BotanyLec

Finals Reviewer
REDUCTION IN THE SIZE OF
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS GAMETOPHYTE

In the course of evolution, the size of gametophytes

PLANTS (General Characteristics) got smaller.
Conifers and angiosperms are more advanced and
Multicellular, eukaryotic
more complex. They can conquer terrestrial
Mostly terrestrial
environments because there is pollination and their
Adaptations to terrestrial conditions
fertilization is dependent on water.
 Cell wall has cellulose
Gametophytes are being protected by sporophytes.
 Cuticle/cutin
A seed is an organism itself – it contains the
 Except for bryophytes, possess vascular tissue
embryo.
 Except for bryophytes, have complex organs
(e.g. roots, stems, leaves, etc.)
 Guard cells to prevent water loss
Autotrophic
Reproduction

ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

Plants undergo an alternation of generation. They

are haplodiplontic (alternation of haploid cycle and
diploid cycle).

In nonvascular plants, the persistent/dominant

stage is the gametophyte. The dependent/short-
lived stage is the sporophyte.
In vascular plants, the sporophyte is the dominant
stage and the gametophyte is the dependent stage.
NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

Bryophytes
Lack true vascular tissue (restricted to moist
habitats)
Lack true organs
E.g. liverworts, hornworts, mosses

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LIVERWORTS  After the egg has been fertilized, it becomes a
zygote until it forms another sporophyte.
o Approx. 8,000 spp.
o Thallose and leafy liverworts

Asexual Reproduction in Liverworts

 Liverworts reproduce asexually using their gemmae.

 Top portion of thallus – gemma cups are located
HORNWORTS
 Inside a gemma cup, there are gemmae.
o Sporophytes are shaped like horns
o Asexual: fragmentation

Sexual Reproduction in Liverworts

 Liverworts are dioecious (there is separation of

MOSSES
sexes).
o Approx. 15,000 spp.
o There is also a presence of antheridiophore and
archegoniophore
o MALE GAMETOPHYTE:

 Male gametophytes: antheridiophore (“phore”:

stalk)
 Antheridia – sperm-producing structures
 Female gametophytes: archegoniophore
 Archegonia – egg-producing structures

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o FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE:

o Parts of a Sporophyte:
 Capsule/sporangium – housing the spores
 Operculum – protects the capsule
 Calyptra – part of the gametophyte stage;
haploid

SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS

CLUB MOSSES

o Club mosses are fern allies.

o Club mosses are called as they are because the
strobilus/strobili (reproductive structures) are
shaped like golf clubs.
o Sporophylls – specialized leaves in a strobilus

Life Cycle of Moss

 Water is very necessary because it enables the

sperm to be transferred into the archegonial head.
 The spermatozoa are flagellated.
 After fertilization in the archegonium, the egg
becomes zygote and then it divides, it will then
become the sporophyte.
SPIKE MOSS
 Spores germinate to become young/immature
gametophytes called protonema.
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o Each sporophyll supports a sporangium.
o Club mosses are homosporous (produces 1 type of
spore)
o They are heterosporous (produces different kinds of
spores)
o Has microspores and megaspores
o 2 specialized leaves:
 Microsporophylls – leaves supporting the
microsporangia
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 Megasporophylls – leaves supporting the WHISK FERN
megasporangia
o Psilotum
o Synangium – fusion of three sporangia

QUILLWORT

o Heterosporous FERNS
o Has microspores and megaspores

o To determine if the fern is capable of reproducing,

check the underneath of the frond.
HORSETAIL o Sorus – cluster of sporangia

o Approx. 25 spp.
o Equisetum
o If you make a section, you can see the sporangia. It is
supported by a stalk, so that the entire structure is
called a sporangiophore.
o Elaters – important in spore dispersal

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o Lip cells and annular cells
o In ferns, the sporophyte and gametophyte are
independent from one another.
o Gametophyte: prothallus

o Antheridia are near the rhizoids because they need

SEED PLANTS
to be nearer to water sources.
o Prothallus showing antheridia:
o Prothallus showing archegonia:
Reasons why seed plants dominate the terrestrial
landscape:
 Presence of seeds – seeds are the evolutionary
advancement of the conifers, gymnosperms,
and angiosperms
 Can grow easily because they can get water
from environment
 Site of gametophyte development – they
develop inside the sporophyte (gametophytes
are well-protected)
 Morphology of pollen grains before they are
released
 Fertilization – they are now independent of
water (water is a limiting factor in terrestrial
environments)

GYMNOSPERMS

 “Gymnos” – naked; “sperma” – seed

Life Cycle of Ferns
 When the spores germinate, they become the
gametophytes (haploid).
 Within the gametophyte, the spermatozoa are in
need of water in order to swim going to the egg.
 When the egg is fertilized, there is a development of
a new sporophyte.
 By definition: fruitless seed plants
 No ovary; no fruit
 Ovules exposed on the surface of sporophylls or
similar structures
 Pollen grains go directly to ovules
 In a cross section, you will be able to observe the
presence of bracts.
 Bract - develops to become the ovuliferous scale
 Ovuliferous scale – supports 2 ovules from either
side

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FEMALE CONE
(Megasporangiate/megastrobilus/ovulate cone)

 Parts of Ovule:
 Megasporocyte – resides within a
megasporangium
 Megasporangium – develops to become the
nucellus
 Integument – covering
Life Cycle of Gymnosperms

 Within the microsporangium, there are

MALE CONE
(Microsporangiate/microstrobilus/pollinate cone)
 If you make a cross section, you will see the
microsporophylls supporting the microsporangia.
 Ungerminated pollen grain/“Mickey Mouse” pollen
grains → (term lang to ni ma’am)
microsporocytes.
 Each microsporocyte divides through meiosis
resulting to 4 functional microspores.
 Within the megasporangium, a megasporocyte
divides to become 4 megaspores, with only 1
functional megaspore.
 When the pollen grain matures, pollen tube
develops which transports sperm going to the
archegonium
 Within the megasporangium, there could be 2-6
archegonia
 Only 1 embryo develops
 Female – 1:1; Male – 1:4

 Air sac – allows pollens to travel farther through

wind
 Tube cell – during pollination, it becomes the pollen
tube
 Generative cell – becomes the spermatozoa
 Germinated pollen grain (mature male
gametophyte)

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ANGIOSPERMS  Similar to the lifecycle of gymnosperms; the only
difference is the production of female gametophyte
 Development of 4 microspores from 1
microsporocyte
 Development of 1 megaspore from 1 megasporocyte

 The megasporocyte develops to become the female

gametophyte (embryo sac)

 The embryo sac contains 7 cells and 8 nuclei

Life Cycle of Angiosperms

 Synergids – pollen tubes grow through one of the

synergids before the sperm is released
 Pollination – transfer of pollen from the male part
to the female part
 Pollen grains – immature male gametophytes

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 Pollen grains mature by germinating.
 Angiosperms undergo double fertilization.
 The sperm fertilizes egg to become zygote. It
becomes the embryo (2n).
 The sperm fertilizes the central cell with a polar
nuclei transforming it to endosperm (3n).
DICOTS
o Cotyledons supply energy to the embryo
o Presence of coleoptile and coleorhiza – protective
sheaths/covering
o Coleoptile – protects the epicotyl part/embryonic
leaves
o Coleorhiza – protects the primary roots

FRUITS

Also called pericarp

Developed mostly from the ovary
Layers:
 Exocarp – skin
 Mesocarp – usually the one eaten, but not all
mesocarp are edible
 Endocarp – tough seed coat

MONOCOT VS. DICOT

Types:
 Simple – develop from a single ovary of a
single flower
 Aggregate – develop from several ovaries of
one flower (e.g. atis, guyabano, strawberries)

MONOCOTS

o 1 cotyledon
o Presence of a very large endosperm
 Multiple/collective – develop from several
o The cotyledon nourishes the embryo and absorbs
ovaries of several flowers (e.g. jackfruit,
nutrients from the endosperm and transfers them
pineapple, durian)
to the embryo

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2. Berry – endocarp fleshy and slimy; usually many-
seeded
 E.g. tomato, grape, green pepper, banana
3. Hesperidium – outer layer of a berry, a leather skin
containing oils
 E.g. orange, grapefruit, lemon, all citrus fruits
4. Pepo – outer layer of a berry, a thick rind not
containing oils
 E.g. watermelon, squash, cucumber, pumpkin,
cantaloupes

FRUIT TYPES

5. Pome – flesh derived from receptacle tissue

 E.g. apple, pear

DRY FRUITS (DEHISCENT) – can be split open

FLESHY FRUITS – flesh derived from ovarian tissue
1. Legumes – split into two seed-bearing halves; seeds
1. Drupe – endocarp hard and stony; ovary single-
can be born in a common ovary or in separate
seeded
compartments
 E.g. cherry, olive, coconut
 E.g. garden peas, beans, peanuts

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DRY FRUITS (INDEHISCENT)

1. Nuts – dry fruits with a hard, thick pericarp and a

basal cup
 E.g. acorns, hickory nuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts

3. Grafting
- You get one plant part and attach it to another plant

2. Caryopses or grains – grass seed in which the fruit

has a hard pericarp, which is fastened to the embryo
all the way around
 E.g. all members of grass family, such as corn
and rice

4. Simple Layering
- Removing the bark from a certain branch for the
production of roots

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Can be carried out using a plant’s meristem tissue

and through vegetative propagation
5. Air Layering/Marcotting
1. Budding - Girdle the stem, wrap it with moist soil and plastic
- In succulents, buds can be detached until it produces roots

2. Cuttings
- When cutting stems, you have to leave buds because
they are a source of auxin (plant hormone
responsible for growth)

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BotanyLec
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6. Storage Roots
PLANT NUTRITION AND
TRANSPORT

Plants are not only dependent on water, but also on

minerals.
7. Root Tubers There are more than 60 elements on a plant body,
- E.g. cassava, sweet potato, yam but only 17 are considered as essential elements.
Elements are important for the normal growth and
reproduction of plants.

HYDROPONICS OR WATER CULTURE

8. Stolons or Runners

A method to grow plants without soil

“Hydrias” – water; “ponos” – hard work
Plants are grown in nutrient/culture medium
German physiologists performed set-ups and
experiments to determine which elements are
essential
9. Tissue Culture
- Meristematic tissues with a proper mix of chemicals
and hormones

ESSENTIAL INORGANIC NUTRIENTS

C, H, O = about 95% of a plant’s dry weight

10. Genetically Engineered Plants Primary nutrients: 𝐶𝑂2 and 𝐻2 𝑂
- Inserting specific genes to the genes of plants for Why are these elements considered essential to the
them to have desirable traits growth of the plants?
 Has an identifiable role especially in relation to
the metabolism of the plant
 No other element can substitute for that
element’s role
 If the deficiency of this certain element leads
to the death of the plant

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BotanyLec
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17 essential elements: WATER AND MINERAL UPTAKE

 Macronutrients – needed in larger amounts for

the plant to survive

Water and minerals are absorbed from the soil by

the root hairs. They travel via two pathways:
extracellular/apoplast pathway and
intracellular/symplast pathway.

EXTRACELLULAR/APOPLAST PATHWAY

o Water and minerals travel in between the

 Micronutrients – needed in trace amounts for
the plant to survive
parenchyma cells until they reach the endodermal
cells.
o The radial and end walls of endodermal cells are
lined with water-proofing chemicals called
Casparian strips.
o The presence of these strips forces water to pass
through the cell wall, cell membrane, and
plasmodesmata, until water and minerals reach the
xylem.

INTRACELLULAR/SYMPLAST PATHWAY

General deficiency symptoms in plants: o Water and minerals travel inside the cell.
 Chlorosis – yellowing of plants o The minerals in the cytoplasm from one cell can
 Necrosis – death actually transfer to the cytoplasm of another cell
 Stunting of growth through the plasmodesmata.
 Deformation
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TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN PLANTS
Xylary elements (major water-conducting vessels):
tracheids and vessel elements
COHESION-TENSION MODEL OF XYLEM TRANSPORT
o Water is cohesive – they are able to attach with one
another.
o Water is adhesive – they are able to attach to the
cell wall forming a continuous water column
o The continuous water column is pulled by a negative
pressure potential (tension) caused by transpiration
or loss of water.
o Transpiration serves as a sucking mechanism
creating a negative pressure.
o Unlike the xylem, companion cells and sieve tube
members living cells specialized for transportation.
o When sucrose molecules are actively transported,
the water potential becomes hypertonic.
o Phloem loading – companion cell loads the phloem
sap to the sieve tube members; due to the positive
pressure, phloem sap flows towards the direction of
the sink
o Phloem unloading – translocation of sucrose and
other molecules from the sieve tube members to the
companion cell

PRESSURE-FLOW MODEL OF PHLOEM TRANSPORT

o Phloem sap is transported in all directions because

the phloem is dependent on a positive pressure
potential.
o It follows the source-sink principle. The
photosynthates are produced from a source (can be
a photosynthetic part like leaves). They are then
transferred into sinks (areas of active metabolism or
storage; e.g. fruits, buds, meristem)
o After production of photosynthates, there are
sugars. Sugars form part of the phloem sap.
o Sucrose molecules are actively transported from the
source cell to the companion cell.

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BotanyLec
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ADAPTATION OF ROOTS FOR MINERAL HOW DO PLANTS RESPOND TO STIMULI?
UPTAKE

Important symbiotic relationships:

 Root nodules – formed because of the
symbiotic relationship between nitrogen-fixing
bacteria (Rhizobium) and the roots of a plant
 Mycorrhizal association – symbiotic
relationship between fungus and the roots of a
plant
Ectomycorrhizae – fungi form a mantle
outside of the roots
Endomycorrhizae – some portions of the 1. Reception
fungi can penetrate the cell wall - A plant is able to receive simulation.
Fungus – increases surface area so more water and - In their cell walls, there are protein receptors. These
mineral can be taken by the roots; major receptors can either receive a chemical signal or an
decomposers in the ecosystem; dissolves organic environmental stimulus.
matter
2. Transduction
- After receiving a particular message, the message is
then transformed or translated into a message that
can be understood by the plant.

3. Response
- Depending on the message, the plant is now able to
respond.

PHOTOTROPISM

 Plant’s response to light

CONTROL OF GROWTH AND  Response includes curving of the stem towards the
RESPONSES IN PLANTS direction of sunlight
 Common in sunflowers
 Influenced by auxin
 When a certain part is exposed to the sun, auxin
PLANT RESPONSES
travels from the lit area to the shaded area,
TROPISM promoting elongation of the cells

o Involves growth toward a unidirectional stimulus

 Positive tropism – growth is towards the
stimulus
 Negative tropism – growth is away from the
source of stimulation
o Phototropism – response to light
o Gravitropism – response to gravity; can be positive
gravitropism or negative gravitropism
o Thigmotropism – response to a solid object or touch

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BotanyLec
Finals Reviewer
GRAVITROPISM  E.g. makahiya

 Plant’s response to the pull of gravity

 Stems exhibit negative gravitropism because the
stem grows away from the direction of the pull of
gravity
 Roots exhibit positive gravitropism because they
grow towards the direction of the pull of gravity
 In the stem, the cells at the lower surface elongate
 In the roots, the cells at the upper surface elongate  Pulvinus – motor organ which contains motor cells;
after touching the plant, the motor cells lose
turgidity then leaflets close

THIGMOTROPISM

 Plant’s response to touch

 Results to unequal growth due to contact with solid
objects
 Thigmomorphogenesis – occurs when the entire
plant responds to the presence of environmental
stimuli such as wind or rain
 E.g. vines

 The Venus’s flytrap supplements its diet of water

and carbon dioxide with proteins from the insects it
catches and digests. The bright surface with nectar
draws them in where they trigger the
mechanosensor hairs.

NASTIC MOVEMENTS

o Temporary; instant
o Does not involve growth
o Not dependent on the direction of stimulus

SEISMONASTIC MOVEMENTS

 Movements result from touch, shaking, or thermal

stimulation
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SLEEP MOVEMENTS HOW DOES AUXIN WORK?

 Occur daily in response to light and dark changes
 Motor cells in pulvinus
 E.g. prayer plants, ipil-ipil, akasya
 Circadian Rhythms
 Biological rhythms with a 24-hour cycle
 Tend to be persistent
 Rhythm is maintained by biological clock set by
a photoperiod
 E.g. sleep movements, change of BP and
temperature (in animals), opening and closing
of stomates and flowers, secretion of nectar
 Auxin is responsible for promoting growth.
Elongation of cells is an effect of auxin.
 Auxin is received by receptor. Then transduction
happens, resulting in the formation of three
secondary messengers.
 They are called secondary messengers because they
produce and control the response.
 One of the secondary messengers activate a proton
pump (pumps hydrogen ions to the cell wall)
 pH becomes acidic – destroys the hydrogen bonding
making the cell wall more flexible than the usual in
order to allow elongation
 Another secondary messenger activates the Golgi
complex to synthesize and modify cell wall materials
 The third secondary messenger binds to a DNA-
binding protein

POINTS TO REMEMBER:

 Tropisms are growth responses toward or away

from unidirectional stimuli such as light, gravity,
or physical contact.
 Plants may also produce nondirectional nastic
movements in response to stimuli such as touch
and light

EFFECTS OF AUXIN
PLANT HORMONES
1. Apical Dominance
Almost all communication in plants is done by - Terminal apical meristem (bud) is the source of auxin
hormones - Auxin inhibits the growth of lateral buds
“phytohormones” - The terminal apical meristem dominates the growth
Five phytohormones: auxin,

AUXINS

o Natural: Indoleacetic acid (IAA)

o Synthetic: Indolebutyric acid (IBA) and
Napththaleneacetic acid (NAA)
o Sources: shoot and apical meristem, young leaves,
flowers and fruits, and seeds

2. Enhances root initiation

- Auxin from buds promotes root development

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BotanyLec
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- Weak solution of auxin applied to woody cutting 5. Involve in gravitropism and phototropism
causes rapid growth of adventitious roots

CYTOKININS

o Natural: Zeatin
o Synthetic: Kinetin, Benzyl adenine (BAP)
o Sources: actively dividing tissues of roots, seeds, and
fruits
o Major function: promote cell division

3. Auxin synthesized by seeds promotes fruit growth EFFECTS OF CYTOKININS

- Synthetic auxins → seedless fruits
1. Enhances shoot initiation and development
- Seeds are removed and allowed to grow resulting to
2. Prevents senescence
seedless fruits
- Prolongs life of flower cuttings and vegetables in
- Normal growth can be restored with auxin
storage
- Initiates growth of lateral buds even when apical
dominance is present

GIBBERELLIC ACID (𝑮𝑨𝟑 )

o Sources: young leaves, roots, embryos, seeds, and

fruits
o Effects (general): growth promoting hormone

EFECTS OF GIBBERELLIC ACID

4. Synergistic to cytokinin
- “synergistic” – they work together to attain a 1. Stem elongation
particular effect
- More auxin – root initiation/differentiation

2. Breaking of dormancy of buds

- Induce growth of plants and increases the size of
flowers
- Produce larger seedless grapes
- Improve rice production
- Onset of flowering in many plants

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BotanyLec
Finals Reviewer
3. Breaking dormancy in seeds ETHYLENE
- Gibberellic acid is received by receptor and produces
a secondary messenger o Only gaseous hormone
- Calcium channels open, calcium binds to a DNA- o Sources:
binding protein resulting to formation of amylase  Essentially all parts of higher plants: leaves,
- Amylase: breaks starch so food will be available to stems, roots, flowers, tubers and seeds
the embryo  Accumulates in mature fruits to induce
ripening
 Made in senescing leaf to promote abscission
 Can also be induced by mechanical wounding,
environmental stresses, and certain chemicals
including auxin
o Function: aging hormone → cellulose

FUNCTIONS OF ETHYLENE

1. Induces seed germination

ABSCISIC ACID

o Does not function naturally in abscission (removal of

leaves from a tree)
o Sources: any “green tissue” with chloroplasts,
2. Promotes ripening of fruits
monocot endosperm, roots
3. Stimulates epinasty
o Functions:
 Stress hormone – when a plant senses stress, it
activates its abscisic acid
 Initiates and maintains seed and bud
dormancy and closure of stomata
 Control of stomatal opening

4. Stunted growth and reduced flowering

o During stress (deficiency of water), abscisic acid is

received by a receptor. It causes entrance of calcium
to the guard cell which causes the exit of potassium.
o The exit of potassium causes water to flow passively.
Stomata then closes.

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BotanyLec
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5. Involved in senescence o E.g. sugarcane, mayana

DAY-NEUTRAL PLANTS

o Flowering is not affected by lengths of day and

night
o E.g. tomatoes, cucumber, string beans, corn, roses,
beans, sunflowers, rice
o Mostly tropical in origin

PHYTOCHROMES
6. Involved in abscission
Plants perceive the length of day and night through
phytochromes
A blue-green leaf pigment that alternately exists in
two forms: phytochrome red and phytochrome far-
red
At night, plants have more phytochrome red.
During daytime, phytochrome red is able to absorb
red light (660nm) and this phytochrome gets
activated, resulting to phytochrome far-red.

PHOTOPERIODISM

Plants do not have a nervous system but they can

sense simulation through photoperiodism.
Any physiological response prompted by changes in
day or night length

SHORT-DAY OR LONG-NIGHT PLANTS

o Flower when the night length is equal or greater

than the day length (14 hrs)
o Plants are subjected to longer and uninterrupted
nights
o E.g. chrysanthemum, poinsettia, strawberry, kataka-
taka

LONG-DAY PLANTS OR SHORT-NIGHT PLANTS

o Flower when the night length is equal or shorter

than the day length
o E.g. spinach, clover, carnation, lettuce, cabbage, Tapos naaa! Goodluck and Godbless sa exam 
radish, wheat

INTERMEDIATE DAY PLANTS

o Do not flower when the day length is too short or

too long

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