and chipping operations, It is used for removing surplus ‘metal from the surfaces of jobs. Its cutting edge should be slightly curved so this will prevent the corners digging ito the metal. ~~ =o Fig. 4.19 Flat Chisels Cross-cut Chisel: It is used for cutting grooves in large surfaces previous to using the flat chisel and keyways in ‘wheels and shafts. The cutting edge is slightly wider than the supporting metal to provide clearance, SS eae Fig. 4,19 Cross-cut chisel Round Nase Chisel: This chisel is useful for cutting oil-ways and grooves in pulleys, bearing, bosses etc. SS CE Fig. 4.20 Round nose chisel Diamond Point Chisel: The chisel is drawn oa square section and one end is ground off at an angle producing the iamond shape. This chisel is used for cutting squaring small holes, vee grooves, and cleaning corners. —e SSS Fig. 4.21 Diamond point chiselwork, Files are made of high carbon stel with slanting rows of Mivall metals except hardened steel. Files: Itis the most widely used hand tools in iting teeth. Itis well hardened except of tang. Iti used 10 ‘The functions of files are as: (@) Toremove the extra metal fro (B) To remove the burr from cuts surface, {© Tomakea smooth surface, : (@) Tofinish the final shape of a work-piee®, (©) To sit metal pats. wm the surface, Heel Face Point Handle ‘Tang cook? yi Length —————- Edge Fig. 4.22 Different parts of a file Files are generally classified as: (@) Size © Cotofteeth (©) Shape or cross-section Classification according to Size “The size of a file is its length (distance from point to heel). Files for length between 100 mm to 200mm. fine work, and between 200 to 450 mm in length are used for heavy work. —— Classification according to Cut of Teeth Files may be classified in three main groups according to cut of teeth: 1, Single Cut File 2. Double Cut File 3, Rash Cut File —_=_ Tk: Single cut file 80° Double cut file SoS Sas Rash cut file Fig. 4.23 Cut of teethCut File: Teeth are cut parallel to each other across an angle of 60° to the centre line of file, Th ». This file is single ed for filing on very hard metal. commonly sé pooble Cut ile: Double-ut ls have two ses of eth the over-ot eth ae similar to ; Dov ihe upc tex re running diagonally across he ist et and inclined at 75°to Baga sngleeat file at fileis used for filing on hard and soft materials. ie centre line. This sash Cut File: On this file, rashes are made across it length, This fle i mainly used in earpenty shop for eeaning urved surfaces on wood. wpe se-eutand double-cut files are further divided according tothe roughnes or spacing between the rows ofthe sin eth In descending order of roughness, they ae listed as: 1. Rough 2. Bastard 3. Second cut 4, Smooth 5. Dead smooth 6. Super smooth. Grade is defined as the number of teeth over a length of 1.0 cm. As per grade, files are classified as follows: Table 4.1 Grade of cut in a file ‘Type of cut 300] 350 | 400 | 450 ‘Number of cuts over a length of 1.0 em Rough 10 8 7 6.3 55 53 48 45 Bastard 18 13 U 10 9 8 4. 6 Second cut 21 7 | | 5 | 4 | Bf] 2 | ‘Smooth 30 [24 | 2 | 2 | 19 | 1 | 16 | 15 Dead smooth 35 | 33 | a1 | 30 | 2 - - - [Super smooth e | #0 | 8 | 0 : : 7 - Rough fs are used for soft metals. Bastard file is used for general shaping work, Second cut ile ae excellent files for harder metals and give a good finish for many pieces of fiting work. Other cuts files are used to give a high degree of accuracy with a high finish. Classification according to shape or cross-section ‘The files are manufactured in a variety of shapes or cross-section. The most common types of files as per cross- section are as: 1. Flat File 2. Hand File 3, Square File 4, Pillar File 5, Round File 6, Triangular File 7. Half Round File 8. Knife edge File Flat ‘SquareRound Triangular Half-round Knife-edge Fig. 4.24 Shapes of file Fiat File: This isthe most commonly used fle for general work. It is tapered in width and thickness, I is always double-cut on the faces and single-cut on the edge. Hand file: Tis file is used for finishing flat surfaces. It is tapered in thickness and parallel in its width, They are double-cut on the faces and single-cut on one edge only (one edge does not have any teeth). This file i also known as ‘safe edge file’. useful for filing a surface, which is at right angle to an already finished surface, Square ile: This fie is square in cross-section, double-cut and tapered towards the point. Its used for filling square ‘comers, enlarging rectangular or square openings as splines and keyways. Pillar file: This file is double-cut, narrow and. of rectangular section. It has one safe: ‘edge, and is used for narrow work such as grooves, keyways and slots. Round fie: It is circular in cross-section and usually tapered, it is termed as rat-tailed. When it is parallel, itis described as parallel round, This fie is used for filing curved surfaces and enlarging round holes and forming filets. Itmay be single-cut or double cut. ‘Teiangular fle: The shape or cross-section of this file is an equilateral triangle-This file is made tapered towards the Point and carries double-cut on all the faces. This file is used for rectangular cuts and filing comers less than 90°. Halfround file: This file cross section isnot ahalf circle but only about one-third ofa circle andi tapered. Iti double- ‘Cut teeth on flat surface and single-cut teeth on curved surface. This file is used for filing round and curved surfaces. Konife edge file: This file shaped is like a knife and tapered in width and thickness. It caries single cut teeth on the ‘edge and double-cut teeth on the faces. Its used for filing narrow slots, notches and grooves. Scraper Scraping means shaving for obtaining a fine surface finish on the work. Gere cerca) ‘They are made of hardened and tempered tols steel, They are generally made from rejected ies. By forging process, the end point edge ie formed : in desired shape and then sharpened. The sharpen edge is used for cutting (> purpose. It is used to remove high spots from the finished surface. It = specified by width and length, They are of different types as: a = 1. Flat Scraper 3. Half round scraper 2. Triangular Scraper. Fig. 425 ScraperHacksaw sed for making a slot or parting off operation on all metal except hardened steel. It consists of a metalic Hacksaw isu frame (xed type of adjustable type), Randle, prongs, tightening screw and nut, and blade. Hacksaw blade is held fly between two prongs by adjusting wing mut ALL Hacksaw Frame: Its made of ease hardened mild ste! in ‘C’ shape having a wooden handle and a wi Fortghtening the blade These are of different types a: hand 2, .Fixed Frame 3. Deep Cutting Frame 1. Adjustable Frame sme: Its frame can split in two parts and can be adjusted for differen nt lengths of blades. t lengths. This property of the Adjustable Fra frame makes it suitable for diffe Frame Frame length adjustment fixed justabl aE er Teeth Blade blade holder blade holder Fig. 4.26 Adjustable Frame Fixed Frame: It has fixed frame and designed for one length of blade. Frame Handle Wing nut Fig. 4.27 Fixed Frame ack of frame consists deeper bending which make it suitable fr deep sawing. Deep Cutting Frame: Wing Nut Fig. 4.28 Deep Cutting Frame Blade:It is a metal strip having two holes at both ends. It has cutting teeth at one side of the length. It is used to cut the material after fixing in hacksaw frame. Blades are made of high carbon steel or high speed stecl. The blades may be of hard throughout or flexible type. Drill, Reamer, Die and Tap Tools cutting extemal or internal threads on a given metallic piece, these For making a hole, finish a drilled-hole and for tools have great importance.Te ay Drill : 3 ' Drill is tool for making hole ina given metalic piece. It consists of two cutting edges a! 30 aoale a ax, There are three types of drills lat dil, straight uted drill, and twist dil. Drills are specied secoestOg sini size of hole that can be drilled by it. Flat and straight fluted drills are used in carpentry work. igh speed steel or high carbon stecl. Flat drill Fig, 4.29 Drill: Straight fluted drill Reamer Reamer is used for making a smoother finish with an accurate hole. It is used to remove a little metal from the hole and to bring it to the correct size. There are two types of reamers as: (1) hand reamers and (2) machine reamers, Land Flute ae se v Fig. 4.30 Reamer Hand reamers ‘The reamer which turned by hand, called hand reamers. Die Die is used for cutting external thread on cylindrical surface such as stud, bolt etc. Itis a round or square block with hole containing threads and flutes which from cutting edges. There are two types of dies as: (1) solid die and (2) adjustable die. Solid Die: It has fixed dimension and cannot be adjusted for larger and smaller diameter. Adjustable Di It can be set to cut larger or smaller diameter. Chip breaking flutes ‘Thread profile Throat of threading die Drill holes for stock Solid Die Splid Die Fig. 4.31 Different types of DieDies are made of high carbon steel or high speed steel. The size of the die is speci the thread to be cut and pitch of the thread, lie is specified by the outside diameter of Stock : : ‘The tool used for turing and holding the threading die is called a die-stock or stock. Stock is provided with threaded pins. When the threading di has been inserted into the stock, the threaded pins are ightened, so it holds the die that engages in the drill holes. Fig. 4.32 Die Stock Tap itis used for cutting intemal thread on the inside of a hole, as in a nut. Taps are made of high carbon steel or high speed steel. Hand Taps are made in sets of three pieces and are known as (1) taper tap or rougher (2) second tap or plug tap or intermediate, and (3) bottoming tap or finisher. ‘Taper Tap: It is used to start the thread so that the threads are formed gradually asthe tap is turned into the ole. lug Tap: It is used to cut the thread as far as possible, after the use of taper tap. Bottoming Tap: It is used to finish the thread prepared by the other two taps. bq oq First tap ‘Second tap Ww UU Taper Tep ‘Medium Tap Bottoming Tap or Rough Tap or Rough Tap or Finishing Tap Fig. 4.33 Tap Miscellaneous tools Some other tools used in fitting work from time to time are as: : (@) Screw Driver Spanner (Plier4.3 FITTING OPERATIONS a ‘There are different types of iting operation 0 finish 4 job in its desired shape. They are as: rking and Measuring (b) Chipping © Filing (Drilling (i) Reaming @® Dieing @® Tapping Marking and Measuring i i in bench work and fitting. The : ‘Marking and Measuring are the most {important operations in be fing, The accuracy ofthe ob tot Sepends upon it The diferent types of tool, used in performing this operation, are: scale, surface plate, weite, punch, V-bock, ty-square and caliper et. are already discussed. * Filling Fane, ver important operation, Fling fue to clean the fee ofthe cts, remove the bur fom ets and ish Fae peo the workpiece. Ireqires special skill to have satisfactory filing work, Small les ae used for ve gm work ile cut the mater in forward stroke ony, not n eum stoke, So the pressure ofthe hand in fling eas be applied only during the forward stoke and for retum stoke it should be relieved, Fling should be aay sith the ile, and make te longest possible strokes. So, the material willbe removed by all the teth ofthe i ‘The file should be moved across the work with slow and steady strokes. Operator should take care ofthe file to es ithorizontal, and in each stroke it should cover the whole filing area. Fig. 4.34 Filling a job Me ee osm Generally, there are three main methods of filing: Cross Filing: In cross-filing, the ae ee Fi -filing, the fil form of filing and used fer ere eae 0 ltemaivel rom let 0 ight and ight toe. es the commonest maximum amount of metal from te eae this method the possibility of rounding aré minimized, and remove japapreerey The aim of cross-filing isto move the file across the whole fling surface} j Fig. 4.35 Cross filing filing is preferred on the work whose width is less than the width ofthe file or long Straight Filing: In straight-fling, ed forward at right angle to the length of the work. In back stroke, the file should ‘and narrow piece. The file is press be lifted clear of the work not to blunt the teeth. raw Filing: In draw-fling, the handle of file is not held. Both hands are files placed at right angle postion, across the axis of work, File moves the metal, It will finish the surface in both forward and backward strokes. placed together on the blade of the file. The forward and backward along the length of Fig. 4.36 Draw filing Scraping Scraping is used for obtaining a true flat surface than can be produced by filing or machining. ‘Scraping follows the filing. When the surface of the block is reasonably fat with the file the ‘block should be tested on the surface plate, which isof cast iron and has a perfectly fat top surface. A very thin film of Prussian blue ‘or Red lead is covered on the surface plate The scraped surface is then laid on the surface plate and moved forth ‘and back. The high spots on the work will be marked with Prussian blue or Red lead, The scraper will work with a small circular motion and high spots will be Pe ore each testing. The process is repeated until the colour spread scrapped down, The work is wiped clear of scrapings evenly over the surface. For scraping curved or cylindrical surface the curved oF triangular scraper is used. cold metal piece and is performed by the Sawing shaping and slotting of ¢ the marking line on the workpiece must ‘Sawing operation is the quickest method of cutting, tool known as hacksaw. The work should be held tightly in the vice. As rule,lacing on the workpiece with right-hand on the hacksaw handle and left hand on the other end of hacksaw frame firmly. The sawing begins with a backward stroke, bbe situated a few millimeters to the left ofthe vice jaws. Hacksaw is P “The pressure is applied on the forward stroke only, while a lite lift is necessary on the return stroke, The hacksaw blade cut the material only on the forward stroke. Fig. 4.37 Sawing Grinding ; 4 Grinding operation is used to remove the metal usually 0.25 to .50 mm by using grinding wheel. It is used to finish almost all surfaces either soft or a hard metal, which has been previously rough shaped by some other method or to remove the extra material which is too hard to work by other methods. The accuracy of grinding operation i inthe order of 0.025 pm. Drillin The cperton of producing circular holes in a metal piece is known as drilling. Hole in the metal piece is produced by a drilling machine with the help of drill. In drilling, the job is held in a clamping device (ic. vice) over the table of the machine. Drill is fitted in the socket of the machine spindle. Hand lever of the machine is used to lower the spindle for lightly toughing the centre-mark of the job marked for drilling. The drill point set exactly over the Centre-punch mark, Now start the machine for rotating drill and pressed it gradually into the job to produce the hole. Reaming Reaming is done when exactness in a hole is required with a smoother finish. It removed a little amount of metal from the drilled hole and to bring itt the correct size. A steady, slow, screw-like motion of the reamer gives the bes esl For starting the reaming, we should ensure that reamer required the axis of the hole being reamed, For reaming 2 blind hole, the reamer withthe slightly tapered end should be used, followed by the parallel reamer, so that a parallel hole to the bottom may be obtained. Dieing Dicing Operation is used to cut extemal threads on a round bar by means of die, The blank should be filed clean ané end slightly tapered for easy entrance into the die, The die is held in a two-handed stock. The stock is then tured and the die will begin to cut the thread on the bar. The die should be turned forward and backward, and used plety Cf lubricant for cuting the thread. With adjustable di, the dieing process is repeated, until the corect depth hs been reached by adjusting the stock screw. But with a solid de, the cuting of thread on a bar will be over in singe operation only.Fig. 4.38 Dieing Tapping i ‘Tapping operation is used to cut intemal threads in a round hollow section by means of tap. After drilling the hole in the material, with the help of tap drill, hole is ready for tapping. Fig. 4.39 Tapping ‘The material is clamped in a vice with the hole in the upright position. First, taper tap is to be used. The square end ofthe tap is clamped by a tap wrench and tap is placed into the hole. Turn the tap in one hand until the thread has 1 good start. Then no need to press down the tap, the tap will move itself into the work when turned. Turning the tap ‘wrench with hands and giving a downward pressure to tur the tap. The turning operation continued, until the length ofthe tap enters into the hole, and finally withdrawn the taper tap. After cutting with taper tap, cutting is continued inthe same way with the Intermediate tap and Finish tap. 4.4 Questions 1. State the different processes done in bench work and fitting. 2. With the help of neat sketch, specification and application, describe any five holding tools. 4. Name and explain various types of files. 7. How are files classified? With a neat sketch, name the different parts of a rectangular file. 8. Write short notes on: (a) Single cut and double cut files. 9. With the help of sketch, specification and classification, explain the following (i) Hacksaw blade (ii) Centre punch. Gi) Hammer ‘Which material is used for making centre punch? How many types of holding devices are used in fitting shop? How many types of vices used in fitting shop? Describe a bench-vice with the help of neat sketch.17. 18, 20. 21. 2. 23. 24, 26. 20. 28. 30. 32, 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. ‘Explain with neat sketch. Punch (ii) Outside mic \d marking in fitting shop. ‘What is the use of micrometer? ‘Write a short note on the following (i) Define various methods of measuring an What are the applications of stee! scale What is the difference between veriercalliper and outside micrometer? Explain the working principle and application of venir calliper along with nest sketch? How do you classify drills? ‘Sketch a twist drill and name the different parts. Fo Geet notes onthe following operations: (a) Chipping (b) Sawing (e) Draw filing (4) Scraping (g) Taping (©) Grinding (f) Drilling (g) Taping (h) Dieing. Deseribe with sketch any five measuring and marking tools. ‘What do you mean by indirect measuring ‘method? List various indirect measuring tools. Define the importance of centre punch in fitting shop. How many types of punch are used in marking? ‘What is the main difference between fixed hacksaw frame and adjustable frame? ‘ake a brief description on hacksaw blade giving its material information and how will you classify a bade? What do you mean by finishing tools ina fitting shop? List some finishing tools. ‘What is the difference between tap and die? Explain various types of hammers. How will you specify a hammer? ‘Which material is used for making centre punch? Describe angle used in different punches? ‘How many types of vices used in fitting shop? Explain various types of hammers. How will you specify a hammer? Mention ten safety precautions for fitting shop. srometer (iii) Vernier height gauge By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 ygBy Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 SMITHING AND FORGING 5.1 Introduction ‘The process of heating the material up tits plastic state and then applying external pressure to give the desired sha and size to material is known as smithying or forging. It reduces any cavities or voids present inthe material and thus make it dense. The impurities present in the material, also gets elongated with the grains and they get broken ‘nd dispersed throughout the material. It will reduce the harmful effect of the impurities and improve the mechnical scrength. In many cases itis more economical process than any other process. ‘Smithying is the process of handling relatively small jobs only such as those can be heated in open fie or hearth ‘The operation is carried out by using of hand hammers or small power hammers, Forging i the process of production of those jobs which must be heated in a closed furnace. The part ofthe job where forging is done is termed as forge. ‘The work is generally performed by means of heavy hammers, forging machines, presses etc. 5.2 Forging Materials {In common practice, any metal or alloy which can be deformed in plastic stage through heating can be forged. Forgeability is the ability of the material to get forge. The ductile material should be forgeable or in other words, ductility is directly related to its forgeable quality of the material. Forgeability increases with temperature up to a point at which a second phase appears. Carbon steels, alloy steels, wrought iron, copper-base alloys, nickel-based alloys; aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys et. ae forged easily. The low and medium carbon steels are forged easily, but the high-carbon and alloy steels axe more difficult and require greater care to forge. 53 Tools and Equipment Used in Forging ‘To perform the different type of operations in smithing and forging shop, a perteir requirements and applications are described. ‘a number of tools and appliances are used Anvil The anvil is used asa supporting device for blacksmiths work when hammering. The body of the avi is made of mild steel or wrought iron. Tool steel plate is welded on the top of the ‘body, to protect the anvil shape from heavy blows of hammering etc. The beak or horn is used for ‘bending or forming. curved shapes. The back part of the anvil is known as tail and carries pritchel and hardie hole. Pritchel hole is of round shape is used for bending rods of small diameter, and as adie for hot punching, Hardie hole is of square shape and is used for holding square shanks etc. The ‘anvil is resting on cast iron or hard-wooden base for attaining the height. Anvils weight is ‘varying from 100 to 150 kg and height should stand about 0.75 m from the floor.Chipping Block Face Anvil Fig.5.1 Anvil ‘Swage Block ferent shapes and sizes along its four si , a Ps a les of .; Tis also a supporting device which have a number of slots and holes ¢ ‘and forming operations. faces. Itis used mainly for squaring, bending, punching, heading, sizing Swage Block Fig. 5.2 Swage Block Tongs Itis a holding device used.to support and grip the job while some operation is carried out, It is made of mild steel in two pieces, and are riveted together to form a hinge. It is specified by its shape of mouth and length. On the basis of applications, it may be classified as; (@) Flat Tong: Iis used for supporting and gripping of smal flat objects,tong. : for supporting and gripping of triangular and square Jobs. ‘square hollow eee {obs et. and also known as belt tong, Chisel eae It is used for supporting flat piece having more width ete, ‘Single suppor ‘Tong: It is used for supporting and gripping of round objects in parallel direction, La a fede eae Sipping of round objects in perpendicular directions ete Itis wed for supporting and gripping of very small j i ith tong: It is used for supporting comparatively longer flat jobs. It is also ‘Known as two side ‘supported Flat mouth tong: jobs, Flat Tong Oe Flat mouth tong ‘Square hollow Tong Cj Chisel Tong Se Single supported tong Yani —, Round hollow Tong eS FF SS . ——— Pinear Tong O—— : — Pickup Tong Tongs Fig. 5.3 Tongs Hammers Hammers are used The eye ig of various sizes i eye and {0 strike a tool or a job. All hammers consist of the following parts cael ae Rormally made oval or elliptical in shape and it accommodates the han: : ; a (weights) and shapes to suit various purposes (hammer blow and work metal). Depending upon the ature Of Work, designed in hammers can be categorized as power hammer and hand hammer. Hand hammers are designeinsi commonly having diffe Cifferent size and shape of different materials. Power hammers are made in similar shape rent hardening and tempering f Capacities as per requirement. Generally high carbon steel and alloy steel are used after efor hard face hammer, Eychole’ Handle Wedge Striking Face Fig. 5.4 Ball peen Hammer According to shapes, hammers are classified as: (_) ny . | iY Lf Ball Peen Cross Peen. Straight Peen Sludge Hammer Hammer Fig. 55 Hammers Ball Peen Hammer: The peen has a round at one end and straight face at other end. It is used for riveting and chipping, etc. These are available from 100 to 900 grams, Cross Peen Hammer: It consists a cross peen at one end and straight the handle. It is used for hammering, stretching and bending etc, Th Straight Peen Hammer: It consists a cross handle. It is used for stretching and peening i face at other end and its peen is perpendicular ese are available from 200 to 900 grams, een at one end and straight face at other end and its peen is parallel the etc, These are available from 100 to 900 grams. Sledge Hammer: It has double striki ing faces at both ends. It may be square or hexagonal etc, It is generally used for heavy workin black-smithy. Two operators are required for working with this hammer. Generally itis avlble from 2 kg to 10 kg. Power hammers: Some heavy hammers are operated category. These are used for heavy blow such as Pné ‘hammer or drop stamp ete. by power other than manual power, are come under this ieumatic hammer, spring hammer, steam hammer and drop Chisels tis most widely used for cutting purpose. The selection of chisel depends upon the nature of work and these are classified as:Wooden Handle Cutting Angle Cold Chisel Hot Chisel Fig. 5.6 Chisel Hot Chisel: This chisel is used to cut the metal in plastic stage, there is no need of hardening it. It is made of redium carbon steel or high carbon steel and its cutting angle is Kept about 30°. Hot chisel i used to cut the petal in plastic stage, there is no need of hardening it, Generally wooden handle is fitted init Cold Chisel: Itis similar to hot chisel but its length is generally kept more than hot chisel. It is made of high carbon steel and its cutting angle is usually kept about 60°. It is used to cut the metal in cod stage, therefore it Should be well hardened and tempered. It is specified by its cutting width and length, It is available with and without handle in market. @ 0 Hardie ins provided a square shank, which help it to fix into hardie hole in anvil. During cutting or shearing operations, chisels are used in conjunction with this bottom cutting tool I is made by high carbon stel and its cutting angle is kept about 45°, Fullers Falls are used for necking down or reducing the cross-section of job. They are made in pairs, top and bottom tools. “The batom part of fle ited in hardie hole of anvil with ts square shank. Fullers are available in various shapes and sis according to needs. The sizeof fle is specified by the widh of fuller edge. These are made of high carbon sel —, Cutting Bdge Roded handle Fig. 5.7 Hardie Fig. 5.8 FullersSwage is fitted in hardie hole Sus ike fuller, these are also made that stop and bottom swages. The botont Fo ined i ie hendle. Afr of amv They are made by high carbon steel (Figure 6:9). The top Part like fuller volar shape, types of operation forging, finishing ccaar shape of job or for increasing the length of circular rod in cir pe, are performed by using swage. Roded handle Top Fig. 5.9 Swages Set Flatters It is also made of high carbon steel. It has a flat square shape bottom and used for making surface more smooth and fiat, which have already been shaped by fullers and swages. It is ‘made of high carbon steel with well hardened. Punch and Drift Fig, 5.10 Flatter Punch isa tool used for making holes in a job which is at red hot condition. It is available in various size and shape i.e. round, elliptical, square and rectangular ete. The drift is similar in shape but itis more precise. Itis used after punching in a job to expand or open for accurate dimensions of hole. Drift is also a large sized punch, These tools are made of high carbon steel. ‘Set Hammer It is similar to flatter and is used for finishing comers and shouldered work where the use of flatter is inconvenient. It is made of high carbon steel. Punch Drift Fig. 5.12 Set Hammer Fig. 5.11 Punch and Drift4 Fo rging Temperature of Different Materials 5. re of mainly used materials are as: 7 Fe 850 - 1300°C an 750 - 130°C Mi carbon Stel 750 - 1250°C wet aon St 750 - 1150°C tee sel 950 - 120°C SS poe, Bronze 550 - 900°C ‘Aluminium, Magnesium 300 - 850°C 5.5 Forging Operations ‘A number of operations are used in smithying and forging work for changing the sha pe of given i fished or required shape. They ae listed and described below: Sena selene th aren 2. Drawing down, 3. Setting down. » eding 5. Cutting, 6. Punching and Drifting + palering 8 Welding. Upsetting Its the process of increasing the thickness or cross-section of the metal atthe expense of its length. Its also known as jumping. The metal is heated upto its plastic state and then applying the pressure with the help of hammer after supporting the metal on hard surface ie. anvil etc. The metal tends to increase in its dimensions at 90° to the direction af application of force with a corresponding reduction in its dimensions parallel tothe line of action of applied force. (a) (b) (c) (9) Ue, Fig. 5.13 Upsetting The upsetting operation is done as: "upsetting isto be done throughout the entire depth by heavy hammer blows on a uniformly heated metal. "upsetting is done at both ends of the workpiece and the center part which is not upset, cooled by quenching in. water, 3 ‘upsetting takes place at the lower part of the metal. ‘upsetting takes place at the middle part of the metal. Drawing Down B svaene eS the length of the metal is increased at the expense of its thickness or width or both, [tis also known 18 In other words, it is exactly the reverse process to that of upsetting.after hammering with a _The stages of drawing down operation are shown in figures, (a) original metal, (b) metal straight peen hammer or with top fuller, and (c) finished forging with the flatter. forep @ in" ) ces © Fig. 5.14 Drawing Down Setting down is a localized drawing-down operation. It is used to change the roundness of a corner for making square, by using set hammer. Fig.(a) illustrate the operaion of local thining down by using set hammer. Normally, the length of any metal is increased at the cost of its width. Fig. (b) shows the process of setting down both faces of a bar by using a top and bottom fuller and Fig. (c) illustrate the use of flatter close to a shoulder. cs @) ) Setting Down Fig. 5.15 Setting Down Bending Bending is an important operation in forging and may be classified as curvilinear or angular. Bars and flats are bent into required shape by using bending operation. Bending is done over the anvil face, over the anvil horn or over special forms such as the swage block edges, etc. During bending operation, the layers of metal on the inside are shortenedside are stretched. This is caused by bulging at the inside, on the ou " ie | and radi , a1 ding is required an additional metal is worked out atthe place were te eats ofthe bend an real will 20°0 make up the comer. After bending, flatter is used to prepare the outside das occurs. This additional for ne inside edge. The SBS of bending over the anvil hom by using hammering are shown nage ne wed nin figures, Curvilinear Angular Fig. 5.16 Bending operation Cutting Cating operation is done by using hot and cold types of chisel in hot and cold condition respectively. Cuting = o_ Before ‘After. Fig. 5.21 V-Weld 6 Power Hammer and Presses Large machine parts cannot be forged by han, the ligt blow of a hand or sledge hammer cannot produce a great ‘oaks of deformation inthe metal being forged. The hand forging is « lengthy process and requires repeated teaing ofthe metal, This led to the use of power hammers and presses in forging. Machines which work on fens by blow ae called hammers, while those working by pressure ae called presses. Power Hammer The seer principle of operation forall power hammers are common, a falling weight striking the blow, with the ent energy being absorbed by the work. If further blows are needed, the striking weight is raised forthe subsequent ‘ow. Te hammer will provide the higher intensity of blow, if it fall at a greater height. For some hammers, the sting velocity of the hammer is increased by mechanical means. The capacity of a hammer is determined by the ‘eight ofthe falling pats. During forging operation, rigid support provided to the hammer is called anvil block. The foundation of tbe evil block built separately from the frame; so that the foundation will provide cushioning to the hammer bows and not transmitted to the frames. The heavy falling part of the hammer is called the ram. The ram and the anil block have one die and called upper and lower dies respectively for squeezing the metal to be forged. The working surfaces of the upper and lower dies are flat and horizontal in smith forging. Generally, different type of power hammers are widely used in forging work and these are (a) pneumatic power ‘hammer, (b) steam or air power hammer, and (c) spring power hammer 5.7 HeatTreatment Herbie is the operation of heating and cooling of metal or an alloy in a controlled atmosphere in the solid “isto pote certain desired propentes. This process consists heating of metal othe predetermined temperate: ig ofthe metal at that temperature until the whole structure becomes uniform throughout the mass; and coolingcof metal at predetermined rate to cause the formation of desirable structure within the metal as per requirement, ‘The objectives of heat treatment are as: (a) Torelieve internal stresses (&) To change the grain size (©) Toimprove machinability (@) _Toiincrease the resistance to heat and corrosion (©) Tochange the electrical and magnetic properties (f) Tochange the chemical composition (8) To improve the mechanical properties i. strength, ductility, hardness, toughness, etc. ‘The various heat treatment processes are as follows: Annealing Annealing is the process of heating the material upto critical temperature and then cool it slowly. The purpose of annealing is to improve one or more of the properties like relieve internal stresses; refine grain size; softening the metal; and improve machinability. Normalizing Normalizing is the process of heating the material at a temperature about 50°C above the critical temperature for a ‘considerable period and then allow it to cool in the air. The purpose of normalizing is to remove internal stresses; refine the steel structure; and improve the mechanical properties like tensile strength and ductility. Hardening Hardening is the process of heating the meterial at a temperature about 30° to 50°C above the critical temperature for a considerable period and then cooling it suddenly in a liquid (water, oil or molten salt bath). This type of sudden cooling is known as quenching, The operation of hardening is applied to all cutting tools and some important ‘machine parts. The purposes of hardening is to improve toughness, strength, ductility and elasticity properties; and to develop high hardness to resist wear and to enable it to cut other metals. ‘Tempering ‘Tempering is the process of heating the hardened material at a suitable temperature (tempering temperature) below the lower critical temperature and then cool it slowly in air. The purpose of tempering is to reduce internal stresses produced during previous heating; increase the ductility of metal; and improve the toughness, make the metal shock resistance, Case Hardening ‘Case hardening is the process of heating the material to red hot condition and then force the carbon contents into its, surface structure so that a certain depth along its surface becomes rich in carbon, then it is hardened as usual. This process is also known as carburising. It is mainly employed for mild steel and wrought iron specially for the metal ‘containing low carbon contents. Alloy steel are usually quenched in oil and carbon steel in water. This treatment will produce a hard fine grained case, while the core of the structure will retain the properties of low carbon steel. 5.8 Questions 1, State the difference between ‘smithing” and ‘forging’. List the advantage and disadvantage of each. 2. Define with neat sketch open hearth coal fired furnace along with its working principle. 3. Define fuel used in various furnaces in smithy shop. 4, . Explain with neat sketch, with specification and classification if any: @ Anvil (B) Swage black (©) Leg viceExplain with sketch and classification of tongs used in smithy shop. List any ten tools used in smithy shop. [Name the common materials used for forging. Give the correct forging temy forgivable metals. ‘tate which one is forgeable metal and which one is not, Describe the three types of drop hammer forging machines, Explain the difference between hot chisel and cold chisel. Explain different types of hammers with specification and classification. List the forging temperature of following metals iperature of some of the common @ Mild steel (6) Wrought iron Diseribe in brief (q) Jumping or upsetting (b) Bending (©) Fullering (@ Drifting and punching (©) Swaging @ Drawing down Defining different operations carried out in smith shop. Explain welding in smithy, along with different types of welding joints used in smithy shop. Explain advantage of forging over other manufacturing processes. Explain difference between fuller and fla. Describe press forging. How does it differ from drop forging? ‘What is the difference between the hammer and press forging? ‘State the advantages of both mechanical and hydraulic presses for press-forging applications. Explain the advantages of forging. What is the role of temperature control in smithy process? How many types of tongs are used in Smithy shop? Make neat sketch of any two of them. Explain the applications of following in brief (@) Belt tong (®) Square hollow tong (©) Pickup tong (d) Flat tong Explain various types of hammers used in smithy shop. How will you specify a hammer? Differentiate between the applications of cold chisel and hot chisel. ‘What is difference between Gouge and chisel? 1. List the tools required for making a nail in smithy shop. Explain the process involved in making nail from a square mild steel bar. . Differentiate between close hearth and open hearth furnace. ‘Make a short note on (@) Flater (® Sethammer (©) Straight peen hammer (@) Ball pein hammer (2) Sludge hammer ‘What isthe importance of blower in a smithy forge? How much air pressure should send in a smithy forge? . Explain various kinds of coal. What type of coal is most preferred in smithy shop for mild steel job making and why? Explain the characteristics of good fuel. List forging temperature for the following metals (a) Mild steel (b) High carbon steel (©) Brass @ Stainless steel . What do you understand by temperature measurement in a smithy shop? How many methods can be employed {or vatious temperature measurements in smithy shop? 7 foo the term ‘forge welding’. How can you classify the forge welding? War ats between a forged part and a cast pat in relation to mechanical properties. . = the common forging defects, and what are they due to. Why heat treatment is necessary for forging? By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24By Abhik:-2K19/A8/24 , File Credit:- Mohit cous REYAAN AN Books are avaiable at Br | D.T.U. BOOK STORE AKN Learning ‘Shop No. 1, Near Main Canteen 168, Pocket 12, Jasola Vihar TU Campus, Shahbad Daulatpur ‘New Delhi - 110025, Inia New Dethi - 110042, India Email: akniearningsigmail.com Contact: 9136082120, 9213122716 oF arte