The Wave Equation for transverse waves: summary

→ Sum forces on a small piece of a continuous body

(in this case a string) y
x

∂2 y 1 ∂2 y WAVE EQUATION
= 2 2 (for a stretched string)
∂x 2
v ∂t
the solution for normal modes (called
stationary waves, standing waves, or
The y position at any
point x along a string and resonances - where ω is the same for
at time t
all points along string)
Normal mode frequency

y ( x, t ) = f ( x ) cos ωt This holds for BC of

f(x) =0 at each end of
the string
along the way:
evaluating this Amplitude along 1
the string at
using BCs for a any point x nπ ⎛T ⎞ 2

string fixed both ωn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = nω1

L ⎝µ⎠
ends
2πx frequency of
f ( x ) = A sin normal mode or
mass/
length
λn standing wave
on string
NM amplitude

∴ final solution for standing waves on a string:

2πx
y ( x, t ) = An sin cos ω n t For transverse waves
λn
1
WAVE FUNCTION for standing waves (normal modes) of a string!
 Week 7 Lecture 3:
no problems for this lecture
Normal Mode solutions to the wave
equation – Longitudinal waves

So far we have developed the Wave equation

for a transverse wave on a string

Solution for normal modes (wave function) for

transverse waves on a string with both ends fixed.

We still have to look at the travelling wave

solution, but first we should look at the other type
of wave that can propagate in an elastic medium

Longitudinal waves
We will have to start again by developing
another wave equation for these kinds of
waves. Fortunately the procedure is the 2
same as before, and the result also similar.
 The Wave Equation for Longitudinal Waves
→ So far we have only considered transverse waves,
where the oscillation of a point is transverse to the
wave propagation direction.
→ Now we will consider longitudinal waves, where the
oscillation of a point is parallel to the wave See
propagation direction (sound travels this way). Math&
physics
demos
Transverse Waves (reminder-this is what we did before)website
→ wave exists all along the string but we are considering
only a segment ∆x
→ ∆x has a transverse displacement y Recall we
summed forces
T
y segment on ∆x in the
of string θ+∆θ transverse
(vertical)
θ
direction
T
x
x x+∆x

Longitudinal Waves: consider a rod

x For this case we
Before Wave must sum forces
on ∆x in the
∆x longitudinal
(horizontal)
In presence of wave direction

∆x + ∆η

→ wave exists all through the rod but we just consider a

small segment ∆x
→ in the presence of the wave our segment ∆x shifts 3
and stretches by a longitudinal displacement ∆η
The Wave Equation for Longitudinal Waves in a Rod
(develop using similar procedure to stretched strings)
→ Strike the end of a rod Æ you create a strain
disturbance which moves along the rod
thin slice
x

Undisturbed
cross (exaggerated
section α x scale and at
∆x
some snapshot
x in time)
In the presence F1 F2
of the wave

∆x + ∆η

→ Our slice is shifted (due to cumulative strains) and

also stretched by ∆η Why? section ∆x is stretched:
so F1 and F2 depend on the
→ experiences forces: interatomic separation at front
F1 (at front of slice) and back of the slice. In string
derivation we had different
F2 (at back of slice) forces at each end of our
segment also
∆η
→ ∴ average strain across slice = Young’s
∆x
modulus
∆η
→ ∴ average stress across slice = Y =τ
∆x
(assuming stress is in the longitudinal direction) 4
→ To begin our wave equation determination, we need
to sum the forces on our slice (like we did for the
string earlier). Here we first look at stresses, then
calculate the forces from the stresses. (note η is just the
longitudinal displacement or stretch)

→ stress at point x:
(strain at any point x)

stress at x = Y
∂η (partial derivative because here
∂x strain is also time dependent)

→ stress at point x + ∆x how stress

changes across
any piece ∂x

∂ (stress )
stress at x + ∆x = (stress at x) + ∆x
∂x

∂η ∂ ⎛ ∂η ⎞
=Y + ⎜Y ⎟∆x
∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

stress at ∂η ∂ 2η
x + ∆x =Y + Y 2 ∆x
∂x ∂x
5
Now we have the stresses at each end, lets get the forces…
F = (cross sectional area)(stress)
∂η
∴ F1 = force at x = αY α = cross sectional area
∂x
∂η ∂ 2η
F2 = force at x+∆x = αY + αY 2 ∆x
∂x ∂x

+ ∂ 2η
∑F gives F2 − F1 = αY 2 ∆x
∂x

also F2 − F1 = ma (on our slice)

∂ 2η
m = ρα∆x a= 2
∂t
∂ 2η ⎛ ∂ 2η ⎞
becomes αY 2 ∆x = (ρα∆x )⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
note
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠

cancelling ∂ 2η ρ ∂ 2η WAVE EQUATION

terms gives = for longitudinal
waves!
∂x 2
Y ∂t 2
Note that η is just the
or, if longitudinal
v=
Y ∂η 1 ∂η
2 2
displacement, just
= 2 2
ρ ∂x 2
v ∂t
like y was the
transverse 6
displacement for
another equation for wave velocity transverse waves
 Normal Mode Solutions to Longitudinal Wave
Equation (similar to transverse - earlier)
→ Normal Mode Solution is of the type
η (x, t ) = f (x ) cos ωt 1

→ evaluate f(x) (put back into wave eqn, same soln as for transverse p.134)
ωx ωx
f ( x ) = A sin + B cos
v v
→ Boundary Conditions: for the string we had both ends
clamped. This time we will only clamp one end (we could
clamp the other end but we won’t – just to be different
than last time).

BC #1: fixed end f(x)=0 at x=0 BC #2: free end ??? at x=L

→ Using BC #1 - same as for transverse waves on a string

ωx
f ( x ) = A sin⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 2
⎝ v ⎠
→ What about BC #2? (this will tell us what ωn can be)
→ At x=L we have a free end. This implies zero stress at this
point. τ
∂η i.e. the very last row
F =α Y = 0 at x = L of atoms
∂x
cross sectional area Note: this is the case
because there are no
∂η stresses in any other7
so = 0 at x = L
∂x directions to give us
Poisson’s ratio effects
 → To use this boundary condition we need to differentiate eqn 1
but lets put equation 2 in first
⎛ ωx ⎞
1 + 2 η (x, t ) = A sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ωt
⎝ v ⎠
∂η Aω ⎛ ωx ⎞
differentiate wrt x = cos⎜ ⎟ cos ωt
∂x v ⎝ v ⎠
Aω ωL
apply BC #2
∂η
= 0 at x = L 0= cos⎜⎛ ⎞⎟ cos ωt
∂x v ⎝ v ⎠
must = 0 in order to have
∂η
= 0 always
∂x
ωL
∴
ωL
must =
π 3π 5π
, , ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ or = (n − 12 )π with n = 1, 2, ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
v 2 2 2 v

(n − 12 )vπ or Y ωn =
(n − 12 )π Y
ωn = with v = L ρ
L ρ
These are the NM frequencies for a bar with one clamped and
one free end, but also same for air channels with one end open

relationship π Y
between For n=1 ω1 =
2L ρ
ωn and ω1
when one
ω n = Cω1 (n − 12 )π Y ⎡π Y⎤
= C⎢
end free ⎥
L ρ ⎣ 2 L ρ ⎦
1
C = 2(n − ) = 2n − 1
2 ω2 = 3ω1
ω n = (2n − 1)ω1
8
so ω3 = 5ω1
ω4 = 7ω1
Finally, we can
write ωn in fn =
(n − 12 ) Y or f n = (2n − 1) f1
terms of fn 2L ρ in Hz
(divide by 2π)

9
 Wave Equations and Functions
Transverse Waves Summarized Longitudinal Waves
(eg. stretched string) (eg. vibrating rod)

∂2 y 1 ∂2 y ∂ 2η 1 ∂ 2η
= =
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2 ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
T Y
v= wave speed v=
µ ρ
normal mode normal mode
solutions solutions
(standing (standing
waves) waves)

y ( x, t ) = f ( x ) cos ωt general η ( x, t ) = f (x ) cos ωt

solution

Boundary both ends fixed Boundary one end fixed

Conditions: Conditions: one end free

ωn x ωn x
y ( x, t ) = An sin cos ω n t η ( x, t ) = An sin cos ω nt
v v
where
1 1

nπ ⎛T ⎞2 (n − 12 )π ⎛ Y ⎞ 2
ωn = ⎜ ⎟ = nω1 ωn = ⎜ ρ ⎟ = (2n − 1)ω1
⎜ ⎟
L ⎝µ⎠ L ⎝ ⎠
Also (in Hz)
1 1

fn =
ω
=
n ⎛T ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2
fn =
(n − 12 ) ⎛ Y ⎞
⎜ ⎟
2 10

2π 2 L ⎝ µ ⎠ 2 L ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠
 A Comparison of These 2 Waves
(note these equations are only for specific boundary
conditions)
Transverse This is actually Longitudinal
1/λ - convince
2 fixed ends yourself of this
one end fixed
1 1
n ⎛T ⎞ 2
n − 12 ⎛ Y ⎞ 2
fn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ fn = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2L ⎝ µ ⎠ 2L ⎝ ρ ⎠
This implies that the string This implies that the
can accommodate an length accommodates
integral number of half an integral number of
sine curves quarter sine curves

At a snapshop in time the different harmonics look like:

n=1 n=1

one half-sin curve one quarter-sin curve

n=2 n=2

two half-sin curves three quarter-sin curves

n=3

five quarter-sin curves

(note: the above is really a

longitudinal wave but I have
represented it as a transverse 11
one) - see website for longitudinal
wave demos
 The Wave Equation Revisited

→ General Wave Equation (1D): ∂2 y ∂ 2

y
= v 2
∂t 2 ∂x 2
where v is the wave speed

Can write this for all sorts of situations!

transverse displacement
→ stretched string ∂2 y T ∂2 y T tension
= v=
(transverse oscillations): ∂t 2 µ ∂x 2 µ mass/
length

longitudinal displacement
Young’s
→ longitudinal waves* ∂η Y∂η
2 2
Y modulus
= v=
in a solid: ∂t 2 ρ ∂x 2 ρ density

→ transverse (shear) ∂2 y n ∂2 y v=
n shear
= ρ
modulus
waves in a solid: ∂t 2
ρ ∂x 2

bulk
→ longitudinal waves ∂ 2η B ∂ 2η B
= v= modulus
in a gas or liquid: ∂t 2
ρ ∂x 2 ρ

→ *Note: for longitudinal waves in a solid the elastic

constant is “Y” only for a thin rod. When the transverse
dimension is large then the correct modulus is for a 12
constrained situation (see constrained modulus earlier).
 Normal Mode in 2D and 3D Systems (French pg 181-189)
1D System: BCs at ends determine NM characteristics
2D System: BCs at edges determine NM characteristics
3D System: BCs at surfaces determine NM characteristics
2D and 3D are an extension of 1D!
For transverse wave - fixed both end (or all 4 edges for 2D)
1D 2D
wave equation:
∂2 y µ ∂2 y ∂2z ∂2z σ ∂2z
= + 2 =
∂x 2
T ∂t 2 ∂x 2
∂y s ∂t 2
normal mode solution: zn n ( x, y , t )
⎛ n1πx ⎞ ⎛ n2πy ⎞
1 2

nπ x ⎞
y n ( x, t ) = An sin⎛⎜ ⎟ cos ω n t = Cn n sin⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ sin⎜⎜ ⎟ cos ω n n t
⎟
⎝ L ⎠ 1 2

⎝ Lx ⎠ ⎝ L y ⎠
1 2

(nodes [zero amplitude] are points) (nodes are lines)

1
normal mode frequencies:
⎡ ⎤
1 2 2
⎞ ⎛ n2π ⎞
1 2
nπ ⎛T ⎞2 ω n n = ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜⎜
s ⎞ 2 ⎛ n1π
ωn = ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ σ ⎠ ⎢⎝ Lx ⎠ ⎝ L y ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎝µ⎠
1 2

L ⎣ ⎦

µ = linear density s = surface tension

T = tension σ = mass/unit area
Lx, Ly = side lengths of membrane
n1, n2 are 1, 2, 3...

∂ 2Ψ ∂2Ψ ∂2Ψ 1 ∂2Ψ

3D wave equation: + + 2 = 2 2
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z v ∂t
eg. in a gas - ψ might be a pressure B
v= 13
magnitude at any given position and time ρ