THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY ANNUAL
Concepts and Methods in the Study of Caste
Is Sociology a science?
Caste studies are often theoretically naive, and purely descriptive. Even when the writer finds a prob-
lem, the assumptions and concepts on which his answers depend, are often neither discussed nor evaluated.
Both for the study of change and for equilibrium studies, a theoretical framework is required.
Such ''pure' sociology shows how far the subject has advanced, and can advance, towards the level of
sophistication found in economics and the physical sciences.
T H E new f i e l d data w h i c h have
appeared in the past decade
m a k e a fresh approach to the study
of caste desirable. The new, accele-
rated developments in caste rela-
tions have made fresh analyses
necessary.
There is a large l i t e r a t u r e on the
subject, I n c l u d i n g some notable
w o r k s o f scholarship. M a n y o f the
earlier studies were m a i n l y interes-
ted in the origins of caste and in
the religious and philosophical
concepts w h i c h have been entailed
in I n d i a n caste o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e
more detailed w o r k s on castes and
caste relations were w r i t t e n m a i n l y
by g o v e r n m e n t officers for the use
of a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . These w o r k s are
useful catalogues, but r e m a i n
unorganized collections of i n f o r m a -
t i o n because of t h e i r lack of
unifying concepts. I n order t o
understand modern caste societies
and the changes w h i c h are c o m i n g
about in them, it Is necessary for
the field w o r k e r to use a set of
general concepts concerning social
o r g a n i z a t i o n and a set of more
specific concepts concerning caste in
India.
General Concepts
A m o n g the general concepts w h i c h
have been found to be most apt and
f r u i t f u l in the study of caste are
the f o l l o w i n g :
System. Because each u n i t of a
caste order can be f u l l y understood
o n l y i n terms o f i t s relations t o the
other units, it is scientifically econo-
m i c a l to base the study of caste on
the general concept of system, a n d
to use t h a t concept in defining the
dimensions a n d the n a t u r e of the
caste system w h i c h is under study.
A social system, briefly defined, is a
set of groups which act together to
perform a function. That function
is a unified effect on the environ-
ment or on the system i t s e l f w h i c h
is n o t produced by a n y single group.
E a c h group is made up of persons
David G Mandelbaum
w h o together play s i m i l a r roles in
the w o r k i n g of the system. The
groups are interdependent for the
purposes of their m u t u a l function
a n d they are interdependent in a
specific order of behaviour t o w a r d
each other. T h a t order includes a
process of social counterchange.
It is useful, f o r purposes of
analysis to d i s t i n g u i s h between a
social system a n d the related cul-
tural system. The actors w h o
participate in reciprocal, regulated
behaviour, together w i t h t h a t beha-
viour, m a k e up the social system.
The related c u l t u r a l system consists
of the rules a n d standards for their
conduct; it includes the established
roles a n d the requirements of the
roles, together w i t h a l l the imper-
sonal norms, expectations, and
references w h i c h the actors use in
t h e i r j o i n t conduct.
Role. Each of the component
groups of a social system is made
up of persons w h o c a r r y out s i m i l a r
roles in the operation of the system,
A role is the set of expectations
applied to a person of a p a r t i c u l a r
social position and role-behaviour is
the action w h i c h flows f r o m these
expectations.
Referenee categories. E a c h person
uses a v a r i e t y of roles according to
the context a n d n a t u r e of the a c t i o n
in w h i c h he is i n v o l v e d . The choice
of one or another role is affected by
his perception of the context of the
action and the nature of the actors.
Related to t h i s la his perception of
h i m s e l f in the a c t i o n scene. B o t h
kinds of perception are the reference
categories f o r behaviour used by the
Individual.
C o m m u n i c a t i o n . A l l social systems
involve communication. That w h i c h
is m e a n i n g f u l f o r the system must
be distinguished f r o m ''noise" w h i c h
is a l w a y s present.
System-shift, B y definition, the
p a r t s of a system are interdependent.
Hence a change w h i c h affects one
145
January, 1959
part tends to affect the whole system.
Under certain conditions, the change
in the part is anticipated and com-
pensated for in the structure of the
system, under other conditions there
m a y be a shift in the entire s t r u c t u r e
of the system.
The Study of Caste
Some of the concepts w h i c h are
specifically applicable to the study
of caste and w h i c h arc related to
these general concepts are as f o l l o w s :
Culture sphere and local social
system. The basic o r g a n i z i n g p r i n -
ciples of caste are used by villagers
in most parts of the l a n d . These i n -
clude the stress on endogamy, on
hierarchical social order, on the
social consequences of r i t u a l
pollution and purity. I t may
be said metaphorically t h a t these
themes provide the broad rules of
the social game. These rules are
used in local settings. The social
systems of caste are local systems,
each of w h i c h is p a r t l y independent
a n d p a r t l y i n t e r l i n k e d w i t h other
local systems. A local social
system includes the people of a
village or village cluster w h o toge-
ther m a i n t a i n a c o m m u n i t y ; it
also includes a n c i l l a r y members
f r o m other villages who participate
in the system for certain purposes,
especially for the purpose of recruit-
ment by m a r r i a g e a n d for m a i n -
t a i n i n g the i n t e g r i t y of the parts of
the local .system.
The endogamous groups w h i c h
comprise a local system are best
called j a t i s . These are interdepen-
dent for the purposes of the system
a n d are arranged, by local opinion,
in a social hierarchy. The r a n k i n g
is made, de jure, according to
r i t u a l c r i t e r i a applied corporately;
the actual r a n k i n g is, de facto, the
outcome of the interplay of r i t u a l
and secular factors. While a
v i l l a g e r usually t h i n k s that there Is
—or ought to be —a c l e a r l y t a b u -
lated order of jatis-. on w h i c h there
is general v i l l a g e consensus, such a
definitive l i s t i n g does n o t necessa-
r i l y exist, except at the extremes of
the local social order. Disagree-
ments about relative r a n k i n g , f a r
f r o m u n d e r m i n i n g a local system,
arc? often characteristic of i t .
Variations in role-behaviour. A
general characteristic of the "rules
of the g a m e " is t h a t a person must
s h i f t his role-behaviour according to
the context of action a n d the nature
of the others entailed in his a c t i o n ,
A v i l l a g e r s j a t i status sets certain
Dmits to the roles he m a y t a k e to-
w a r d others and those of others t o -
w a r d h i m . W i t h i n these l i m i t s , there
are r e g u l a r v a r i a t i o n s according to
age and sex. F r o m the role-varia-
tions prescribed for women stem the
practices of hypergamy, whether
forma) o r tacit. I n general, jati-roles
are more s t r i c t l y defined in the
context o f hearth a n d home, i n
eating, m a r r i a g e , a n d worship, t h a n
in field and t o w n , In labour, play, or
travel.
V a r i a t i o n s in reference categories,
A person's choice of appropriate
roles in a social action depends, in
part, on his perception of the social
status of the other actors. One
regular v a r i a t i o n i n this perception
is t h a t a person tends to see finer
social distinctions a m o n g those w h o
arc socially closer to h i m than
a m o n g those w h o are more d i s t a n t
f r o m h i m i n the social order. A l l
use s i m i l a r groupings i n t o w h i c h
j a t i s are classed. These m a y be
t e r m e d jaticlusters, jati-sets. and
jati-categories. B u t one's o w n and
closely related j a t i s are generally
placed in the finer as w e l l as in the
broader groupings, w h i l e persons of
d i s t a n t j a t i s tend to be classed only
in the broader groupings.
The v a r n a s are i m p o r t a n t Jati-
categories. T h e y are more theore-
t i c a l models for society t h a n a c t u a l
definitions of a real local social
order. B u t as models they have
g r e a t importance. F o r one t h i n g ,
they provide a simple t h e o r y f o r
h i g h l y complex social phenomena,
"Noise" a n d comprehension in a
local system. We have mentioned
t w o m a i n sources of "noise," i e,
disagreement and non-understanding,
a m o n g members of a local system.
One is about the consignment of a
p a r t i c u l a r j a t i to a certain reference
category. A n o t h e r is about the
relative r a n k i n g o f j a t i s , especially
in the middle ranges of a social
order, These disagreements have
n o t generally i m p a i r e d the opera-
t i o n o f local social systems i n a n y
serious w a y , and have, in c e r t a i n
respects, strengthened the system.
I n the f o r m e r matter, the m e t i c u l -
ous a t t e n t i o n of a person to the
social characteristics of the people
o f his o w n j a t i m a i n t a i n s the j a t i
as a relatively f i r m and integral
unit. H i s general disregard o f
v a r i a t i o n s a m o n g groups socially
d i s t a n t f r o m h i m makes i t p o s s i b l e
f o r h i m to deal economically w i t h a
wide d i v e r s i t y of persons a n d groups.
I n the l a t t e r m a t t e r , the c o m m o n
disputes about r a n k i n g and preroga-
tives of r a n k reinforce the villager's
concept t h a t r a n k and its preroga-
tives are i m p o r t a n t and w o r t h y of a
struggle. T h i s holds for those at
the lowest r a n k s as w e l l as for
those of the higher echelons. In
this w a y , the n o t i o n of h i e r a r c h y has
been c o n s t a n t l y reinforced, even
t h o u g h m a n y believe t h a t t h e i r o w n
group deserves higher r a n k t h a n i t
is accorded.
N o t infrequently, people of the
higher j a t i s in a local system use a
different dialect f r o m those at the
lower levels. B u t all understand a
c o m m o n language f o r their common,
systemic purposes. S i m i l a r l y , there
are often differences in culture
a m o n g the groups of a local system.
Those of the higher r a n k s practice
more " S a n s k r i t i c ' ways as interpre-
ted f r o m the s c r i p t u r a l t r a d i t i o n , and
those of the lower j a t i s observe more
customs of the locaily-focusscd,
v e r n a c u l a r t r a d i t i o n , such as being
possessed by deity or w i e l d i n g a
sacrificial blade.
People of the highest r a n k s com-
m o n l y f o l l o w some of the ways of
the v e r n a c u l a r t r a d i t i o n , those of
the lowest c o m m o n l y practise some
S a n s k r i t l c customs. There is no
necessary clash between the t w o
t r a d i t i o n s , a l t h o u g h social conflict,
frequently arises when one group
begins to t a k e on certain S a n s k r t i c
customs, w h i c h those of higher
groups consider to be their own pre-
rogatives.
The c o m m o n language or caste-
conduct is usually used also by
those groups of a local system, such
as M u s l i m s a n d Christians, whose
religious ideology rejects caste. T h e y
u s e t h a t language when operating
w i t h i n the local system and m a y
disregard i t i n certain contexts, a s
w i t h i n the mosque.
As between one language area
a n d another, sometimes even as be-
147
tween one village a n d the next,
there m a y be notable differences in
the composition of the local social
order. Despite such "noise" people
of different regions can share com-
munication and understanding:
about social order because a l l share
an understanding of the f r a m e w o r k
of caste organization created by the
basic operating principles.
Steady state, dynamic balance,
a n d system change. There p r i n c i -
ples have remained constant, in a
r e l a t i v e l y steady state, for some
t i m e . B u t the social position of
p a r t i c u l a r descent groups has v a r i e d
in the same period, m a k i n g for so-
cial flexibility in the system. Ris-
ing social m o b i l i t y , when success-
f u l , has been achieved by a g r o u p
t h r o u g h f o l l o w i n g w e l l defined pat-
terns.
The maintenance of a steady cul-
t u r a l f r a m e a n d mobile social com*
ponents is the result of local social
counterchange together w i t h the
constant effect of the s c r i p t u r a l
t r a d i t i o n , its exemplars a n d carriers.
Social m o b i l i t y , t h o u g h theoretic-
a l l y denied by certain of the syste-
mic canons, has nonetheless been
an i m p o r t a n t , " a n t i c i p a t e d " process
w i t h i n local systems. B u t recent,
forces f l o w i n g f r o m u r b a n , Indus-'
trial, and g o v e r n m e n t a l centres
have introduced new influences a n d
conditions i n t o caste. B o t h c u l t u r a l
a n d social systems of caste are
changing, but the c o m m o n n o t i o n
t h a t caste is d i s i n t e g r a t i n g m a y be
misleading. Just as an o r g a n i s m
does not disintegrate when it deve-
lops f r o m one stage to another, of
as the A m e r i c a n people d i d n o t dis-
integrate p o l i t i c a l l y when they
changed f r o m one government to
another at the t i m e of the A m e r i -
can revoiutlon, so the social o r g a -
nisation of I n d i a n peoples is chang-
ing, but not d i s i n t e g r a t i n g .
Field Methods and Techniques
The methods best suited to the
study of the problems entailed i n ;
caste depend not only on the p a r t i -
cular aspects of the subject in w h i c h
the student is interested, b u t also
on the general development of the
subject.
In the analysis of caste we are
s t i l l , for the most part, in the first
of four developmental stages. This
m a y be called the " n a t u r a l h i s t o r y
stage in w h i c h observers s t u d y a
p a r t i c u l a r set of people a n d their
social organization. T h e y report
 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY ANNUAL
January, 1959

the m a i n contours of the society veloping 750 h p, it is one of the The locomotives are being shipped
according to some b r o a d l y defined most p o w e r f u l diesel locomotives of f r o m the Soviet U n i o n i n separate
(sometimes undefined) outline. As t h i s type, w i t h a m a x i m u m speed of units. T h e y w i l l be assembled at
various reports are collated and 56 miles an hour or 44 miles if V i s a k h a p a t n a m by a special t e a m
compared, the general contours of drawing a train. o f w o r k e r s f r o m the L u g a n s k plant.
the field are seen and f o r m u l a t e d .
F o r m u l a t e d also at thus point are
some tentative hypotheses about
caste function and dynamics. These
hypotheses can be tested by samp-
ling-statistical techniques, using
questionnaires, sampling polls and
other devices for collecting, coding,
a n d a n a l y z i n g a broad spectrum of
responses.
The next step, for w h i c h we are
almost ready, is one in w h i c h social
scientists continue the n a t u r a l his-
t o r y , "open-mind*' approach but
w i t h increasing f o r m u l a t i o n o f re-
l e v a n t hypotheses and the s t a t i s t i -
cal testing of them. The question-
naire-statistical techniques can, if
crudely used, lead to sadly deficient
and wasteful efforts. B u t they are
also essential a n d f r u i t f u l tools for
research provided t h a t the resear-
cher has enough scientific k n o w -
ledge to k n o w what questions to
ask and provided t h a t he is scienti-
fically sophisticated enough to re-
cognize the difference between a
response given on paper or to a
stranger standing w i t h pencil poised,
a n d an action response to a s t i m u -
lus in the context of one's real life.
I n the t h i r d stage, the constant
themes and dimensions of the field
are w e l l enough k n o w n so t h a t hy-
pothesis b u i l d i n g and testing enga-
ges more of research effort. The
n a t u r a l h i s t o r y approach should not
therefore be abandoned, since it is
the w a y i n w h i c h heretofore u n -
recognised relations best become
perceived.
T h i s research cycle m a y c u l m i -
nate in a creative, synthesizing
stage in w h i c h various hypotheses
a n d different series of data are
b r o u g h t i n t o meaningful relation. A t
t h a t point, as w i t h D a r w i n i a n evo-
l u t i o n , the w a y is opened for scien-
tific exploration and theorizing in
new directions.

Diesel Locomotives from USSR

TWENTYNINE s h u n t i n g diesel
locomotives for I n d i a have been
m a n u f a c t u r e d at the Diesel "Locomo-
tive B u i l d i n g W o r k s a t Lugansk,
U k r a i n e . They are being shipped to
the B h i l a i Steel Mills.
The L u g a n s k engineers designed a
completely new type of diesel loco-
m o t i v e f o r tropical conditions. De-
148