ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ME 232: THERMODYNAMICS LAB (0,1)
Table Of Contents

Experiments:

1 Introduction
Introduction about the lab, experiments and the equipment

2 Layout of Steam Power Plant

To draw the layout of the steam power plant and study the main characteristics of the system.

3 Steam Boiler
To study the starting procedure of steam boiler.

4 Relationship of Steam Temperature and Pressure

To investigate the relationship between pressure and temperature of saturated steam.

5 Dryness Fraction
To find out the dryness fraction of steam by using separating and throttling calorimeter.

6 Fault finding on Boiler Demonstration Unit

To carry out fault finding on Boiler control demonstration unit.

7 Flow through a Convergent Nozzle

To investigate the flow of steam through a convergent Nozzle.

8 Flow through a Convergent/Divergent Nozzle

To investigate the flow of steam through convergent/divergent nozzle and to plot the pressure
variation along its length.

9 Single Cylinder Steam Engine

To determine the brake power of a single cylinder steam engine with varying load.

10 PV Diagram of a Steam Engine

To trace the PV diagram of a piston side and piston rod side with the help of indicator unit.

11 Study of the Steam Turbine

Study of operational procedure and determination of steam flow rate of a steam turbine.
 12 Study of the Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger
To study the heat exchanger and to plot the temperature difference curves for a variety of flow
conditions.

13 Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger

To determine the mean temperature difference between two mediums in both contra and parallel
flow.
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 1: Layout of Steam Power Plant

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT # 1: Layout of Steam Power Plant

Objective
To draw the layout of the steam power plant and study the main characteristics of the system.

Description of apparatus

1. BOILER:-

i. Specifications:-

It is a fully automatic gas fired steam boiler capable of an evaporation rate of 320 kg / hr and
with a maximum working pressure of 10.3 bars gauge.
ii. Type:-
This boiler is a vertical fire tube type.
iii. Description:-
It contains a centrally mounted semi forced draught burner firing vertically downward. The
boiler is fully lagged and protected by an enameled steel jacket and is furnished with:-
a) Two safety valves.
b) steam stop valve,
c) steam pressure gauge
d) water level gauge
e) blow down valve
f) two feed water non return valves
g) Feed water pump.
 Blower Water Column

Water
Level
Gauge

Control
Panel

Feed Water
Pump
 The feed water pump consists of an electric feed pump controlled by an electric
water level probe system incorporating low water level alarm and lockout.

Feed Water
Pump

The boiler mounted control panel contains the electrical circuitry for fully
automatic on-off control of the feed pump from the water level control system,
and contains fully automatic on-off control of the burner from a steam pressure
control through an interlocked air, ignition, fuel and flame failure sequence
controller.
2. Separating And Throttling Calorimeter
This instrument is fitted at the front of water tank set. This is used for measurement of the quality
of steam from the boiler. The equipment is provided with steam pressure gauge, manometer and
two temperature thermocouples.

Throttling
Calorimeter
Separating
Calorimeter

Condenser
Mercury
Manometer

3. Water Tank Set

This equipment acts as a soft water reservoir.

Condensate from turbine is returned to this tank.
Also the fresh water is first softened by the water softener plant and water treatment
plant and then stored in the tank.
The ball float valve and supply isolating valve control the make up water level at 200
liters capacity allowing a condensate return of 150 liters.
The additional instrumentation for boiler and super heater is also mounted on the
tank, .The water feed pump and water treatment plant are also fitted on the water tank
set.
Water Storage Tank

Boiler
Instrumentation
Super Heater
Instrumentation

Separating and
Throttling
Calorimeter

Water
Treatment Plant

Water
Softener Plant Gas Meter for
Boiler

Gas meter for Super

Heater
4. Additional Instrumentation For Boiler And Super heater
These instrumentation units include additional instrumentation required to carry out a
comprehensive experimental investigation of boiler and super heater performance as well as
determination of their efficiencies. These additional instruments are:
a. Feed water / gas meter.
b. Fuel flow transducers.
c. Multi-point temperature indicator and thermocouple, for air, feed water, fuel,
steam and flue temperature.
d. CO2 absorption indicator.
e. Flue draught manometer

5. Super heater
It is a fully automatic gas fired super heater rated to give a final steam temperature of 235oC and
designed for operation with installed boiler.
The super heater comprises of:

a. A continuous steam coil with inlet and outlet headers.

b. A semi forced draught gas burner firing horizontally in to a combustion chamber
and complete with flame failure control.

Super
Heater

The super heater is fully insulated and furnished with a safety valve and drain valve. The control
panel contains the electrical circuitry for fully automatic on-off control of the gas burner
interlocked through the temperature, pressure, and steam coil over temperature and flame failure
detector.
6. Feed Water Softener Set:-
It comprises of a ion exchange water softener designed to treat water of 200 ppm hardness
continuously for eight hours or water of 400ppm hardness continuously for four hours between
regeneration and arranged for manual control of the regeneration cycle. It comprises of.

a. Softener vessel.
b. Salt Storage tank.
c. Water meter.
d. Isolating Valve.
e. Bypass Valve.
f. Water sampling point.
g. Feed water additive dosing plant.

Feed Water
Softener Set

7. Steam Turbine And Condenser Set

The steam turbine and condenser set comprises of three main assemblies turbine and condenser
base plate, condensate collecting tank and overhead control panel. The turbine base plate sub
assembly consists of mild steel fabricated steel plate on which are mounted a turbine.
Dynamometer, surface condenser, condenser vacuum pump condensate tank drain pump and
inter connecting pipe work. The turbine is a single stage impulse type fitted with stainless steel
blades. Manually operated valves on the turbine casing control steam inlet nozzles. The turbine
housing consists of two castings bolted together. A large diameter turbine shaft is used which is
bearing mounted and provided with a self-lubricating system with carbon ring seals. A constant
speed control governor and over speed trip are also fitted to the turbine. The turbine shaft is
directly coupled with a flexible coupling to 5 kW dc dynamometer. The dynamometer is
mounted in reunions with the torque being measured by a load cell system. Dynamometer field is
controlled by variable supply from the overhead control unit. The dynamometer output being
dissipated in a load bank. Exhaust from the turbine is discharged into a surface condenser
designed to produce correct vacuum conditions at the turbine. Then the exhaust is supplied with
appropriate flow of cooling water to make condensate water. The condensate is extracted from
the condenser by the electrically operated condenser vacuum pump, which is matched to operate
at the condenser vacuum conditions and discharge the condensate into the condensate collecting
tank. A small electrically driven condensate tank drain pump is used to drain condensate from
the condensate tank. The condensate can be returned to the boiler or exhausted to a drain.
The condensate collecting tank is mounted on four legs and is designed to stand at the end of the
turbine base frame; the tank contains baffles to damp out any turbulence. The tank also contains
two level switches which are fitted into the tank with a difference in height between them
corresponding to set weight of condensate. These level switches are used to start and stop an
electrical timer fitted on the overhead control panel. Thus the time taken for a given amount of
condensate to be collected is known and the steam flow rate is calculated. The tank can be
drained by the automatic use of the condensate tank drain pump or by the use of manually
controlled valve. Fitted to the overhead frame are two control panels, one control panel contains
the dynamometer control system and electrical indicators, the other panel contains pressure
gauges for the system.
The maximum output of the turbine is 5 kW when the turbine is supplied with steam at 8.6 bars
final super heater steam temperature of 235oC and exhaust conditions of –0.69 bar. The
maximum operated speed is 3000 rpm and maximum steam consumption at full load is 276
kg/hr.

Condenser

Steam
Turbine
8. Nozzle Test Rig
Nozzle test rig is used for experiments in investigation of flow through different types of nozzles.
The required nozzle can be fitted in a thick insulated cylinder. The rig is equipped with pressure
and temperature gauges for measurement of property of steam at different points. A probe is
provided by which the steam properties can be measured at different places with in the nozzle.
The throttling calorimeter fitted with the test rig is used to determine steam quality at different
times during the experimental investigations

Inlet Pressure Gauge Outlet Pressure

Gauge

Line Pressure Gauge

Nozzle Throat
Pressure Gauge
Nozzle Inlet
Chest

.
9. Cooling Tower
The glass fiber reinforced cooling tower is designed to be compatible with steam turbine
condenser unit and steam-air-water heat exchanger when working in an ambient temperature of
15oC. Water on to the tower 31oC, water off 21oC. Cooling tower consists of a honeycombed
filled with induced draught and water, air inlet grills and bosses for pipe work connections. A
cooling water recirculation pump capable of passing the volume of water required by the
condenser / cooling tower is also fitted with the system.

10. Steam-Air-Water Heat Exchanger

This apparatus is to be used for the study of heat transfer phenomenon between steam-air, steam-
water, hot water-air and hot water cold-water substances in parallel and contra parallel flow. The
desired combination can be achieved by setting the selection of valve to the required position.
The rate of water and airflows can be measured by flow measuring instruments fitted with the
equipment. The temperature at different point of the heat exchanger can be measured from the
dial gauges or the digital readout unit while proper press switch is pressed.
11. Steam Engine
The engine is a single cylinder, horizontally mounted, double acting steam valve system. Fitted
on the crankshaft of the engine are the two valve drive eccentrics, the governor drive pulley and
a large flywheel with a water cooled dynamometer brake drum. Fitted around the brake drum is a
brake band on which are fitted wooden brake blocks. The brake band can be adjusted by means
of an adjusting screw mounted at the top of the brake. A torque arm to a 0-50 kg spring balance,
which is damped by means of an oil dashpot, connects the brake. The Meyers valve gear fitted to
the cylinder head enables the valve cut off point to be varied by use of a small hand wheel fitted
to the threaded shaft which projects from the cylinder head. A calibrated scale at the side of the
wheel indicates the amount of cut off selected. Mounted on the top of the cylinder is a Pickering
type engine governor, which is driven by a belt from the governor drive pulley on the engine
crankshaft. On the side of the cylinder are two connections to a selector valve on which is
mounted the engine indicator diagram unit. The cord hook of the indicator drive cord is attached
to an actuator arm operated by the crosshead. Cups are mounted on the engine to ensure
complete engine lubrication during operation. A 0-16 bar pressure gauge is provided for steam
pressure indication and is connected to the steam chest. A 0-300 rpm tachometer is mounted on
the end of the crankshaft to provide a speed indication. The engine is capable of producing 3 kW.
The maximum speed is 210 rpm and maximum steam consumption of 204 kg/hr.

Lubricating Oil

Governor

Steam
Engine
12. Boiler Control Demonstration Unit:-

1. INTRODUCTION:-

The Cussons P7665 Boiler Control Demonstration Unit has been designed to demonstrate clearly
and simply a range of boiler control sequences relating to oil or gas fired boilers. Since steam
pressure is „simulated‟ the whole functioning of a boiler may be studied in a relatively safe
situation. The Demonstration Unit can act as a valuable teaching aid for the training of boiler
operating personnel in the diagnosis of boiler system faults which may occur in practice.
Water Level
Controllers

Boiler

Blower Boiler Control Penal

Burner

Water Tank

Feed Water
Pump
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 2: Steam Boiler

(Steam Boiler)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 EXPERIMENT # 2: Steam Boiler

Objective

To study the starting procedure of steam boiler.

THEORY:

a) Introduction:-

A steam generator or a steam boiler is, usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Its
function is to transfer the heat produced by the combustion of fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) to
water, and ultimately to generate steam.
b) Important Terms of Steam Boilers:-
Though there are many terms used in steam boilers, yet the following are important:
1. Boiler Shell:- It is made up of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and riveted or welded
together. The ends of shell are are closed by means of end plates. A boiler shell should have
sufficient capacity to contain water and steam.
2. Combustion Chamber:- It is the space, generally below the boiler shell, meant for burning
fuel in order to produce steam from the water contained in the shell.
3. Grate:- It is the platform, in the combustion chamber, upon fuel is burnt. The grate,
generally, consist of cast iron bars which are spread apart so that air (required for
combustion) can pass through them. The area of grate, over which the fire takes place, is
called grate surface.
4. Furnace:- It is the space, above the grate and bellow the boiler shell, in which the fuel is
actually burnt. The furnace is also called fire Box.
5. Heating Surface:- It is that part of boiler surface, which is exposed to the fire (or hot gases
from the fire).
6. Mountings:- These are fittings which are mounted on the boiler for its proper functioning.
They include water level indicator, pressure gauge, safety valve etc. It may be noted that a
boiler cannot function safely without the mountings.
7. Accessories:- These are the devices, which form an integral part of a boiler, but are not
mounted on it. They include super heater, economizer, feed water pump etc. It may be noted
that the accessories help in controlling and running the boiler efficiently.

c) Classification of Steam Boilers:-

Though there are many classifications of boilers, yet the following are
important.
1. According to the contents in the tube. The steam boilers, according to the contents in the
tube may be classified as:
(a). Fire tube or smoke tube boiler (b). Water tube boiler.
In Fire tube steam boiler, The flames and hot gases, produced by the combustion of fuel pass
through the tube which are surrounded by water.
In Water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes (called water tubes) which
are surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside.

2. According to the position of the furnace:- The steam boilers, according to the position of
furnace are classified as:
(a). Internally fired boilers (b). Externally fired boilers
In Internally fired steam boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Most of the fire
tube steam boilers are internally fired.
In externally fires steam boilers, the furnace is arranged underneath in a brick-work setting.
Water tube steam boilers are always externally fired.

3. According to the axis of shell. The steam boilers, according to the axis of the shell, may be
classified as:
(a). Vertical Boilers (b). Horizontal boilers
In Vertical steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical.
In Horizontal boilers, the axis of the shell is horizontal.

4. According to the number of tubes. The steam boilers, according to the number of tubes, may
be classified as:
(a). Single tube steam boiler (b). Multitubular Boilers

5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam. The steam boilers, according to
the method of circulation of water and steam, may be classified as:
(a). Natural circulation boilers (b). Forced circulation boilers
In Natural circulation boilers, the circulation of water is by natural convection currents, Which
are setup during the heating of water.
In Forced circulation boilers, there is a forced circulation of water by a centrifugal pump driven
by some external power.

Description of Apparatus

12. BOILER:-

iv. Specifications:-
It is a fully automatic gas fired steam boiler capable of an evaporation rate of 320 kg / hr and
with a maximum working pressure of 10.3 bars gauge.
i. Type:-

This boiler is a vertical fire tube type.

ii. Description:-
It contains a centrally mounted semi forced draught burner firing vertically downward. The
boiler is fully lagged and protected by an enameled steel jacket and is furnished with:-
h) two safety valves.
i) steam stop valve,
j) steam pressure gauge
k) water level gauge
l) blow down valve
m) two feed water non return valves
n) Feed water pump.
 Blower Water Column

Water
Level
Gauge

Control
Panel

Feed Water
Pump
 The feed water pump consists of an electric feed pump controlled by an electric
water level probe system incorporating low water level alarm and lockout.

Feed Water
Pump

The boiler mounted control panel contains the electrical circuitry for fully
automatic on-off control of the feed pump from the water level control system,
and contains fully automatic on-off control of the burner from a steam pressure
control through an interlocked air, ignition, fuel and flame failure sequence
controller.
Procedure

1. Switch on power to water supply pump and open all valves in water feed circuit.
2. Close valve 3 water to heat exchanger.
3. Close valve 57 water to vacuum pump.
4. Close valve 4 water to steam engine.
5. Close valve 5 water
6. Open valve 6 water to softener plant.
7. Open valve 7 water tank inlet valve.
8. Close valve 28 water tank drain valve
9. Close valve 19 gas.
10. Close valve 29 gas.
11. Open valve 8 water tank outlet valve.
12. Close valve 27 drain.
13. Open valve 9 boiler water inlet valve.
14. Close valve 17 boiler blow down.
15. Close valve 23 drain.
16. Close valve 24 drain.
17. Close valve 18 steam stop valve.
18. Open valve 11 water column isolation valve.
19. Open valve 12 water column isolation valve.
20. Close valve 13 water column blow down valve.
21. Open valve 14 steam.
22. Close valve 15 steam. Open valve 16 steam pressure gauge valve
23. Check water level gauge valve position all handles to be in vertical position.
24. Switch on electrics. Pump should run when pump stops.
25. Open main gas valve outside lab.
26. Open valve 19 gas.
27. Open valve 20 gas.
28. Open valve 21 gas.
29. Open valve 22 gas.
30. Switch on electrics to burner circuit. Electric switch on left of control panel.
31. Bell will ring.
32. Press the green reset button on right of control panel. Burner will operate.
33. When steam issue from valve (14) close valve (14) and allow pressure to increase when
steam pressure reaches working pressure, burner will shut down, and cycle on pressure
differential.
How to Shut Down Boiler

1. Switch off electricity to burner circuit (electric switch on left of control panel.
2. Close valve 22 gas.
3. Close valve 21 gas
4. Close valve 20 gas.
5. Close valve 19 gas.
6. Close main gas valve outside lab. Use steam until pressure approx. 3 bar.
7. Close valve 18 steam stop valve.
8. Open valve 17 blow down valve until water pump operates. When pump stops switch off
electricity.
9. Switch off power to water supply pump.
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 3: Relationship of Steam Temperature and Pressure

(Steam Boiler Instrumentation)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 EXPERIMENT # 3: Relationship of Steam Temperature and Pressure

Objective

To investigate the relationship between pressure and temperature of saturated steam.

Apparatus

Boiler, Additional Instrumentation for boiler. Boiler

Instrumentation

Theory

If energy is added to water, the resulting increase in activity of the molecules causes more and
more of them to leave the surface until equilibrium is achieved. Equilibrium depends on the
pressure of the pure substance (steam) at the interface with the water, the lower the pressure, the
easier the molecules to leave and thus less energy is required to reach the equilibrium (boiling)
point. The temperature, at which equilibrium occurs at a given pressure, is called the saturation
temperature.

As the temperature increases and the water approaches its boiling condition, some molecules
attain enough kinetic energy to reach velocities that allow them to momentarily escape from the
liquid into the space above the surface, before falling back into the liquid.
Further heating causes greater excitation and the number of molecules with enough energy to
leave the liquid increases. As the water is heated to its boiling point, bubbles of steam form
within it and rise to break through the surface.

Considering the molecular structure of liquids and vapours, it is logical

that the density of steam is much less than that of water, because the steam molecules are further
apart from one another. The space immediately above the water surface thus becomes filled with
less dense steam molecules.

When the number of molecules leaving the liquid surface is more than those re-entering, the
water freely evaporates. At this point it has reached boiling point or its saturation temperature, as
it is saturated with heat energy.

If the pressure remains constant, adding more heat does not cause the temperature to rise any
further but causes the water to form saturated steam. The temperature of the boiling water and
saturated steam within the same system is the same, but the heat energy per unit mass is much
greater in the steam.

At atmospheric pressure the saturation temperature is 100°C. However, if the pressure is

increased, this will allow the addition of more heat and an increase in temperature without a
change of phase.

Therefore, increasing the pressure effectively increases both the enthalpy of water, and the
saturation temperature. The relationship between the saturation temperature and the pressure is
known as the steam saturation curve (see Figure 2.2.1).

Steam saturation curve

Water and steam can coexist at any pressure on this curve, both being at the saturation
temperature. Steam at a condition above the saturation curve is known as superheated steam:

Temperature above saturation temperature is called the degree of superheat of the steam.

Water at a condition below the curve is called sub-saturated water.

If the steam is able to flow from the boiler at the same rate that it is produced, the addition of
further heat simply increases the rate of production. If the steam is restrained from leaving the
boiler, and the heat input rate is maintained, the energy flowing into the boiler will be greater
than the energy flowing out. This excess energy raises the pressure, in turn allowing the
saturation temperature to rise, as the temperature of saturated steam correlates to its pressure.
1. Start the boiler as outlined in Experiment No. 2
2. When steam issues from valve (14), close valve (14) and allow pressure to increase.
3. When steam pressure builds up to about 0.5 bar open steam valve.
4. Switch on power supply of boiler instrumentation unit.
5. Press steam temperature switch to record steam temperature.
6. Open slightly valve (32)
7. Close valve (31)
8. Open valve (37)
9. Open valve (39)
Result

Note down steam temperature after every increment of ½ bar. Record these observations in a
tabular form. Keep on recording temperature up to a maximum of 10 bar of pressure. Shut the
boiler (see procedure to shut the boiler). Take similar reading when the pressure is dropping.
Calculate the mean temperature at each pressure. Plot these temperatures to a base of absolute
pressure. Plot a similar graph by taking temperature from the steam table and with the base of
absolute pressure.

S.No Boiler Pressure Temperature ( ºC )

( bars )
Gauge Absolute Increasing Decreasing Average Steam
Table
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
 Comments

a. Comment on the graph drawn from your observation data.

b. Compare this graph with that drawn from data of steam table.
c. Suggest any improvement in experiment.

To shut down boiler

a. Switch off electrics to circuit (switch on left of control panel

b. Close valve (22) gas
c. Close valve (21) gas
d. Close valve (20) gas
e. Close valve (19) gas
f. Close main gas valve outside laboratory.
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 4: Dryness Fraction

(Separating and throttling calorimeter)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 EXPERIMENT # 4: Dryness Fraction

Objective

To find out the dryness fraction of steam by using separating and throttling calorimeter.

Theory

a. Dryness Fraction.

The dryness fraction of steam is defined as the quantity of dry vapor present in any wet vapor
mixture.

Dryness fraction = Quantity of dry steam

Quantity of dry steam + water

Separating and throttling calorimeters are used to determine the dryness fraction or quality of
steam passing through the steam main. Using this bench students can measure the dryness
fraction of the steam supply by:-

using the separating calorimeter

using the throttling calorimeter
using both separating and throttling calorimeters together

b. Separating Calorimeter

This is a mechanical process where the incoming steam to the calorimeter is made to travel
through a series of obtuse angles where the inertia of the water droplets causes them to separate
from the steam flow. If wt is the weight of dry steam discharge from calorimeter and ws is the
weight of water separated in the calorimeter in the same interval of time, then dryness fraction as
measured by the separating calorimeter (Xs)

Xs = Wt
Wt+Ws
c. Throttling Calorimeter.

In the 'Throttling' calorimeter the incoming steam is fed into the throttling
calorimeter body via a fixed orifice, the pressure inside the calorimeter body being slightly above
atmospheric. This causes the steam to become super heated and by measuring the final
temperature and pressure of this steam the dryness fraction of the steam can be calculated.

Consider a fluid flowing through a throttling orifice from a higher pressure P 1 to a lower
pressure P2. From the steady flow energy equation it can be shown that adiabatic throttling is a
constant enthalpy process. The wet steam before throttling will become superheated steam at the
lower pressure after throttling

Enthalpy of wet steam before throttling:

H1 = hf1 +Xt hfg1

Enthalpy of wet steam after throttling:

H2 = hg2 + Cp (t2 – ts2)

Since H1 = H2, therefore:

Hf1 + Xthfg1 = hg2 + Cp (t2 – ts2)

Xt = hg2 + Cp (t2 – ts2) – hf1

Hfg1
Where:
Hf1 = Sensible heat corresponding to pressure P1
Xt = Dryness fraction at throttling calorimeter
hfg1 = Latent heat corresponding to pressure P1
hg2 = Enthalpy of steam corresponding to pressure P2
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
t2 = Steam temperature at throttling calorimeter
ts2 = Saturated steam temperature corresponding to pressure P2

d. Combined Separating and Throttling

However, both these types of calorimeters have shortcomings. The separating calorimeter cannot
separate out all of the water and some is carried over with the dry steam. The throttling
calorimeter relies on the steam being throttled into the superheat region which is not possible if
the steam is too wet before throttling.

The solution to these problems is to combine the two types of calorimeter by connecting them in
series; the separating calorimeter being nearest the incoming main.

The unit is provided with a pressure gauge for measuring the steam main pressure and a mercury
manometer for measuring the pressure inside the throttling calorimeter. Temperatures of the
steam main and the throttling calorimeter interior are measured by a multipoint pyrometer, the
readout of which is mounted at the top of the unit.

Throttling
Calorimeter
Separating
Calorimeter

Condenser
Mercury
Manometer
If W = weight of water in steam leaving the separating calorimeter and entering the throttling
calorimeter, then by the definition of dryness fraction:

Xt = Wt – w w = Wt (1-Xt)

Wt
But the separating calorimeter has already removed Ws water, therefore, total weight of water is
(Ws + w) in the wet steam Ws + Wt .

Applying this to the definition of dryness fraction:

X = (Ws + Wt) – (Ws + w)

Ws + Wt
= Wt – w but w = Wt (1- Xt)
W s + Wt
= Wt – Wt ( 1- Xt)
W s + Wt
= Wt . Xt
W s + Wt
= Wt .X
W s + Wt
= Xs . Xt
Procedure

1. Start cooling water flow through the condenser.

2. Place the condensate-collecting vessel under the condenser outlet.
3. Open the steam valve and allow the steam to flow through the calorimeter to warm up the
system. Ensure that the water flow through the condenser is sufficient to condense all the
steam.
4. Allow the separated condensate levels to build up in the separating calorimeter until
liquid can be seen in the calorimeter condensate level tube.
5. Drain the main condensate-collecting vessel.
6. Refit the main condensate collecting vessel under the condenser outlet
7. Measure and record the initial value of fluid level in the separating calorimeter, the initial
value of condensate level in the main condensate collecting vessel, the
steam pressure in the steam main, steam pressure after throttling, atmospheric pressure, steam
main temperature and the temperature in the throttling calorimeter. The values of the last five-
parameter values should be checked about six times during the course of the measurement.
8. Allow time of a reasonable quantity of condensate to collect in the main condensate-
collecting vessel, and then measure this quantity. At the same time note the value of fluid
level in the separating calorimeter.
9. Turn off the steam supply.
10. Allow the apparatus to cool and turn off the condenser cooling water.
11. Drain the separating calorimeter.
12. Empty the condensate-collecting vessel.
Result Sheet

Log Sheet Readings Average

1 2 3 4 5
Steam Pressure in
main
Steam Pressure
after throttling
Steam Temperature
after throttling

Atmospheric pressure = mm Hg

Absolute pressure after throttling = bar

Absolute pressure in steam main = bar
Using steam tables and interpolating

Hf1 =

hfg1 =

hg2 =

Cp =

ts2 =

Dryness fraction at throttling calorimeter:

Xt = hg2 + Cp (t2 – ts2) – hf1

hfg1
Xt =

Dryness fraction due to separating calorimeter:

 Xs = Wt .
Ws + Wt
Xs =
Combined dryness fraction:

X = Xt . Xs

X=
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB
EXPERIMENT # 5: Fault finding on Boiler Demonstration Unit

(Boiler Demonstration Unit)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 EXPERIMENT # 5: Fault finding on Boiler Demonstration Unit

Objective
To carry out fault finding on Boiler control demonstration unit.

Apparatus

Boiler Control Demonstration Unit

Boiler Control Demonstration Unit:-

2. INTRODUCTION:-

The Cussons P7665 Boiler Control Demonstration Unit has been designed to demonstrate clearly
and simply a range of boiler control sequences relating to oil or gas fired boilers. Since steam
pressure is „simulated‟ the whole functioning of a boiler may be studied in a relatively safe
situation. The Demonstration Unit can act as a valuable teaching aid for the training of boiler
operating personnel in the diagnosis of boiler system faults which may occur in practice.
 Water Level
Controllers

Boiler

Blower Boiler Control Penal

Motor

Water Tank

Feed Water
Pump
Procedure

Through this apparatus we familiarize the students to different controls of the boiler and also
demonstrate possible fault, which could occur in the boiler. There are four water control levels
switches namely electrode float switch, mercury float switch, magnetic float switch and reed
float switch. There are fourteen fault switches. These fault switches are applied only during
operation of the unit. The operating procedure of the unit is as under:

a. Ensure drain valve from feed water tank is closed.

b. Fill feed water tank with clean filtered water to fill level marked on tank
c. Ensure boiler drain valve is closed.
d. Open the pump supply valve and the boiler supply valve.
e. Connect the unit to an electrical supply of the correct rating.
f. Select gas or oil burner simulation on the gas/oil switch.
g. Ensure all fault switches are off.
h. Ensure electrode selected on level control system.
i. Switch on main supply at the side of the panel. At this point the low water reset and
flame failure indicator may light.
j. Blower starts after “1” second. After 3 second ignition electrode on.
k. 4 second after ignition start pilot light on. After this flame detector on.
l. After further 3 second main flame comes on.
m. Ignition goes out, after 8 seconds pilot flame also goes out.
n. There are fourteen fault switches (available on the side of the panel) and their functions
which we can operate during operation / running can demonstrate possible fault occurs in
the boiler.
Switch no. Fault

1 Blower motor failure

2 Ignition transformer failure
3 Pilot flame solenoid failure
4 Main flame solenoid failure
5 Power failure
6 Fuse FS2 failure
7 Pressure gauge system fault
8 Feed water pump failure
9 Fuse FS1 failure
10 Pressure switch failed to open
11 Pressure switch failed to closed
12 LED‟s off
13 Center electrode short circuit
14 Photocell operation failure

The fault can be applied one by one during starting and during running except fault no. 2 ignition
transformer failure, which could not be applied during running.
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 6: Flow Through a Convergent Nozzle

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT # 6: Flow Through a Convergent Nozzle

Objective

To investigate the flow of steam through a convergent nozzle.

Apparatus:

Nozzle Test Rig fitted with the convergent nozzle.

Theory:

Nozzle:- The purpose of a nozzle is to convert the internal energy of steam into kinetic
energy and this is done by expanding steam from a higher to lower pressure. Since the passage of
steam through the nozzle is rapid there is little time for any heat flow to the surroundings to take
place and hence the expansion can be considered to be adiabatic. The shape of the nozzle must
be such that the conversion from internal energy to kinetic energy is carried out with the greatest
efficiency. There are two types of nozzles to be considered i.e. converging and converging-
diverging nozzle and selection of one or the other depends on final discharge pressure required.
Convergence tends to stabilize the flow so that the rapid changes of cross sectional area can be
tolerated while divergence has the opposite effect, thus necessitating gradual increases of cross
sectional area.
The minimum section of a nozzle is called the THROAT, and the pressure at the throat for
maximum work done is known as the CRITICAL PRESSURE. If the discharge pressure is
greater than the critical pressure a convergent nozzle only is required, if it is less than the critical
pressure a converging – diverging nozzle is necessary
For any nozzle, there is a critical pressure ratio at which the flow through nozzle maximum. This
ratio is given by

Pt
Adiabatic index for steam
P1
Where Pt = throat pressure, P1 = inlet pressure
Throat pressure becomes equal to Pc critical pressure
If the throat pressure is the critical value, then velocity at the throat is the critical velocity, which
is the local sonic velocity. Thus for a convergent nozzle, the maximum flow velocity is the sonic
velocity.
Considering the flow through the converging-diverging nozzle under varying the outlet pressure
conditions, if P2 (backpressure) is greater than Pt, then the nozzle acts as a venturi. If the pressure
is reduced to a value below Pt the flow in the divergent section becomes supersonic and the
device acts as a converging-diverging nozzle. Under these condition the pressure at the throat Pt
Pt
must be the critical pressure, that is must be critical pressure ratio, and the flow is
p1
maximum. While acting as a nozzle the backpressure is raised, the super sonic flow comes into
contact with the higher density fluid and a compression shock occurs.

Outlet Velocity of Nozzle:

Flow energy equation:-

mo (u1 + p1v1+ z1g + c12 / 2) + Q = mo (u2 + p2v2 +z2g +c2 2 / 2) + W

Where,
mo = mass flow rate kg / s
U1= internal energy at inlet kJ / kg
P1 =Inlet pressure bar
V1 = Inlet specific volume m3 / kg
Z1 =Elevation of Inlet m
C1= Inlet velocity of flow m/s
Q = Heat kJ/s = kW
W = work kJ / s
h1 = u1 + p1v1 = enthalpy at inlet
h2 = u2 + p2 v2 =enthalpy at outlet

For a very small duration of flow through nozzle, the heat rejected to the surroundings is nearly
zero therefore Q=0
As nozzle is open duct there is no work done so W = 0.
The elevation difference i.e. Δz = 0
The inlet velocity comparing with the outlet velocity is nearly negligible so c1 = 0
Thus flow energy equation reduced to
u1 + p1v1 = u2 + p2 v2 + c22 / 2
As h = u + pv Thus c2 = √ (h1 – h2) x2 ______ I

Equation I give the final velocity of the steam flowing out of the nozzle

Nozzle Efficiency. The nozzle efficiency is defined by the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the
isentropic enthalpy drop between the same pressures

Nozzle Efficiency = h1 – h2 / h1 - h2 s

h1 = Enthalpy at inlet pressure p1

h2 = Enthalpy at outlet pressure p2

h 2 s = found from steam table at constant entropy s1 = s2

If a correctly shaped divergent section is fitted after the throat, the flow is directed and controlled
so that the velocity is increased and it becomes supersonic. In order to keep the out let velocity
from the divergent passage is greater than at the throat, the pressure at outlet must be less than
that at the throat.
Considering the flow through the nozzle under varying the outlet pressure conditions, if p2 is
greater than pt , then the nozzle acts as a Venturi, the divergent passage acting as a diffuser which
slows and regains pressure .If the pressure is reduced to a value below p t the flow in the
divergent section becomes supersonic and the device acts as a nozzle. Under these conditions
Pt
the pressure at the throat pt must be the flow critical pressure, that is must be critical
p1
pressure ratio, and the flow is maximum. While acting as a nozzle the backpressure is raised, the
super sonic flow comes into contact with the higher density fluid and a compression shock
occurs.

Procedure

1. Traverse the search tube to the exhaust side limit.

2. Select and fit the convergent nozzle, taking care not to damage the nozzle profile.
3. Open the cooling water inlet and outlet valves to give reasonable quantity of flow.
4. Open the backpressure valve.
5. Open the steam inlet valve on the apparatus and allow the steam to flow for ten minutes to
warm up the equipment.
6. Set the inlet pressure (P1) to 7 bars by throttling the steam inlet valve.
7. Set the exhaust pressure to 6.5 bars by adjusting the back pressure regulating valve.
8. The time and mass of water collected in this time found by measuring.
9. Repeat step "7" & "8" for a series of down steam pressure (P2), reduce pressure in steps of
0.5 bar .
Observations

S/No. Pressure (P1) Back Pressure (P2) Distance Nozzle Pressure /

Throat Pressure (Pt)
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 7: Flow Through a Convergent/Divergent Nozzle

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT # 7: Flow through a Convergent /Divergent Nozzle

Objective

To investigate the flow of steam through a convergent / divergent nozzle and to plot the pressure
variation along its length.

Apparatus:

Nozzle Test Rig fitted with a convergent divergent nozzle.

Theory:

Nozzle:- The purpose of a nozzle is to convert the internal energy of steam into kinetic
energy and this is done by expanding steam from a higher to lower pressure. Since the passage of
steam through the nozzle is rapid there is little time for any heat flow to the surroundings to take
place and hence the expansion can be considered to be adiabatic. The shape of the nozzle must
be such that the conversion from internal energy to kinetic energy is carried out with the greatest
efficiency. There are two types of nozzles to be considered i.e. converging and converging-
diverging nozzle and selection of one or the other depends on final discharge pressure required.
Convergence tends to stabilize the flow so that the rapid changes of cross sectional area can be
tolerated while divergence has the opposite effect, thus necessitating gradual increases of cross
sectional area.
The minimum section of a nozzle is called the THROAT, and the pressure at the throat for
maximum work done is known as the CRITICAL PRESSURE. If the discharge pressure is
greater than the critical pressure a convergent nozzle only is required, if it is less than the critical
pressure a converging – diverging nozzle is necessary
For any nozzle, there is a critical pressure ratio at which the flow through nozzle maximum. This
ratio is given by

Pt
Adiabatic index for steam
P1
Where Pt = throat pressure, P1 = inlet pressure
Throat pressure becomes equal to Pc critical pressure
If the throat pressure is the critical value, then velocity at the throat is the critical velocity, which
is the local sonic velocity. Thus for a convergent nozzle, the maximum flow velocity is the sonic
velocity.
Considering the flow through the converging-diverging nozzle under varying the outlet pressure
conditions, if P2 (backpressure) is greater than Pt, then the nozzle acts as a Venturi. If the pressure
is reduced to a value below Pt the flow in the divergent section becomes supersonic and the
device acts as a converging-diverging nozzle. Under these condition the pressure at the throat Pt
Pt
must be the critical pressure, that is must be critical pressure ratio, and the flow is
p1
maximum. While acting as a nozzle the backpressure is raised, the super sonic flow comes into
contact with the higher density fluid and a compression shock occurs.

Outlet Velocity of Nozzle:

Flow energy equation:-

mo (u1 + p1v1+ z1g + c12 / 2) + Q = mo (u2 + p2v2 +z2g +c2 2 / 2) + W

Where,
mo = mass flow rate kg / s
U1= internal energy at inlet kJ / kg
P1 =Inlet pressure bar
V1 = Inlet specific volume m3 / kg
Z1 =Elevation of Inlet m
C1= Inlet velocity of flow m/s
Q = Heat kJ/s = kW
W = work kJ / s
h1 = u1 + p1v1 = enthalpy at inlet
h2 = u2 + p2 v2 =enthalpy at outlet

For a very small duration of flow through nozzle, the heat rejected to the surroundings is nearly
zero therefore Q=0
As nozzle is open duct there is no work done so W = 0.
The elevation difference i.e Δz = 0
The inlet velocity comparing with the outlet velocity is nearly negligible so c1 = 0
Thus flow energy equation reduced to
u1 + p1v1 = u2 + p2 v2 + c22 / 2
As h = u + pv Thus c2 = √ (h1 – h2) x2 ______ I

Equation I give the final velocity of the steam flowing out of the nozzle

Nozzle Efficiency. The nozzle efficiency is defined by the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the
isentropic enthalpy drop between the same pressures

Nozzle Efficiency = h1 – h2 / h1 - h2 s

h1 = Enthalpy at inlet pressure p1

h2 = Enthalpy at outlet pressure p2

h 2 s = found from steam table at constant entropy s1 = s2

If a correctly shaped divergent section is fitted after the throat, the flow is directed and controlled
so that the velocity is increased and it becomes supersonic. In order to keep the out let velocity
from the divergent passage is greater than at the throat, the pressure at outlet must be less than
that at the throat.
Considering the flow through the nozzle under varying the outlet pressure conditions, if p2 is
greater than pt , then the nozzle acts as a Venturi, the divergent passage acting as a diffuser which
slows and regains pressure .If the pressure is reduced to a value below p t the flow in the
divergent section becomes supersonic and the device acts as a nozzle. Under these condition the
Pt
pressure at the throat pt must be the flow critical pressure, that is must be critical pressure
p1
ratio, and the flow is maximum. While acting as a nozzle the backpressure is raised, the super
sonic flow comes into contact with the higher density fluid and a compression shock occurs.

Procedure

1. Set up the experiment in the same manner to that for the convergent nozzle. With inlet
pressure 7 bars and an outlet pressure at various positions along the axis of the nozzle using
the pressure probe.
2. Repeat the procedure for several values of outlet pressure, maintaining the inlet pressure
constant.

Conclusion
Pt
1. Plot a graph between and mass flow rate mo and from the graph find the critical
p1
pressure ratio.
Pt
2. Plot to a base of "x" a diagram of nozzle passage should be drawn beneath the
p1
graph, to illustrate the passage section at each value of "x" a curve should be plotted for
each value of pb. Comment on these curves.

3. Point out any possible sources of error in the experiment

Observation

S/No. Pressure (P1) Back Pressure (P2) Distance Nozzle Condensate

Pressure collected in 3 mins
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 8: Single Cylinder Steam Engine

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT # 8: Single Cylinder Steam Engine

Objective

To determine the brake power for a single cylinder steam engine with varying load.

Apparatus

Steam Engine with Dynamometer.

Theory:

The function of the engine is to convert the heat energy contained in the steam in to rotational
energy at the shaft. The steam expands in the engine cylinder, doing work on the engine piston.
The engine is double acting, i.e. steam is admitted to both sides of the piston. Steam admission is
controlled by a slide valve which covers and uncovers the port openings.

Procedure

1. Set the valve gear to a cut -off value of 50%, and adjust the governor to maintain a constant
speed through out the test.
2. Vary the brake load from zero to maximum value.
3. For each load take at least three readings at every five minutes intervals, for the parameters
listed in the result. The experiment can then be repeated for different values of cut-off
4. Results
Value of cut off 50%

Observation Units 1 2 3 4 5

Engine Speed rpm

Brake Load N

Torque Nm

Brake Power kW

Conclusion

1. Plot two graphs for each of the table above against a base of rpm on x-axis and torque and
brake power on y-axis.
2. Comment on the shape of the curve.
3. Comments on the effect of changing the value of cut off.
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 9: PV Diagram of Steam Engine

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT # 9: PV Diagram of Steam Engine

Objective

To trace the PV diagram of piston side and piston rod side with the help of indicator unit.

Apparatus

Steam Engine and Indicator unit

Procedure

1. Set the indicator unit to the on/off valve.

2. Open selector valve to piston side of cylinder.
3. Fit paper to indicator drum.
4. Connect the indicator drum drive cord to drive arm.
5. Ensure that when piston is at BDC, indicator drum is fully turned against spring.
6. Open indicator valve.
7. Push pen against paper to complete trace.
8. Close indicator valve.
9. Remove cord hook from operating arm.
10. Remove paper with trace from drum.
11. Reverse position of selector valve to piston rod side of cylinder.
12. Repeat steps 1 to 8 .
13. Remove indicator.
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 10: Study of Steam turbine

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT # 10: Study of Steam turbine

Objective

Study of operational procedure and determination of steam flow rate of steam turbine.

Apparatus

Steam Turbine Unit.

To start up steam turbine

1. Start boiler and super heater.

2. Close steam valve at inlet to turbine.
3. Allow steam to discharge through steam trap valve at end of line until all condensate has
been removed from steam line.
4. Ensured water is present in the cooling tower sump and also that the isolating valve to the
cooling tower ball valve is open. The cooling tower drain valve should be closed and the
overflow runs to a suitable drainage point.
5. Open all valves on cooling tower / condenser circuit.
6. Ensure the cooling water circulating pump is primed by opening the de-airing screw on the
pump.
7. Switch on the electric, press start push button on cooling tower fan starter. Press starter push
button on circulating pump starter.
8. Control flow of water through condenser by closing slowly the valve on the outlet of the
condenser. (A), this valve is used to ensure that water is always present in the condenser.
9. Open steam inlet drain valve (B).
10. Open steam turbine exhaust drain valve (D).
11. Open condenser drain valve (E).
12. Close steam turbine gland sealing valves (G, H, I).
13. Close vacuum pump valve (J).
14. Ensure dynamometer-loading switch on front of turbine control panel is to the OFF position.
15. Close hand nozzle valves on the turbine rotor ring.
16. Check the level of the oil in the turbine oil gauges. Fill to gauge mark if required.
17. Ensure that the turbine safety trip horizontal lever is engaged.
18. Slowly open turbine steam inlet valve to allow a small quantity of steam to enter the turbine
casing. This is to ensure that the turbine is warmed through.
19. Close turbine steam inlet valve.
20. Ensure no load on dynamometer.
21. Open a hand nozzle valve on the turbine rotor ring for condensing conditions.
22. Slowly open turbine steam inlet valve and allow turbine to slowly move, turn back valve so
that turbine stops but steam still passes through the turbine and condenser and is discharged
through condenser drain valve (E).
23. Close condensate tank drain (F).
24. Open condensate discharge valve (L) to drain.
25. Turn on external electric to steam turbine, turn on the electric switch on the sidewall of steam
turbine panel.
26. Open water valve (K) to vacuum pump.
27. Press main supply and vacuum pump push button on front of steam turbine control panel.
Note care must be taken to ensure the pump does not become water locked, the time elapsed
between opening water valve (K) and pressing the starter push button must be minimal. Note;
do not press the START push button before water is admitted as the water acts as a lubricant
and serious damage may result.
28. Close condenser drain valve (E).
29. Control flow of water to vacuum pump by adjusting valve (K).
30. Close exhaust line drain valve (D).
31. Close steam inlet drain valve (B).
32. Fully open turbine steam inlet valve. Turbine should now come up to speed. The governor
should control the turbine speed between 50-55 rps. Turn the governor speed adjusting screw
(located at the end of the governor) counter-clockwise to decrease the turbine speed, or
clockwise to increase the turbine speed. The correct running speed is 50 rps. If governor has
not assumed speed control by the time rated speed is reached, shut down immediately and
inform your demonstrator.
33. Slowly open turbine gland sealing valve (I) and throttle steam so that approximately 2 bar
pressure shows on pressure gauge.
34. Open turbine gland sealing valves (G) and (H) and set these so that steam is just escaping
through the glands. (Note: if steam is escaping, air cannot be drawn in through the glands and
reduce the vacuum)
35. Allow the turbine to run with no load to enable whole of the system to be run-in.
36. To add a load to the turbine ensures the steam inlet valve is fully open. Turn the variable
autotransformer on the front of the control panel, and adjust the turbine speed to give a
constant 50 rps. Each load to be increased in turn using the same procedure. As the load
increases it will be necessary to increase the steam area by opening the hand valves on the
steam inlet nozzles. (Note: on the turbine unit there are nozzles for condensing conditions
and one nozzle for backpressure conditions).
37. Variation in backpressure can be achieved by closing the backpressure. (Note: this valve
must never be completely closed, as this will stall the turbine).
38. To measure the amount of steam used by the turbine during a test, close vacuum pump water
inlet valve (K) (the condensate extracted from the condenser is sufficient to form the water
seal) Alternatively, take a note of the water flow to the vacuum pump on the water meter at
the commencement of the test, and deduct this amount from the total condensate make up
 water collected. Press timer reset button on front of control panel. When condensate in the
measuring tank actuates the middle float, switch the digital timer ON, the panel will start.
When condensate reaches the top, this stops the timer. The digital display indicates the time
for a fixed amount of condensate, which can be set adjustment of the top float switch
position.
39. To discharge the condensate to the boiler feed water tank, alter the position of the valve (L)
so that the condensate is extracted from the measuring tank and pumped to the boiler feed
water tank.

To Shut Down Steam Turbine Unit

1. Turn the variable autotransformer anti-clockwise to reduce load. As the load decreases,
adjust the governor so that the steam turbine does not increase its speed. Turn until no load is
present.
2. Close steam inlet valve. Alternatively, release safety trip horizontal lever then close steam
inlet valve.
3. Close vacuum pump water supply valve (K).
4. Open condenser drain valve (E).
5. Press push button for vacuum pump to release and stop vacuum pump.
6. Close gland sealing valve (I).
7. Open exhaust drain valve (D).
8. Open steam line drain valve (B).
9. Open all hand nozzle valves.
10. Switch off electrics on side of turbine control panel.
11. Open condensate drain valve (F).
12. When the condenser cooling water has absorbed all residual heat, press the STOP push
button on the circulating pump.
13. Close isolating valve (A) on the circulating water circuit.
14. Press the STOP push button on the cooling tower fan.
15. Turn off the boiler.
16. Switch off electrics.

Note
The valve numbers and items referred to in the following sections are detailed on drawing
attached. Unless otherwise stated, all valves should be either fully opened or fully closed. It is
recommended that when steam valves are opened or closed to their fullest extent, the hand wheel
is turned back 1\4 of turn to prevent the spindle and seat locking when heat is supplied. Always
ensure that cooling water is turned on and flowing before any steam is admitted.

Observations:

S No Load (% Nozzle Torque Turbine Voltage Current Power

of Inlet (Nm) Speed (V) (I) Generated
Voltage) Pressure (rps) (kW)
(bars)
For Condensate Measuring Tank

Condensate Collection Time = s

Dimensions of the Condensate Collection Tank.

Length = L = 59cm = 0.59m

Width = W = 39cm = 0.39m

Height = H = 4.5cm = 0.045m

Volume = L x W x H = ________________ m3

Volumetric Flow Rate = Volume of the Condensate = m3/s

Condensate Collection Time

Brake Power = 2πNT = _______________kW

Electrical Power Generated = V x I = _____kW

Efficiency = η = Electrical Power x 100 = _____________ %

Brake Power
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 11: Study of the Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT # 11: Study of the Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger

Objective:

To study the heat exchanger and to plot the temperature difference curves for a variety of flow
conditions.

Apparatus:

P7663 Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger

PROCEDURE:

Starting Up:

Cooling Water or Air

a) Ensure sufficient quantities of cooling water or air are available at the inlet.
b) Set the valves for Parallel or Contra Flow.
c) Open all the discharge valves including those on the external pipework for either
air or water discharge.
d) Open air or water inlet valve. Ensure that if air is used the water inlet valve is
closed, and if water is used the air inlet valve is closed.
e) Start the water cooling system or air blower as required.
f) With the cooling medium flowing, control the approximate rate of flow to that
required for a particular test. The flow should always be controlled by the
discharge valve and not the inlet valve, this ensures that the cooling medium fills
the system completely.
g) It is IMPORTANT that the cooling medium is always flowing before the heating
medium is admitted. This is to prevent the overheating of the system.

Hot Water
 a) The system should be filled by turning on the water supply to the constant head
tank. As the tank fills this will automatically fill the calorifier and pipework
system. The calorifier and the pipework are fitted with automatic air release
valves to discharge air from the system as it is filled.
b) Set the valves for the Hot Water Supply 8 Pass, and isolate the steam inlet and
outlet valves.
c) Switch on the circulating pump and the water will fill the system and discharge
the air automatically.
d) Once the system is stabilized switch off the pump.
e) Turn on the calorifier electric heater. The water in the calorifier will increase in
temperature until it reaches a pre-set temperature where the heater will switch off
until heat again is required.
f) Ensure that the cooling medium is flowing through the system.
g) Turn on the circulating pump and control the flow again on a discharge valve to
that given in the examples or as required.
h) The flow of hot water should be controlled to maintain a constant temperature
reading at the inlet. This can be achieved by either varying the flow of hot water
or varying the flow of cooling medium.
i) Allow time for the system to warm thoroughly and maintain stable conditions.
j) Tabulate all readings.

Steam

a) Ensure that the cooling medium is flowing through the system.

b) Close Hot water inlet valve, open drain valve on discharge including those valves
on external pipework.
c) Set the valves for Steam Supply 4 or 8 pass as required.
d) Switch on the condenser, and make sure all valves on the exhaust line from heat
exchanger to condenser are open and that any other valves on the exhaust system
from other pieces of equipment are closed.
e) Again ensure cooling medium is flowing through the system.
f) Open steam inlet valve slowly.
g) Allow the system to warm through thoroughly.
h) When all the condensate has been discharged from the system, close all drain
valves. This will allow the condenser vacuum to increase.
i) The steam and the cooling medium should be controlled to obtain suitable
temperature difference.

It is IMPORTANT that the steam is not allowed to change state, should this happen, the rate of
heat transfer will differ and all temperature difference curves will break down.

It is also IMPORTANT that the cooling water is not allowed to rise in temperature sufficiently to
cause flashing into steam, as this again changes its state, and differs the rate of heat transfer.
 j) In some cases it may be necessary to practically shut the steam outlet valve to
maintain stable conditions, but at all times flow of the two mediums should be
allowed.
k) Allow time for the system to warm thoroughly and maintain stable conditions.
l) Tabulate all the readings.

Shutting Down

Hot Water

a) Turn off calorifier electric heater.

b) Allow hot water to cool by dissipating its heat to the cooling medium.
c) When hot water has cooled, switch off the circulating pump.
d) Allow the cooling medium to flow until all residue heat has been absorbed.
e) Turn off the cooling medium.

Steam

a) Close steam inlet valve.

b) When steam pressure is reduced open all drain valves.
c) Switch off condenser.
d) Allow cooling medium to flow until all residue heat has been absorbed.
e) Turn off cooling medium.
f) Leave steam drain valves open.

Temperature Difference Curves

1.) Test 1

8 Pass Parallel Flow

Hot Water – Cooling Water

Temperature Readings

Hot Water = 500 Liters / hour.

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Cooling Water = 500 Liters / hour.

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Plot a graph between Temperature Points 1-9, Temperature (ºC) and Temperature Points
10-18

2.) Test 2

8 Pass Contra Flow

Hot Water – Cooling Water

Temperature Readings

Hot Water = 500 Liters / hour.

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Cooling Water = 500 Liters / hour.

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Plot a graph between Temperature Points 1-9, Temperature (ºC) and Temperature Points
10-18

3.) Test 3

8 Pass Parallel Flow

Steam– Cooling Water

Temperature Readings

Steam = 225 Kg/hr @ 3-4 bars with superheat (if available).

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Cooling Water = 1350 Liters / hour.

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Plot a graph between Temperature Points 1-9, Temperature (ºC) and Temperature Points
10-18

4.) Test 4

8 Pass Contra Flow

Steam – Cooling Water

Temperature Readings

Steam = 225 Kg/hr @ 3-4 bars with superheat (if available).

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Cooling Water = 1350 Liters / hour.

S No 1 (ºC) 2 (ºC) 3 (ºC) Average (ºC)

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Plot a graph between Temperature Points 1-9, Temperature (ºC) and Temperature Points
10-18
 ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB

EXPERIMENT # 12: Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT # 12: Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger

Objective:

To determine the mean temperature difference between two mediums in both contra and parallel
flow.

Apparatus:

P7663 Air-Water-Steam Heat Exchanger

THEORY:

For the determination of mean temperature difference commonly used for heat transfer
calculations, the following assumptions are made;

1. Flow Condition must be stable

2. The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant along the length of the
tube.
3. Variation of properties of the fluid with temperature, are small enough to
be neglected.
4. No Change in State occurs.
For determination of temperature difference for the two fluids in the heat exchanger. log
mean temperature difference is used, the log mean temperature difference (also known
as LMTD) is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow
systems, most notably in heat exchangers. The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the
temperature difference between the hot and cold streams at each end of the exchanger.
The larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD arises
straightforwardly from the analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid
thermal properties. It can be calculated from the following equation;
Where; e = base of natural log (2.718)

Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is to be calculated for the Hot Water / Cold Water
parallel flow circuit and Hot Water / Cold Water contra flow circuit.

Observations:

LMTD for Hot Water / Cold Water 8 Pass Parallel Flow:

For Calculation of LMTD for Hot Water / Cold Water 8 Pass Parallel Flow Circuit. Note down
the following Parameters:

Initial Temperature of the Hot Water (at inlet) = ºC

Initial Temperature of the Cold Water (at inlet) = ºC

Final Temperature of the Hot Water (at outlet) = ºC

Final Temperature of the Cold Water (at outlet) = ºC

LMTD (tm) = ºC

LMTD for Hot Water / Cold Water 8 Pass Contra Flow:

For Calculation of LMTD for Hot Water / Cold Water 8 Pass Contra Flow Circuit. Note down
the following Parameters:

Initial Temperature of the Hot Water (at inlet) = ºC

Initial Temperature of the Cold Water (at inlet) = ºC

Final Temperature of the Hot Water (at outlet) = ºC

Final Temperature of the Cold Water (at outlet) = ºC

LMTD (tm) = ºC