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Power

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1. How does the concept of hegemony help us to understand the operation of power?

Hegemony is a dominance or leadership concept raised by the ruling group. In the current

society, individuals perceive hegemony as a structure of common sense. This is a cultural

influence by the authorities, unlike the conventional force and violence power. The theory was

established by Antonio Gramsci who was inspired by Marxist theories. The hegemony theory is

based on the Marxist theory of working and ruling class. While the Marx theory is majorly

concerned with the economic and base issues, hegemony helps people to understand power as an

ideology and superstructure. For Hegemony, the class that struggle should always include

ideologies and ideas (Gramsci 1971). Such ideas can result in change and revolution.

Hegemony can make individuals understand the independence, autonomy, and

importance of ideology and culture. Gramsci developed the superstructure further through

dividing it into institutions including the legal system, armed forces, police and government

which he perceived to be the political society or state. On the other hand, he classified a non-

coercive superstructure such as the family, clubs, cultural associations, political parties, unions,

schools, churches which are known as civil society. Therefore, society is composed of the

relations of production such as the political society or state and civil society (Gamson et al.

2014).

In common phrasing, the term “domination” means suppression or the exercise of

complete control either by an individual or a state. On the other hand, the word “hegemony”

denotes such ideas as leadership, patronage or influence. Antonio Gramsci applies the two words

to evaluate the structure the bourgeois states. According to Gramsci, the structure of such states

emanates from the cultural and spiritual supremacy it exercises by the exploitation of civil

society. By applying the agents of socialization like the media, schools, family, church and
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different types of non-governmental organizations, the state imposes its own beliefs and values

on the society, thereby offering a cultural direction (Gramsci 1971).

It’s hegemony in this issue turns into a rule by approval. It is the opposite of application

of force but shrinks the need for its use. In this case, domination is a contrast of hegemony. The

hegemony of the state is based on the ultimate coercive power, but the force in currency is

devalued when it should be constantly used. A state tries to find power by consent and tries to get

routine consent to its authority. This entails legitimacy as a requirement for the state (Keohane

2005). The two concepts are important in understanding the operations of power. When the two

concepts are used in the perspective of revolutionary Marxism, it is important to make a small

digression and give some connection between Marx and Gramsci.

Marx developed his notions of revolution majorly for the industrially developed nations

such as Germany, France, and British. In fact, many people believe that his theory of revolution

is linked to only the developed countries, which eliminates the pre-capitalist types of production

and makes the workers the dominant group in society. The peasantry that Marx dismissed as

rural idiocy is not even related to the revolutionary culture (Willis 1981). For the purpose of

understanding the operation of power using hegemony, it is important to look at what Marx

refers to as the superstructure and the base. Whereas Max had a stronger and clear idea about

domination, he did not have much to say about hegemony. The latter was developed, conceived

and articulated by Gramsci.

Gramsci states that the power of the ruling group is not restricted to the economic base.

Power is obvious in the hegemony used from the superstructure such as the cultural, ideological

and spiritual spheres that provide legitimacy, consolidation, and myth given to regime.

According to Gramsci, more attention should be accorded to revolutionary institutions in the

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sphere of education and culture. There is also a need to create factory councils to improve the

consciousness of workers to enhance their solidarity and limit the decision making capability of

the possessors. Workers can take over of the properties in functions like administration (Keohane

2005). In this regards, hegemony’s sociology of knowledge is a form of critical consciousness.

Its strength exists in its ideological function of rationally organizing the experiences of people.

Therefore, the ideological function stops to be seen as intellectual processes baffling social

reality as in Marx, and get a sociological, historical and psychological value.

Additionally, hegemony can be used to study the power of African states. The traditional

view states that Africa continent is a cultural sub-system that has a different occupation, kinship,

religion and language that separate various sub-sets of one society (Willis 1981). Only a few

states in Africa are culturally homogenous. Hegemony is an important theory that brings into

attention the notion that the ruling class has a significant influence on the value customs and

system of society. The term hegemony is applied to imply the ways in which powerful states win

the consent to their rule from those they conquer. The cultural hegemony is significant because it

is a constant political realism (Gramsci 1971).

Athenians used hegemony on a daily basis in the olden world, where individuals were

distinct by their class within the border. It is imperative to realize that Greeks highlighted their

cultural ideal of hegemony using politics and language, particularly the idea of citizenship. The

operation of power can be understood in the perspective of hegemony like how the United States

applies the visa system to differentiate between alien visitors. The idea of hegemony has been

replicated in the twenty-first century like when president bush used the slogan "with us or against

us" when addressing the issue of terrorism (Althusser 2014). It is evident that hegemony was
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applied in terms of the primary force in the continuance of the dominant economic, political and

military power.

It is obvious that hegemony should be in existence with the idea of empire. Hegemony is

currently used in the analysis of the political economy and international relations through the

transnational historical materialism. Hegemony helps scholars to differentiate their projects from

the same manner hegemony were used in orthodox realist international relations. In the state’s

international relations analysis, hegemony signifies the existence within the global system of an

overriding state (Keohane 2005).

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Bibliography

Althusser, L., 2014. On the reproduction of capitalism: Ideology and ideological state

apparatuses. Verso Trade.

Gramsci, A., 1971. The intellectuals: The formation of the intellectuals. Contemporary

sociological thought: Themes and theories. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press. pp.

Gramsci, A., 1971. The intellectuals. The different position of urban and rural-type

intellectuals , 49, pp.60-69.

Gamson, W.A., Croteau, D., Hoynes, W. and Sasson, T., 1992. Media images and the social

construction of reality. Annual review of sociology, 18(1), pp.373-393.

Jones, Steven. (2006) Antonio Gramsci. London: Routledge.

Keohane, R.O., 2005. After hegemony: Cooperation and discord in the world political economy.

Princeton University Press.

Willis, P. 1981. Learning to labor: how working class kids get working class jobs. New York,

Columbia University Press.

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2. How do discourses of fatness discipline individuals? What are the effects and how

might individuals resist?

Discourses about bodies are changing the means of conveying, supporting and

reproducing thoughts connected to the principle neoliberal subject. Such discourses use an

understanding of law, morality, medicine, pedagogy, and economy to define bodies in particular

ways. Functions of certain discourses include health, education, gender, conflicts, exercise, ethos,

saying among others. The increasing emphasis on fat bodies is full of power relations. The

framing of fat bodies as being not "normal" "unnatural" health crisis is a result of newer

governments of discourses. Initially, fatness was celebrated, embraced and perceived as

aesthetically pleasing (Morgan 2011).

There has been a singular imperialism that forces every individual to change their bodies.

This imperialism is witnessed in different ways depending on individuals’ intersectional realities,

for instance, females may feel this pressure than males. Where there is a drive and will to be

slender, to transforms the body so one attains a body figure that is normal, a power relation is in

existence. Foucult's (1998) debate of the main characteristic of power is very significant to

fatness oppression. Power is practiced by using rules sustained by language and the deeds of

discourse. Such rules, discourses, and language are exercised, enacted and internalized by

societies, structures, and systems.

Fatness is not only identified as medically harmful, but morally harmful as well. Fat

people are endlessly constructed as ethically inferior. Many deeds of oppression at individuals’

level show the notion of an ugly or inferior body type. Fat individuals usually suffer from being

called and insulted using names such as whale, cow, pig or ugly (Cramer & Steinwert 1998). Fat

people are usually downwardly mobile implying that they usually fall short of the income which
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is significant to buy things that are socially valued. Fat persons have been constantly neglected

by medical facilities while trying to eradicate the obesity condition (Blank 2011). Health is

increasingly becoming more significant politically because it connects the government and

population. Health education has been perceived to be an important function of eliminating

diseases and promoting good health. Basing on the Foucault’s ideas of bio-power, (the process

applied to manage people through discipline), health education is important because it helps

those who fail to get good health to be disciplined.

Health education identifies complex punishments and rewards of fat people who are

perceived to be unhealthy. Fatness can discipline mothers who fail to breastfeed their children

since a longer period of breastfeeding is associated with a healthy weight. Fatness has created a

war on obesity and most mothers have begun to breastfeed their children to keep them medically

fit and avoid the future chance of fatness (Foucault 1998). Obesity was associated with poor

motherhood; hence the discourses of fatness discipline most mothers. Mothers who have fat kids

have also started to engage in healthy eating such as avoiding a lot of calories in the diet (Cramer

& Steinwert 1998).

Mothers are responsible for preparing and serving food to their members of the family

which makes them to make proper choices when they buy food. Discourses have contributed to

maternal responsibility for the nutrition of the family (An, M.R.P. 2014). The discourses of good

and bad food that results in obesity have made most people to start cooking most meals at their

homes. Home prepared food is healthier and cheaper than meals from restaurants that are usually

prepared in a few minutes. Discourses can help discipline people to strictly keep food budget,

plan their meals for a particular time and always prefer grocery shopping. This is in regards to
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discursive creation of a good mother who wants to have a healthy family that is free from fatness

(Campos 2004)

Discourses of fatness discipline individuals because patients who have the habit of

avoiding medical attention may result in more orderly ways such as going for regular medical

checkup. Fatness makes people formulate good decisions when they buy food from

supermarkets. Most victims avoid sugary and junk foods and decide to go for more organic foods

like those that have low sugar and low-fat content. On the other hand, discipline emanates from

fitness as a focus to lose weight. Some parents have resisted the fatness discourse because they

feel that setting the food routine is a difficult task. Some of them are very busy and they find

little time to do exercise or compel their children to engage in healthy activities (Morgan 2011).

Gendered, classed and racially discriminated populations feel that they are unjustly

targeted in fatness discourse (Foucault 1998). Thus the classification of marginalized groups as a

“problem population” in fatness discourse is perceived inflections of classism, sexism, and

racism. The messages to which compel people to change their behavior in regards to fatness are

viewed as a means to promote the economic wellbeing of businesses. For example, some fat

people view the discourse as a function of thriving the business of health facilities and the fitness

and weight loss industry. Weight loss medicines have failed to attain a long lasting weight loss

and have negative health consequences particularly where the government is the sole regulator of

weight loss drugs.

There is evidence that fatness discourse helps in an understanding of law, morality,

medicine, pedagogy, and economy to define bodies in particular ways. Functions of certain

discourses include health, education, gender, conflicts, exercise, ethos, saying among others.

After understanding such aspects, people tend to come up with alternative ways of trying to
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reduce weight to avoid all forms of abuses and negative perception. Diet and physical fitness are

the two main approaches that have helped overweight people to stay healthy.
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Bibliography

An, M.R.P., 2014. Fat chat: an exploration of obesity discourses in Canadian media and their

impacts on social work.

Blank, H., 2011. Big big love, revised: A sex and relationships guide for people of size (and

those who love them). Berkeley, CA: Celestial Arts.

Campos, P.F., 2004. The obesity myth: Why America's obsession with weight is hazardous to

your health. Penguin.

Cramer, P. and Steinwert, T., 1998. Thin is good, fat is bad: How early does it begin?. Journal of

applied developmental psychology, 19(3), pp.429-451.

Foucault, M., 1998. The history of sexuality: Volume 1The will to knowledge Penguin.

Morgan, K.P., 2011. Foucault, ugly ducklings, and technoswans: Analyzing fat hatred, weight-

loss surgery, and compulsory biomedicalized aesthetics in America. IJFAB: International

Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics, 4(1), pp.188-220.