Prefabricated Components ie al le gehaviour of structural components = Large panel constructions = Construction of root and floor slabs = Wall panels ~ Columns = Shear walls 2.4, BEHAVIOUR OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS noe gd. GENERAL t reinforced structures are many types, because almost all reinforced Pree conerete structures can be prefabricated, The members of steuctural components can be classified as follows: © Load-carrying structural member © Space-bontering members * Surface forming structural members: Load carrying structures generally act in their own plans, This can be classified in various ways from the view point of fabrication, load carrying structures can be divided into main groups according to their disuniting into «Straight members © Entire rigid frames * Members «Arched members limited into two-hinged or three hin, joined at points of minimum moments: ed arches: © Space bordering members have as a rule of plane surface, These also play a role in the carrying of loads, but this role is of a lower order, Thus Space-bordering Members are load-carrying structures of a lower order; the load is transferred from the structures of lower order through the structures of higher order to the footings,23) Prefabricated Sn 2.1.2. STRUCTURAL GRIDS Various elements in building design are: ¢ Continuous grid ¢ Superimposed grid +” Tartan grids (or) Displacement of grid e Interrupted grids as neutral zones ® Continuous grid ¥ Where all dimensions in either direction are based on one increment only then it is called as continuous grid. > Superimposed grids Y Superimposed grids are formed when the modular grid of 100 mm increment is superimposed on a multi-modular grid. : Y The building components encourage as far as possible the interchangeable components, whatever the material form or method of manufacture. It simplifies size operations by rationalizing selling out. Easy positioning and assembly of building components. Y It ensures dimensional coordination between installations equipment, storage units, other fitted furniture, etc. as well as with the rest of the building. zw Tartan grids (or) Displacement of grid Y Behaviour of structural components is based on the displacement of grid or tartan grids. Where there is a homogenous and repetitive between at least two basic increments like 1M+2M 3/2 M + 3M (Interrupted grids (or) neutral zones) 2 Interrupted grids as neutral zones Where there are non-modular interruptions of grids, neutral zones are created to cope with the economics of building design.© 9.2.1. GENERAL ‘The large-panel system refers to multistory structures composed of large wall and floor concrete panels connected in the vertical and horizontal directions so that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the rooms within a building. These panels form a box-like structure, Both vertical and horizontal panels resist gravity load. Wall panels are usually one story high. Horizontal floor and roof panels span either as one-way or two-way slabs. When properly joined together, these horizontal clements act as diaphragms that transfer the lateral loads to the walls. Depending on wall layout, there are three basic configurations of large-panel buildings: => Cross-wall system => Longitudinal wall system => Two-way system Cross-wall system «The main walls that resist gravity and lateral loads are placed in the short direction of the building. > Longitudinal-wall system = The walls resisting gravity and lateral loads are placed in the longitudinal direction; usually, there is only one longitudinal wall. Two-way system Fig, 2.1. Large panel constructions2.2.2. 2.2.3. LOAD DESCRIPTION " A building constructed from precast components becomes a so-called house oft cards, It requires rather simple structural calculations as most of the load. bearing structural members are considered simply supported. Using precast floor slabs, walls, beams and columns, it is seldom possible to achieve restraint in the joints, mainly due to small dimensions of the components. This calls for special attention when evaluating the stability o¢ the entire structure. After having made the load assessment and the choice of calculation mode} the next and very important step is the load path description. It should explain in detail a possible load path for a specific load from the point of application to where the load is transmitted to the foundation and the soil. By using a detailed load path description for vertical as well as horizontal loads, the designer is able to calculate all internal forces acting on components and joints necessary for a proper design. The description could also act very conveniently as a guide for the accumulation of loads and as a list of contents for the structural calculations, LOAD DISTRIBUTION The last preparatory step before the structural analyses can begin is the distribution of all loadings from their application points to the load-bearing and bracing systems. This process is very much linked to the load path description. Based on the determination of structural models and the evaluation of structural stiffness or rigidity, the distribution of loads can be easily accomplished. With simply supported precast components, it is easy to allocate the vertical load to the load bearing elements, normally directly proportional to the span. Horizontal loads, on the other hand, are more difficult to handle. It is essential that precise and detailed structural description and evaluation are made. The illustrations in Fig. 2.2 examples of statical models for vertical as weil 4 horizontal loads for a panel system building with different supporting structures on the first floor.A A i, , E @ proportionate Shear Wall (b) Wall Frame Ole. ‘Shear walls Fig. 2.2, Statical models for vertical and horizontal load distribution of large panel Structures 23. CONSTRUCTION OF ROOF SLABS 134, GENERAL These are the most popular forms of roof covering. This is not surprising considering the simplicity of manufacture of purlins and the availability from stock of fctory made lightweight roofing slab and panels. ‘The structural system of the purlins may be « Freely supported beam «© Cantilever girder * Continuous girder The connection of the purlins over the support is designed only to absorb limited beading moment, Normal purlins spans between 5m and 10m. The purlins are spaced ‘intervals of 2m to 3m. 82 ROOF SLAB LAID ON PURLINS ‘ Phe . Purtins are usually solid web members. For long spans ne coi "ed beam, Freely supported purlins are designed as let flanged ora Prefabricated Sirs members. Purlins designed as cantilever grilles (articulated girders) are usually jong flanged members. The cross section feature depends on the spans of purlins & on the slope Of the roof. The purlins for flat roofs are usually rectangular T-section or prestresseq concrete T-Section members for steeply sloped roofs it the loaded also in biaxiay bending L-Sections or channel sections are used. Purlins section and the approximate spans associated with them for a purlins spacing of 3m are indicated for flat roofs. The dimensions relate to freely supported purlins. Purlins sections with associated spans for a purlins spacing of about 1.25 4 in the case of steeply sloped roofs. They are convenient to manufacture with the legs of the channel upwards, whereby ray thin webs can be produced. This type of purlins may be conventionally reinforced or by prestressed. Also they may be freely supported or be continuous over several spans. In case of L-shaped purlins usually only the flange of the section is supported. The fish belly girder is very favorable with regard to material requirements & the patterns of forces in the girder, but it has the disadvantages of being rather unsatisfactory from the point of view of architectural aesthetics. When it is used generally designed as a reinforced concrete purlins. Purlins are precast concrete beams supported by the main girders serving the purpose of bearing for the roof covering. The cross section of purlins is generally rectangular but it can also have trapezoidal shape, T — shape, L — shape and I — shape. Precast purlins can be simply supported or cantilever beams & for the bearing of loads beyond these weight simply supported purlins can be transformed into continuous beams. It is very simple & easy to place. For cantilever purlins placing of hinges should be determined in a manner to develop positive & negative moments equal to each other. This can be arrived by placing the hinges at 0.1451 from the support, where I is the spacing between the supports. Large reinforced concrete rest on the main girders. These are generally used for large hall structures and these are most advanced type of precast structures. Members are manufactured corresponding to spacing of the frame length of about 6 to 10m & width of 1,3 to 1.8m. As they are most supported on main girder purlins are not required. oo—a ge Normal members w Intermediate members uw Members with cornice w Members with gutter & even bord ler 3h CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURAL CONNECTION «gructural connection to the main beams may be constructed as follows: i supporting the entire cross sect seats en OY means of dowels, project; ie ning the top flange of the be; ya ti ‘ . tion of the Purlins, the latter being secured to the af i aa concreted on to the beam so-called shoes With insist concrete or performed recesses in the Tie tv ee aeeeices aeods are more particularly suitable for purlins of vag ue ee main beam is not Provided with recesses to receive the ends ite purlins, it is desirable to apply an in site Concrete topping to it, else there will gp between its top flange and the roofing slabs, which not only looks rather ely but also holds unutilizable, extra Space to the enclosed volume of the saiings on the other hand, when recesses have to be formed in the top of the beams, onreting presents-difficulties. Besides the recesses weaken the top flange unless it apsible the supports, Because of this local strengthening it is possible to reduce the ag of the purlin over the rod beam. There are two possibilities: ¢ The end of each purlins is reduced the depth to form a nib which fests on the beam © The diaphragm on the top flanges of the roof beam is provided with nibs or corbels for supporting the purlins tutins based on the principles of the cantilever girder. Provided with hinges ‘cha so located as to ensure statically determining have not proved satisfactory. ‘btason for this are halved joints, the requirements of careful workmanship are “estingent than are normally considered acceptable in practice. By large force ‘ elon, more particularly in the purlins of long buildings, the failure of one “tis lable to result in the collapse of the whole structure. This has indeed “tina number of buildings.(il Prefabricated, Fig. 2.3, Precast Roofs The roofing slabs Jaid’on the purlins of fat roofs are usually 0.5 to 1.0m wide and “have parts of about 2 to Sin these slabs also comprise the thermal insulation and where necessary, also the cement mortar screed for the gravel roof. The Weight of slabs varies between 10 & 150ke/i depending on the bulk density of the insult materials and on the span. Roofing slabs can be produced in a,simple manner from perforated bricks or fixed insulating clay. The reinforcement is passed through cavities. These slabs are 20cm wide and 8 to 10cm thick for spans up to 2.8m. Perforated bricks or light weight bricks are used in conjunction with reinforced concrete ribs to form slabs 0.87m wide and upto 3m span. Large individual precast units are better able to fulfill the requirements of industrialized old than purlins and relatively small roofing slabs will gradually suppressed the more conventional form of construction with roofing slabs and purlins. The advantages are as follows: * The number of units is substantially reduced * The slab and web of the unit are concrete as single monolithic whole wit structural co-operation of the slab | © Window bracing for roof are dispensed with as it is readily possible to int connect a number of large roof units‘omponents Large roof units generally produce an aesthetically more pleasing result ie requirements applicable (0 roof units may be summarized as follows The units should revdily lend themselves to type standardization and to quantity production with the minimum of labour They should require the least possible quantities of material both in terms of concrete and of reinforcing steel They should be suitably trans; stacked When joined together they should act as rigid diaphragms, so that no other form of wind bracings needed fi CONSTRUCTION OF FLOOR SLABS a eee ie ub GENERAL yorizontal loads on the structure are transmitted to the vertical stabilizing cores, seat walls. structural frames or bracings, etc.by the floors and roofs which act as afl porizontal diaphragms as shown in fig. 2.4, sealbatig Lateral loading Portable and capable of being conveniently Beam to column joints pinned or Shear walls Plan View PG 24. Dignepit i ha fia eaPrefabricate or ANALYSIS floor or roof js anal) ir oF aed by considering Me slab as rhe precast concrete ae he The precast C0! Jogous to a plate girde beam containing chord elemen,, analogous horizontal beam, 5. +n figure 2 wn in figure +.) - Horizontal load Tension chord Compressive arch Central core xe = Compressive diagonal Tension chord Fig. 2.5. Analogous deep beam The stabilizing cores, shear walls, frames or other bracing components act as supports for this analogous deep beam and the lateral loads are transmitted as reactions. The model for a deep beam is usually an arch and tie structure. The tensile, compressive and shear forces in the diaphragm can be calculated by normal statical method as shown in Fig. 2.6. 2.4.3. TRANSFER OF HORIZONTAL FORCES In general, the horizontal forces are transferred between precast units bya combination of shear friction, aggregate interlocking, and dowel action and mechanical welding, To resist these forces, it is necessary that the units are tied together so that shear forces can be transferred across the joints even when the unils are cracked,Horizontal load = q (kNim) Max. shear botween element == ql Column ‘Shear distribution ‘Sheat at iby (B-bs) rt ey 7 M ke chord force, T= ension chord force, T= 5 ment dagen Shear diagram a Fig. 2.6. Analogous beam design of a floor diaphragmchord forces or perimeter e . - tthe floor perimeter, the chord tension is usually resisted by the peripheral ties or yi? reinforcement in the perimeter beams, shear transfer between elements st critical secti -. 1e me ae Tons are at the joints between the floor and the stabilising ere the shea pent ‘i i forces are at their maximum. Examples of joint details are nin fig. 2.8. Steel bar aes in topping Between slab joint (i) Floor Units Placed Perpendicular To Stabilising Elements Steel bar from ah wall or beam Cast in-situ Steel bar projection {from wall or beam (ii) Floor Units Parallel To Stabilsing Elements (2) Without Topping Concrete (b) With Topping Concrete Fig, 2.8. Shear transfer across edge supports‘At intermediate supports, the shear force is carried across by reinfore 2 shown in fig. 2.9. The reinforcing bars for shear transfer are usually determ ate) i : me | the shear friction design method, led by Steel bar Steel bars in joints in topping between slabs Without Topping With Topping Fig. 2.9. Shear transfer at intermediate supports In general, the forces are quite low and only as many bars as required should be used. In floors without composite topping, the longitudinal shear transfer between units is usually accomplished by welded plates or bars in flanged deck elements o, grouted keys in hollow core slabs. Variations of the connection are possible from different precast manufacturers. For elements with infill concrete or grout along the joints, the design of average ultimate shear stress between units over the effective depth of the joints should not exceed 0.10 N/mm, In general, the shear stress calculated at the joint is seldom critical. For floors with composite topping, the topping enhances the diaphragm action of the floor. The topping is usually reinforced by welded steel mesh which serves both as structural floor ties as well as shear friction reinforcement between units. Fe 2.5. LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE ROOFING AND FLOOR MEMBERS Light weight concrete roofing members play a role in addition to space bordering and load bearing in heat insulation. The thickness varies from 75 0 25 cm for reinforcement of Light weight concrete roofing members, welding nets § used,‘omponents steel teinlorement is ive f ; sie * #iven additional coating to prevent any corrosion care is hen to eive pod bonding oF reinforcement with concrete. e small reinforced ee or . fate e onerele toofing members is essentially precast simply aupportedtibbedeonereteslabwidthvaryingtrom4s0. to 120cmandlength varying from piodm. The unit weight of these members is 750kg/m? & width of 50om. It varies fom 175mm x 6m.Precast members can be made either in usual using jghweieht materials, Sand as aggregate and combination of high strength concrete. about 2 to 3em thickness is provided with high strength onsrete, HE consists + of prestresse, i eon Prestressed 2.5mm diameter embedded in these layers. The idle portion is made with light weight concrete, he (oP and bottom layer of toot Pa FLOOR HOMER Fag Fig. 2.10. Lightweight precast roof and floor members 16, PRECAST CONCRETE WALLS 41. GENERAL Precast concrete walls also are used as non-load bearing partitions to replace ‘ikworks so as to achieve better surface quality and minimize site plastering. The ‘hehness of precast walls varies from 125 mm to 300 mm and is governed either by “taints at the site or factory or by the ultimate shear and load carrying capacity in vice, For wider walls, it may be Nil ae i ingle elements. preferably designed as single ; ” : situ jointing. Openings for “oury 19 assemble them in separate units with in-ml SF doors, windows and services may be accommodated Provided their ’ Sy a TE Dow : e structural integrity and continuity of the walls ion interrupt the structu 1 . c ty of the wally, 8 dy u This is particularly important when the wall design jg based on A . ” the diagonal strut model. Altemative load paths for the Vertical ang ha Mires = . a : zon, must be considered if the openings are large. ’Mtal long The construction of box walls for staircases and lift shafts can be ob 5 ¢ . Obtaing, individual wall sections or from a complete or partial box in gi Ne i Single oF pany ¢ high. " storey 2.6.2, FUNCTIONS OF PRECAST CONCRETE WALLS The functions of precast concrete walls can be identified b: ¥ the type of bug: in which they are used: dings © Skeletal frame structures * In skeletal frame structures, precast concrete walls are used as nop log bearing infill walls and designed to provide stability to the building, . %© Shear wall structures In the case of shear wall structures, precast walls are reinforced, Cantilevereg walls designed to carry the vertical loads and horizontal, lateral and in-plane forces. They are used as stabilizing elements for the Structure and form of single elements or forming boxes for staircases or lift shafts. 8 Combination of structures * In a mixed skeletal frame and shear wall building, both types of walls are provided. 2.6.3. CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE WALLS For design purposes classifies the walls, which are defined as having their length exceeding four times their thickness, into: oa . . | © Reinforced concrete walls containing a minimum quantity of steel. The stee’ is taken into account when determining the strength of the walls. © Plain concrete walls where only minimum shrinkage steel is provided. er,addition, the walls are classified as & Braced walls: Ut the walls are supported laterally by floors or other cross- walls < marace valle te . . ne . © Undraced walls: If the walls provide their own stability, such as cantilever walls The walls are considered stocky, if the slendemess ratio (le/t) does not exceed 15 fora braced wall and 10 for an unbraced wall, Otherwise, the walls are considered as When the beams and slabs transmitting forces into the reinforced concrete walls imply supported, the effective heights of the walls are assessed similarly for plain walls. 2.6.4. DISTRIBUTION OF HORIZONTAL LOADS Due to their large in-plane stiffness and strength, precast concrete walls are giving y irrespective of the number of storeys in a multi-storey construction. The povizont al forces, which consist of the greater of either the ultimate wind forces or 1.5% of the characteristic dead weight of the structure, are transferred by diaphragm action of the floor to the stability walls in the manner shown in fig. 2.11. Itis necessary to consider uplift particularly in gable end wal!s which do not carry any significant vertical loads. The distribution of horizontal loads between stability wall elements is generally determined by the position and stiffness of the walls in the structure. When the location and distribution of the walls are such that their center of resistance coincides closely with the center of the mass and the geometric centroid of the completed building, the distribution of horizontal loads is proportional to their flexural stiffness. If the height of wall to length is less than three, shear deflection will govern and the load distribution will be a function of the shear stiffness of the wall elements. If the Young's modulus and shear modulus are similar in all the walls, the stiffness of each wall element is then proportional to its second moment area (I) of the uncracked section or to the web cross sectional area, generally taken as 80% of the total web ‘ea if the wall deflection is predominantly due to shear.Compression Comprossion Tension chord struts: chord Wind ohn J Wind Prossure : Pinned bace Tension Compression (a) Continuous Wall In Vertical Plane Compression chord Wind IN Pressure Columns to be = designed for RQ additional ‘compression . \Q or uplifts from horizontzl forces Tension Compression Tension Compression (b) Walls In Different Vertical Planes Fig. 2.11. Horizontal load transfer in braced structure In plain concrete walls, the resultant eccentricity from a horizontal force is greater than 1/3 of the length of the wall, the stiffness of the wall will be ignored and the horizontal forces adjusted to be carried by the remaining walls. In majority of the buildings, the walls are normally non-symmetrical and torsion! stability may need to be considered in the design. The torsions in the walls in # complicated layout can be determined using computer software with appropriate structural modelling. In some cases, it suffices just to carry out approximate and simple manual calculations to determine the horizontal loads due to torsion effect. |fabricared ( ‘omponents ” _ (2.19) gre approximate design method assumes that ssuimes that: The Moor plate is a rigid diaphragm The relative deflections of the wall alls ¥ e are proportional to the distances from the centroid of flexural rigidity y Shear deflections are small compared wi the distribution of horizor compared with flexural deflections even though «ystem Behaviour is tal loads may vary depending on whether the wall e Predominantly flexure, shear or a combination of both 365: VERTICAL LOAD CAPACITY OF PRECAST WALLS f the primary stru ‘ oe in ats Functions of walls is to carry the vertical loads to the ;oundat 7 Tow. vo imei s viewpoint, the walls can be regarded as columns of unit - sayin the wall im-rise buildings, plain precast walls may be used due ‘© the simplicity connections as well as the large carrying capacity of the walls posed 08 concrete alone. It of the lac c asa resul 7 7 a structural reinforcement in plain walls, the vertical load capacity can reduced, if the wall is subjected to excessive flexural tensile stresses resulting from transverse load eccentricities, ‘The eccentricities may arise from: © The floor elements with unequal span or with different design loadings on each side of the wall @ Special support fittings for the floor elements Vertical misalignment or tilting in the vertical plane of the wall panels Angular rotations of the ends of the floor element which introduce moments at the top and bottom of the walls The magnitude of the transverse Joad eccentricities is illustrated in fig. 2.12 for the following cases: => Loads from the floor => Loads from special support fitting > Resultant loadsL | support fittings rf & R= hig. Nig SY oR: INen, (1) Loads from floor (2) Loads from special (3) Resultant loads Support fittings Fig. 2.12. Design load eccentricities in walls For an unbraced wall, the eccentricities of all vertical loads and the Moments dye 0 lateral loads are considered when calculating the resultant eccentrici ity. Minimum, lesign transverse eccentricity is t/20 or 20 mm, whichever is greater, 6.6. CONNECTION OF PRECAST WALLS Precast wall panels are usually single storey high panels which are Connected to zach other and to the floor slabs. The connections are an integral part of the structural support system for vertical gravity dead and live load as well as for the transfer of horizontal in-plane forces from the floor diaphragm action. Fig. 2.13 illustrates the forces, The design forces at the vertical and horizontal wall joints primarily consist of compression, tension and shear forces. There are two Precast wall panels; different resulting joint force systems from internal and extemal Principal types of joint in © Vertical joint for the Purpose of transferring vertical shear forces from one wall component to the next with minimum relative movement * Horizontal wall to floor and wall to foundation joint for the transferring of compressive, tensile and shear from one component to the other.ee eee {a.24) Vortical sheet at vortical joint 06% 8 Vagg Poaction at horizontal joint Wa* Vos (@ (b) © Fig. 2.13, Exterior Forces and Joint Force System [a) Lateral toads In plane of walls; 6) Lateral loads out of plane of walls; ©) Differential gravity loads] ‘The capacity of the joint to transfer vertical loads depends on a number of factors: ¥ Compressive strength of joint concrete and wall panels ¥ Ratio of loaded width to wall thickness Ratio of loaded width to joint thickness v ¥ Splitting strength of wall ends and joint concrete Y Confinement of joint concrete v Tensile strength of mechanical connectors: The horizontal load transfer capacity will depend on: ¥ Shear friction resistance Y Frictional resistance at interface Y Horizontal shear strength of mechanical connectorsProfilnicated Structure, 222) «walls, These inet Hye be wales see a stetions i joing the walls These ine © Trealtu concrete and stect tie Welded connections made by Tully ane hored plates © Holting © Shear key with or without interlacing, steel and + Simple mortar bedding a7 SHEAR WALLS 207.1, GENERAL A shear wall is a structural system composed of braced panels or shear panels 1g counter the effects of lateral load acting on a_structure, Shear walls are Vertical clements of the horizontal force resisting system, Shear walls are constructed to , counter the effects of lateral load acting on a structure, When shear walls are designed for the strength and stiffness to resist the horizonta forces. In buildings, the use of shear alls as the lateral force resisting system can by designed to provide a safe, serviceable, and economical solution for wind ang earthquake tance, 2.7.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SHEAR WALL IN PRECAST CONSTRUCTION + Shear walls act as vertic: cantilever beams, transferring the lateral forces acting parallel to the face of the wall, from the superstructure to the foundation. Shear walls should be oriented to resist lateral loads applied to the building along both of the structures principal axes. + There should be at least two shear walls oriented to resist lateral loads along each principal axis, " only one shear wall is oriented along one principal axis, two shear walls she vider ould be provided along the orthogonal axis to resist diaphragm torsion. ft also accepta ier eptable to orient the three shears walls in any non-collinear position. awa sloadbearing panels whenever possible. The eased dead load acting on the panel is an advantage because it increases the panel resistance to uplift and overturning. + The distribution of the total lateral force acting on a building to each individual shear wall is influenced by four factors: “ Supporting soil and footings Y Generally, the supporting soil can be neglected when distributing shear forces among shear walls. 4 Stigmness of the floor and roof diaphragms Y When considering the stiffness of the floor and roof, if the depth-to-span ratio of a diaphragm is small, it will be flexible and may deflect when subjected to lateral loads. Y If the diaphragms depth-to-span ratio is large and is connected, the diaphragm will be rigid and not deflect as a flexible diaphragm when subjected to lateral loads. + Relative flexural and shear stiffness of the shear walls and of connections Y Flexible diaphragms distribute shears to each shear wall in proportion to the tributary width of diaphragm loading each shear wall. % Eccentricity of the lateral loads to the center of rigidity of the shear walls Y Rigid diaphragms distribute shears to each shear wall in proportion to the shear wall’s relative stiffness. Y Inprecast concrete building design, it is common to assume that floor and roof diaphragms act as rigid diaphragms. 273, BEHAVIOUR OF SHEAR WALL Ifthe stiffness of wall joints or slab joints is nominal, the wall or slab structure will behave as a series of beams and will not be as stiff and will have a smaller loadcarrying capacity than homogeneous structures. If stiffness of such joints significant as illustrated in fig. 2.14, the wall and slab structure will behayg homogeneous plates in respect of horizontal loads. A horizontal load results in internal moment and shear force in the walls, Which in turn, gives rise to normal and shear stresses in the vertical and horizontal Sections a in fig, 2.15. These stresses can be calculated using formulae. Ti Tm a Wall Without With Shear Components Shear Joints Joints Floor Slab Components Shear Key Connections Fig. 2.14. Connections and shear wall Behaviour Due to high in-plane stiffness of the wall, a non-uniformly distributed vertical loa will normally result in uniformly distributed vertical stresses in the next horizontd joint. This will induce shear force in the wall to wall connections as shown it fig. 2.16. Simple equilibrium considerations can be used to determine these forces. There a humerous connection techniques in the wali to wall joints. A popular method is tte castellated joint with or without interlacing steel.D E + A horizontal force calls for a horizontal and vertical shear joint assumed to interact. : Ifthe two walls are not locked together with, will not act as a T-section. : The vertical load can differ from one wall to another due to differences in slab spans. This will result in shear forces at adjoining connections. if the components are ‘for instance, a castellated joint, the profile : The vertical joint between the two walls has to resist shear forces resulting from differences in the acting vertical loads. + Stirrups and locking bars have to be installed to avoid possible horizontal wall deflections. At wall corners, deflections. the vertical joint must be locked to withstand the risk of horizontal Fig. 2.15. Normal and shear stresses in wallsoil by on he rls al ol! tt "il "ay! t th wl 1 Th MN mn i pot Fig. 2.16. Normat and shear stresses in walt subjected to non-uniform vertical load In the evaluation of castellated shear joints in bracing wall structures, the Normal practice is to assume that the horizontal load on the structure can be increased unt the shear stress at the most heavily loaded point of the joint reaches a Permissible value, Up to this load, the wall can be assumed to be homogeneous. The horizontal bearing capacity of the Structure at this loading Point is also assumed to be fully utilized based on the theory of plasticity. The ultimate load carrying capacity of castellated shear joints has to be d letermined by tests. To evaluate and design the joint, it is especially important to st udy the crack pattern and the distribution of cracks, 2.7.4. CONTINUOUS LAYER METHOD ‘There are various theoretical analyses of shear walls subjected to horizontal forces and one of the more common techniques is the continuous layer method. The structure ig simplified by making the assumpt ion that all horizontal connecting elements are effectively Smeared over the hej ight of the building to produce an equivalent, continuous Connecting layer between the vertical elements. The two dimensional Planar structure ic tranefa—-—+ +Figure shows three different models of a shear wall subjected to pure bending) The two wall elements are coupled by door lintels. ’ 1, System with completely flexible door lintels. 2. System with an elastic continuous layer in accordance with the continuous lajey method. 3. System with completely stiff door lintels. In Fig. 2.18, the continuous layer method is applied to a wall with one roy, of doors. The structural model. The geometrical behaviour of the chosen structural model. The main system with redundant shear forces. The geometrical behaviour of the continuous layer model. The main system using the continuous layer model with redundant shear. Fig. 2.19 shows the results of calculations derived from the continuous laye, method for increasing stiffness of the layer in Curves 1, 2 & 3. Curve 4 shows the result of a calculation based on the beam theory with a completely stiff layer. For a stiff layer, there seems to be good agreement between the two theories, except at the boundary area near to the wall-foundation intersection. yen > | > > | > > > > Height above foundation Shear force per unit of length, q Fig. 2.19. Variations of shear forces using continuous layer methodaccurate for uniform system of 1 situations, the building layout will ght, width. nuous layer method is reasonably jabs. In many practical im over their height but have changes in hei yy does not lend itself to d other analytical 1 employed. rpecting beams oF {100F sl wolve walls that are not unifor «or in the location of openings. Such discontinuit resentation an © or thicknes the uniform. SMe techniques such as the finite element the designer should refer to relevant literature in this matter PRECAST CONCRETE SHEAR WALL DESIGN cally has followed principles used inted aring of continuous layer rep! t, analogous frame, etc. will need to b 215+ The design for precast concrete shear walls typi for cast-in-place structures, with modifications ma nature of @ precast concrete structural system. Design meth suocessful performance of precast shear-wall structures have be’ judgment of the structural engineer. Observations of performance of structures in e adequate strength and stiffness were provided to displacement) to about 2% (relative to a point at the story below), displacements and damage were within acceptable levels. Inregions of low and moderate seismic bolted or welded connections with small grout joints are generally used. In rej connections to the foundation and connections between details that emulate cast-in-place behavior and may include posttensioning. de as appropriate for the joi ods used to achieve en left largely to the arthquakes show that where limit interstory drift (lateral the resulting activity, gions of high seismic activity, precast concrete walls generally use 2.1.6, DESIGN GUIDELINES ing structures that have she that are carried o ar walls as the primary lateral load- ut by the structural engineer of able precast concrete frame. The steps in designii ludes key steps t building function and applic: instance, it is common to include resisting elements incl record (EOR), evaluate th In a warehouse-type structure, walls as part of the lateral force-resisting S ar walls can be located at stai locations on the perimeter of preliminary design for the she: for i the exterior system. In parking structures, she 1 and elevator towers, at the tnds of ramped bays, at selected 1 the structure, or at any Combination of the above. Develop 4 ar-wall system.This requires six steps: | > > y u Provide at least three non-collinear walls to ensure torsional as wel] ag 4 lateral resistance. Determine if shear walls can also function as bearing walls, as Overtuning often will be the governing criterion. Arrange shear walls so they minimize restraint due to volume changes, Consider whether the shear walls could be individual full-height Wall (vertical joints only). Consider the practicality of transportation and erection when selecting the sia of wall panels. ‘ Balance the design requirements of the shear walls with the design requirements of the associated diaphragms. 2.7.7. DETERMINATION OF THE VERTICAL AND LATERAL LOADS First determine the applicable vertical gravity loads, then use the appropriate seismic-design criteria to determine the magnitude of lateral load for each floor ang compare that with wind loading. > > > Create a preliminary load analysis. Determine the overturning moment, the lateral in-plane shear, and the axial load at the base of each of the shear walls. Select the appropriate shear wall. Review the preliminary choice and modify the number, location, and dimensions as necessary to satisfy the requirements at the base of each, Itis economically preferable that the foundations not be subjected to uplift. Determine the final load analysis. Perform the final lateral-load and vertical load analyses to determine design load for each shear wall, based on its final location and dimensions. Create the final shear-wall design. Design shear-wall reinforcement and connections for the associ! diaphragms. If there is insufficient length of shear wall available to accommodae ¥ necessary number of shear connectors, consider using an element in the of the diaphragm (drag strut) as an extension of the shear wall (© pick ad‘components additional connectors, ors. Also, consider the added requirements necessary to satisfy the struct integrity provisions of the code. ssign the diaphragms, should respond e cally to apply lateral loads to prevent formation of n any diaphragm, They need to be designed as beams, provide a nforeement for each chord, and provide shear a ee neresment using shear-frietion methods. Additional ee isfy the structural-integrity provisions of the code also should be considered, 7g, PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS pats GENERAL precast ae be designed in either full, semi-precast or shell sections ding oP me ' ow jointing details, handling, delivery and lifting capacities mike oranes. The widths and depths may be used in the design of the beam sections yn in the figure below. so" a Flexural bending reinforcement use ~ by at span and b; at support (for continuous beam) Shear reinforcement = bj Composite shear links * bjin semi-precast sections with composite topping concrete Fig. 2.19. Effective widths and depths in precast beams (a) Full precast section, (b)&(c) semi-precast sections with composite topping concrete99 3.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS e design of precast reinforced concrete beams is affected by the following factors, * Section properties of the precast beam ®@ Construction methods Sequence of the loads applied onto the beams * Beam behaviour at the serviceability and ultimate limit state 8.3. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND LOADING CONSIDERATIONS The various methods in construction using precast beams which can bé broadly ouped into propped or unpropped construction with full or semi-precast sections as ustrated in Fig. 2.20. = The final beam behaviour can be either simply supported or with semi-rigid or rigid moment connection at the supports for continuous composite beam behaviour. At the installation stage, the load consists of essentially the self-weight of the beam, floor elements and wet concrete topping. In unpropped construction, the loads ‘are carried wholly by the precast beams whereas in propped construction, part or all of the loads will be transferred to the props, On removing the props, additional moments and shears will be created by the prop reactions which will be carried by the composite action of the beams. Precise instructions must, therefore, be given on the method of construction of the precast beams and the positions of the props if they are required. At the service stage, the stresses in the beams are primarily due to imposed dead and live loads.Final Behaviour | At Installation unoyanyag ayasqud: spoyjaut uoyanajsuor syoddns ou jan Aynuyuod weLowd {gum oyazouoo paceld mS uy um wo9ae a1}SodWOO spoddns eu) je uojyoeuu0d pibuwes ynoyy!M JO un payoddns A\dwis - J | I peddosd uoyoas yseoaid uonpes Aypyesedes Uo Bunse! yseoeid o]UO ‘squewia|e 100), PUB squawe|e Joy YIM Buyses s}UOWA!? Suoyoes seI1d | | Busddosd snonuguod Jooy Wim swIOd ayauosip 1e Sdold } t 7 t squ@waja 100 Bumsoddns uoyoes: yseoasd yn payoddns Adu uogongsuod peddole} IS | yseooud wes poyoddns Aidus uonoes InsPrefabricated § fe d Structures i elas ~ Depending on the construction methods, the loading considerations on the be am, design can be categorized into the following cases: i vith simply- am behaviour or conti, + Unpropped construction with simply-supported be mn, propped precast beam The loads are applied as in the conventional cast in-situ beams design, + Unpropped construction with full or semi-precast section with Continuoy, beam behaviour Apart from the dead and live loads, the beams are subjected to an additionay live load of e x (beam self-weight+ floor element+ wet concrete). The load is treated as live load and is applied in order to satisfy the Critica, loading arrangement required. + Propped construction with semi-precast section and continuous beam behaviour : In addition to the imposed dead and live loads and the equivalent live load, the beams will also be subjected to the action of prop forces. These are applied as point loads acting vertically downwards at the respective position of the props. 2.9. PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMNS —— eee 2.9.1, GENERAL In the design of precast concrete columns, the designer should be conversant with the various connection methods used in Jointing column-to-foundation, column-to- column and column-to-beam in order to achieve the desired joint behaviour which Could be either moment-rigid or pin-connected. The design of precast concrete columns is similar in approach to those for in-sitt columns. The design methods complying with the code requirements. In addition, the columns must have sufficient capacity to withstand failure from buckling due slenderness effect,for braced and unbraced col LP values for braced and unbra tion at bottom 2 3 0.80 | 0.90 0.85 | 0.95 0.95 — Cantilever Column Beam Simply Supported —T © Hy ! Dy, 2H. Clear Height o Hy Monolithic @® ste connection He Monolithic @ connection Monolithic connection to foundation Fig. 2.21. Effective height of column, 1.= Blo(2.36) Prefabricated Sirye, ’ 2.9.2. DESIGN CHARTS / The reinforcement content represents a typical range in precast column design / reduce the total number of design charts for rectangular (or square) column, ; 0 50mm wide module for 200mm to 1000mm deep Cola nt rigid jointing of tithe charts are presented for a The charts are applicable for pin-connected and mome! braced or unbraced column. The load eccentricities shown in the charts arise from: * Actual design eccentricity such as beam supported by corbel hyy9 7 minimum 20mm e Additional eccentricity due to column slenderness effect as determined, « Eccentricity due to framing moment in a moment rigid Column-beag, connection where the eccentricity is calculated as e = MIN where N is the toe column load at the level being considered. For columns under biaxial bending, the enhanced bending moment in either th, minor or major axis should be determined. In using the design charts, the following steps may be taken: => Determine the total ultimate column load, (N) at the level being considered => Divide N by n which is a multiple of 50mm module for an assumed or giver column width => Determine the load eccentricities It should be noted that it may not always be possible to obtain the framing moment in a column unless actual column stiffness is used in the analysis. This, however, cannot be done before a reasonable column size is fixed. To overcome this problem, the column is usually sized by assuming a value of bending stresses M/bhrin the column which is generally taken to be: Intemal columns = 1.5 to 2.5N/mm* Edge and corer columns = 3.0 to 4.0N/mm? The design charts for circular columns follow similar approach as that for rectangular columns except the axial load capacities are given for the actual colut size. Hence, dividing N by n or given column width in the design process is omitted:Jao. CONSTRUCTION OF WAFFLE SLABS Wafile slabs are characterized by having transverse ribs which perform a structural function and which may be so arranged as to form a series of approximately square anels with the longitudinal ribs or may alternatively be spaced close together. As a result of this arrangement the actual slabs can be made very thin. Thus they are actual slabs can be made very thin, Thus they are the lightest of in terms of material quantities the most economical type of roof unit. The width of the units ranges from j to 3m. The span range from 5 to 12 m depth. The longitudinal ribs are interconnected by welding or by means of grout and left projecting from the slabs, It is rectangular cavities combine numerous advantages with regard to material requirements and they are significantly more favorable than roof units with circular cavities. These box sections possess high torsional rigidity and present a flat surface on the underside. Besides they can very suitable be pre stressed. The only drawback is that manufactured involving the removal of the cores for forming the cavities is somewhat more expensive than for ribbed slabs. Bearings for roof units. With regard to the bearings of slab-type roof units on the main beams a distinction must be made as to whether the unit is used for a flat roof or for a north light roof and as to whether or not the unit is provided with a transverse rib at the bearing. The external wall constructed of precast components wall panel must ¢ Withstand without harmful deformations the loads that it is required to carry ¢ Permit or absorbs the movements due to temperature variations and differences without sustaining damages * Have a good architectural effect * Be resistant to climatic influences * Require the least possible maintenance * Provide the requisite a caustic insulation and fire protection * Fulfill the other basic requirements of prefab constructionPrefabricated Sip, eee performance of the function of external wall pang 8 atte a According ( the ‘ollowing kinds: « Load-bearing . stiffening (Windbracing) Merely space-enclosing, (curtain wall) cross section design of wall panels depends on the requirements, . The e Sin concrete Multi-layer panels consisting of concret © Special -section slabs, which may be either of single-layer or Multia constructions (sand which construction) Yer eee RBRRAUT LSS: gle layer solid panels consisting of one material, Example: Light : igh I te and insulating materials Fig. 2.22. Waffle Stabs One of the most intricate and most difficult problems to be solved in both design g onstruction of structures assembled of prefabricated members as the joining. It jg ighly important that the construction of the joints should be easy that unavoidable aller in accuracies and deviations within dimensional tolerances should neither fluence the designed stresses in a detrimental manner nor cause in admissible anges in the stress distribution of the structures. The forming and construction of joints requires owing to their intricacy, greatly icreased.consist joints which cannot be inspected should be omitted. ‘When solvingite different from those of concrete jmilar er that the design and th n of the jonize with the materi of timber als to be used. The properties o| and reinforced conerete. Therefore joints those used in timber and ste cl construction are generally not appropriate for the PURPOSE. kk TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS eee 1, What are the prefabricated structural units? The following are the some of the pref abricated structural units: Walls and columns Lintels Doors and window frames Roofing and flooring elements Stairs 1, What are the types of prefabricated components? (May/June 2012) (April 2014) (April 2016) The types of prefabricated components are: a. Structural components Precast Slabs Precast Beam & Girders Precast Columns Precast Walls Precast concrete Stairs Uniquely shaped structural elements for a sports stadium 6. Non- Structural components Aesthetic components Finishing components